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94-758: Instances of anti-Spanish prejudice, often embedded within anti-Catholic prejudice and propaganda, were stoked in Europe in the early modern period, pursuant to the Spanish Crown 's status as a power siding with the Counter-Reformation . The Spanish colonization of the Americas was also singled out as uniquely barbarous by some commentators. 20th-century Spanish historiography shaped the construct of " Black Legend " to denote such manifestations of prejudice, generally overplaying their reach and pervasiveness. The justification of

188-471: A British colony and instigated substantial immigration from England and Scotland , resulted in the country developing a predominantly Protestant religious character. Nonetheless, French bishop Jean Baptiste Pompallier was able to negotiate the inclusion of a clause guaranteeing freedom of religion in some of the versions of the treaties signed and oral promises during meetings beforehand. New Zealand has had several Catholic prime ministers , which

282-556: A Catholic clerical presence until 1820, reflecting the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain. Some of the Irish convicts had been transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion and authorities remained suspicious of the minority religion. Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised as Anglicans. The first Catholic priests to arrive came as convicts following

376-534: A Nation 1707–1837 , the "defensive unity brought on by war with a Catholic French ' other ' helped transform Great Britain from a new and largely artificial polity into a nation with a strong self-image rooted in Protestantism." Catholics in Ireland gained the right to vote in the 1790s but they were politically inert for another three decades. Finally, they were mobilized by Daniel O'Connell into majorities in most of

470-693: A Protestant who had immigrated from Ireland. In the late 19th century he mobilized the "Orange" or Protestant Irish, and fiercely fought against Irish Catholics as well as the French Catholics. He especially crusaded for the abolition of the French language in Manitoba and Ontario schools. In response to the 2021 Canadian Indian residential school gravesite discoveries , numerous churches and monuments in Western Canada have been vandalized or burned down. One of

564-578: A State-controlled school system. Protestant Reformers , including Martin Luther , John Calvin , John Wycliffe , Henry VIII , Thomas Cranmer , John Thomas , Ellen G. White , John Knox , Charles Taze Russell , Isaac Newton , Roger Williams , Cotton Mather , and John Wesley , as well as most Protestants of the 16th–19th centuries, identified the Papacy with the Antichrist . The Centuriators of Magdeburg ,

658-582: A certain heterogeneous social extraction shown in recent research―held an important influence in the economic, military and political elites of the First Mexican Republic. Anti-Spanish sentiment gained momentum in the Mexican public sphere towards by the late 1820s, with decrees in 1827 and 1829 calling for the expulsion of all peninsulares residing in Mexico. In the context of a growth of Mexican nationalism,

752-483: A corrupted form of aristocracy where there is rule by a few, but not by the best. Plato , Socrates , Aristotle, Xenophon , and the Spartans considered aristocracy (the ideal form of rule by the few) to be inherently better than the ideal form of rule by the many ( politeia ), but they also considered the corrupted form of aristocracy (oligarchy) to be worse than the corrupted form of democracy ( mob rule ). This belief

846-400: A council of citizens was appointed as the "senate" of a city state or other political unit. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, aristocracy was upheld. In his 1651 book Leviathan , Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part only. It is a system in which only

940-610: A group of Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg which was headed by Matthias Flacius , wrote the 12-volume Magdeburg Centuries in order to discredit the Papacy and lead other Christians to recognize the Pope as the Antichrist. The fifth round of talks in the Lutheran–Catholic dialogue notes, In calling the pope the "Antichrist", the early Lutherans stood in a tradition that reached back into

1034-681: A hostile attitude towards the Catholic Church as an establishment and the overwhelming political, social, spiritual and religious power of the Catholic Church. Anti-clerical governments often attacked the Pope's ability to appoint bishops in order to ensure that the Church would not be independent from the State, confiscated Church property, expelled Catholic religious orders such as the Jesuits , banned Classical Christian education , and sought to replace it with

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1128-678: A minister in Northern Ireland was Dr Gerard Newe , in 1971. In 1986, at the annual conference of the Democratic Unionist Party , MP for Mid Ulster William McCrea interrupted councillor Ethel Smyth when she said she regretted the death of Sean Downes, a 24-year-old Catholic civilian who had been killed by a plastic bullet fired by the RUC during an anti-internment march in Andersonstown in 1984. McCrea shouted, "No. No. I'll not condemn

1222-503: A powerful political force. The English Civil War involved the first sustained organised effort to reduce aristocratic power in Europe. In the 18th century, the rising merchant class attempted to use money to buy into the aristocracy, with some success. However, the French Revolution in the 1790s forced many French aristocrats into exile and caused consternation and shock in the aristocratic families of neighbouring countries. After

1316-521: A quarter of the population of Australia were Irish Australians . Many were descended from the 40,000 Irish Catholics who were transported as convicts to Australia before 1867. The majority consisted of British and Irish Protestants. The Catholics dominated the labour unions and the Labor Party. The growth of school systems in the late 19th century typically involved religious issues, pitting Protestants against Catholics. The issue of independence for Ireland

1410-454: A result, they did not enforce the riot act. The riots were not suppressed until the Army moved in and dispersed the crowds by shooting them, killing hundreds of rioters. The violence lasted from 2 June to 9 June 1780. Public opinion, especially in middle-class and elite circles, repudiated anti-Catholicism and lower-class violence, and it also rallied behind the government of Lord North . Demands for

1504-439: A small part of the population represents the government; "certain men distinguished from the rest". Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, but more as an oligarchy or plutocracy —rule by the few or the wealthy. The concept of aristocracy according to Plato has an ideal state ruled by the philosopher king . Plato describes "philosopher kings" as "those who love

1598-410: A system of checks and balances , where each element checks the excesses of the other. In modern times , aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a privileged group, the aristocratic class , and has since been contrasted with democracy . The concept evolved in ancient Greece in which a council of leading citizens was commonly empowered. That was contrasted with representative democracy in which

1692-411: A system where only the best of the citizens, chosen through a careful process of selection, would become rulers, and hereditary rule would actually have been forbidden, unless the rulers' children performed best and were better endowed with the attributes that make a person fit to rule compared with every other citizen in the polity. Hereditary rule in this understanding is more related to oligarchy ,

1786-457: Is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class , the aristocrats . At the time of the word's origins in ancient Greece , the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best-qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favorably with monarchy , rule by an individual. The term was first used by such ancient Greeks as Aristotle and Plato , who used it to describe

1880-654: Is indicative of the widespread acceptance of Catholicism within the country; Jim Bolger , who lead the Fourth National Government of the 1990s, was the country's fourth Catholic prime minister; Bill English , who lead the Fifth National Government from 2016 to 2017, was the fifth and most recent. Probably the most notable of New Zealand's Catholic prime ministers was Michael Joseph Savage , an Australian -born trade unionist and social reformer who instigated numerous progressive policies as leader of

1974-499: Is not in modern times understood in opposition to oligarchy or strictly as a form of government, with entitled nobility as in monarchies or aristocratic merchant republics . Its original classical understanding has been taken up by the modern concepts that can be loosely equivalent to meritocracy or technocracy . Aristocracies dominated political and economic power for most of the medieval and modern periods almost everywhere in Europe, using their wealth and land ownership to form

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2068-750: The Sanctum Officium put Rosenberg's book on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (forbidden books list of the Church) for scorning and rejecting "all dogmas of the Catholic Church, indeed the very fundamentals of the Christian religion". Aristocracy List of forms of government Aristocracy (from Ancient Greek ἀριστοκρατίᾱ ( aristokratíā )  'rule of the best'; from ἄριστος ( áristos )  'best' and κράτος ( krátos )  'power, strength')

2162-566: The 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith , Article 26.4. In 1754, John Wesley published his Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament , which is currently an official Doctrinal Standard of the United Methodist Church . In his notes on the Book of Revelation (chapter 13), he commented: "The whole succession of Popes from Gregory VII are undoubtedly Antichrists. Yet this hinders not, but that

2256-549: The Act of Emancipation . The state of Northern Ireland came into existence in 1921, following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 . Though Catholics were a majority on the island of Ireland, comprising 74% of the population in 1911, they were a third of the population in Northern Ireland. In 1934, Sir James Craig , the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland , said, "Since we took up office we have tried to be absolutely fair towards all

2350-564: The English crown to be "the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England" in place of the pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed to have both spiritual and political power over its followers. It was under this act that saints Thomas More and John Fisher were executed and became martyrs for the Catholic faith. Queen Mary , Henry's daughter,

2444-626: The First Labour Government of the 1930s. Unification into the German Empire in 1871 saw a country with a Protestant majority and large Catholic minority, speaking German or Polish. Anti-Catholicism was common. The powerful German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck  – a devout Lutheran – forged an alliance with secular liberals in 1871–1878 to launch a Kulturkampf (literally, "culture struggle") especially in Prussia,

2538-719: The Spanish Bible , and Cotton Mather even wrote a book on Protestant doctrine in Spanish, published in Boston in 1699, intended for—as he might say—the darker regions of Spanish America. For the Nazis, the psychology of the Spaniards deemed incompatible with the ideal Nazi Germans, particularly regarding their Catholicism. Also, Ottavio de Peppo noted that Spaniards' religious sentiments were useful to weaken Germany's position because of that contempt of

2632-635: The Spanish Inquisition spread throughout Europe during the Late Middle Ages . Hispanophobia then materialized in folklore that is sometimes referred to as the " black legend ": The legend first arose amid the religious strife and imperial rivalries of 16th-century Europe. Northern Europeans , who loathed Catholic Spain and envied its American empire , published books and gory engravings which depicted Spanish colonization as uniquely barbarous: an orgy of greed, slaughter and papist depravity,

2726-523: The United States , turned anti-Catholicism, opposition to the authority of Catholic clergy ( anti-clericalism ), opposition to the authority of the pope ( anti-papalism ), mockery of Catholic rituals , and opposition to Catholic adherents into major political themes and policies of religious discrimination and religious persecution . Major examples of groups that have targeted Catholics in recent history include Ulster loyalists in Northern Ireland during

2820-523: The civil wars from which new republics emerged independent from Spanish rule in the Americas also partially relied on a hispanophobic discourse. Within Spain , elements of stateless nationalist movements (such as Catalan , Basque , and Galician ) competing with Spanish nationalism embrace anti-Spanish views and discourse. Early instances of hispanophobia arose as the influence of the Spanish Empire and

2914-413: The early modern period , the Catholic Church struggled to maintain its traditional religious and political role in the face of rising secular power in Catholic countries. As a result of these struggles, a hostile attitude towards the considerable political, social, spiritual and religious power of the Pope and the clergy arose in majority Catholic countries in the form of anti-clericalism . The Inquisition

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3008-1028: The last days even prior to the Reformation. Doctrinal works of literature which were published by the Lutherans , the Reformed churches , the Presbyterians , the Baptists , the Anabaptists , and the Methodists contain references to the Pope as the Antichrist, including the Smalcald Articles , Article 4 (1537), the Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope (1537), the Westminster Confession , Article 25.6 (1646), and

3102-557: The rebellion of 1641 , almost all of the lands which were owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers . Under the Penal Laws , no Irish Catholic could sit in the Parliament of Ireland , even though some 90% of Ireland's population was native Irish Catholic when the first of these bans was introduced in 1691. Tensions between Irish Catholics and Protestants have been blamed for much of " The Troubles ". During

3196-582: The 1861 election. The Protestants narrowly elected Hugh Hoyles as the Conservative Prime Minister. Hoyles unexpectedly reversed his long record of militant Protestant activism and worked to defuse tensions. He shared patronage and power with the Catholics; all jobs and patronage were split between the various religious bodies on a per capita basis. This 'denominational compromise' was further extended to education when all religious schools were put on

3290-704: The 18th century, the Peep o' Day Boys , an agrarian association composed of Irish Protestants, engaged in numerous acts of anti-Catholic violence through County Armagh . These acts culminated in the Armagh disturbances , a period of intense sectarian conflict during the 1780's and 1790's between the Peep o' Day Boys and the Catholic Defenders . The Peep o' Day Boys would conduct early morning raids on Catholic homes to confiscate weapons, which Irish Catholics were forbidden from owning under

3384-567: The 1950s, the split in the Australian Labor Party between allies and opponents of the Catholic anti-Communist B. A. Santamaria meant that the party (in Victoria and Queensland more than elsewhere) was effectively divided between pro-Catholic and anti-Catholic elements. As a result of such disunity the ALP was defeated at every single national election between 1955 and 1972. In the late 20th century,

3478-477: The Americas . New Englanders engaged in hispanophobic efforts to assimilate Spanish colonies: [I]n North America a deep current of Hispanophobia pervades Anglo-Saxon culture. ... As early as the late seventeenth century, we find Puritan divines like Cotton Mather and Samuel Sewell studying Spanish—with a view to winning converts to their version of Protestantism . Sewell spoke of "bombing [sic] Santo Domingo , Havana , Puerto Rico , and Mexico itself" with

3572-548: The Catholic Church politically suspect, and it also made the position of her Catholic subjects largely untenable if they tried to maintain both allegiances at once. The Recusancy Acts, which made worship in the Anglican Church a legal obligation, date back to Elizabeth's reign. Assassination plots in which Catholics were prime movers fueled anti-Catholicism in England. These plots included the famous Gunpowder Plot , in which Guy Fawkes and other conspirators plotted to blow up

3666-545: The Catholic Church replaced the Anglican Church as the largest single Christian body in Australia ; and it continues to be so in the 21st century, although it still has fewer members than do the various Protestant churches combined. While older sectarian divides declined, commentators have observed a re-emergence of anti-Catholicism in Australia in recent decades amid rising secularism and broader anti-Christian movements. According to New Zealand historian Michael King ,

3760-595: The Catholic policy of mandatory celibacy for priests. During the Enlightenment Era , which spanned the 17th and 18th centuries, with its strong emphasis on the need for religious toleration , the Inquisition was a favorite target of attack for intellectuals. Institutional anti-Catholicism in Britain and Ireland began with the English Reformation under Henry VIII . The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared

3854-406: The Church even though he had been brought up in a Catholic home. The long-term aim of many Nazis was the de-Christianization of Germany and the establishment of a form of Germanic paganism which would replace Christianity. however Richard J. Evans writes that Hitler believed that in the long run National Socialism and religion would not be able to co-exist, stressing repeatedly that Nazism

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3948-686: The English Parliament while it was in session. The fictitious " Popish Plot " involving Titus Oates was a hoax that many Protestants believed to be true, exacerbating Anglican-Catholic relations. The Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 involved the overthrow of King James II, of the Stuart dynasty, who favoured the Catholics, and his replacement by a Dutch Protestant. For decades the Stuarts were supported by France in plots to invade and conquer Britain, and anti-Catholicism persisted. The Gordon Riots of 1780

4042-487: The Fatherland, and of serving the interests of "sinister alien forces". Adolf Hitler had some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but towards its teachings he showed nothing but the sharpest hostility, calling them "the systematic cultivation of the human failure": To Hitler, Christianity was a religion that was only fit for slaves and he detested its ethics. Alan Bullock wrote: "Its teaching, he declared,

4136-535: The First World War, the Irish gave support for the war effort and comprised 20% of the army in France. However, the labour unions and the Irish in particular, strongly opposed conscription, and in alliance with like-minded farmers, defeated it in national plebiscites in 1916 and 1917 . The Anglicans in particular talked of Catholic "disloyalty". By the 1920s, Australia had its first Catholic prime minister . During

4230-537: The Inquisition writ large. La leyenda negra , as Spanish historians first named it, entailed a view of Spaniards as "unusually cruel, avaricious, treacherous, fanatical, superstitious, hot-blooded, corrupt, decadent, indolent, and authoritarian". During the European colonization of the Americas , "[t]he Black Legend informed Anglo Americans' judgments about the political, economic, religious, and social forces that had shaped

4324-481: The Irish 1798 Rebellion . In 1803, Fr James Dixon was conditionally emancipated and permitted to celebrate Mass, but following the Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804, Dixon's permission was revoked. Fr Jeremiah Flynn , an Irish Cistercian , was appointed as Prefect Apostolic of New Holland and set out uninvited from Britain for the colony. Watched by authorities, Flynn secretly performed priestly duties before being arrested and deported to London. Reaction to

4418-722: The Irish Catholics generally supported the English language position which was advocated by the Protestants. Newfoundland long experienced social and political tensions between the large Irish Catholic working-class, on the one hand and the Anglican elite on the other. In the 1850s, the Catholic bishop organized his flock and made them stalwarts of the Liberal party. Nasty rhetoric was the prevailing style elections; bloody riots were common during

4512-422: The Irish parliamentary districts. They could only elect, but Catholics could not be seated in parliament. The Catholic emancipation issue became a major crisis. Previously anti-Catholic politicians led by the Duke of Wellington and Robert Peel reversed themselves to prevent massive violence. All Catholics in Britain were "emancipated" in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 ; that is, they were freed from most of

4606-430: The Nazis to the Spanish psychology. Hitler himself said that "All of Spain is contained in Don Quixote —-a decrepit society unaware the world has passed it by", because Spain was a stagnant nation dominated by three elements that Nazis detested; the Church , the aristocracy , and the monarchy , since Franco had promised a royal restoration. Hitler praised the Arab occupation of Iberia as "cultivated," while referring to

4700-453: The Ontario Ministry of Education that restricted the use of French as a language of instruction to the first two years of schooling. French Canada reacted vehemently and lost, dooming its French-language Catholic schools. This was a central reason for French Canada's distance from the World War I effort, as its young men refused to enlist. Protestant elements succeeded in blocking the growth of French-language Catholic public schools. However,

4794-415: The Penal Laws. This led to confrontations between them and the Defenders, which culminated in the Battle of the Diamond , a confrontation which saw six killed and many more wounded. Though the Orange Order would denounce the actions of the Peep o' Day Boys, further anti-Catholic violence would continue to erupt in Ireland in the years leading up the Irish Rebellion of 1798 . The Great Famine of Ireland

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4888-406: The Spaniards and, therefore, the need for the extermination and expulsion of the " gachupín ". This sentiment, already extant in the 17th century, gained notoriety in the wake of the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821), and was articulated from then on as one of the tenets of the Mexican national building, urgently pushed by elements of the political class of the young country, with the result of

4982-462: The Spaniards themselves as "lazy" and of "moorish blood;" he also slandered the Catholic Queen Isabel , calling her "the greatest whore in history." The German writer Wilhelm Pferdekamp, published many hispanophobic articles, including one titled Afrika beginnt hinter den Pyrenäen ("Africa begins behind the Pyrenees"). In the 19th century, the justification of the Spanish American wars of independence relied on blaming Spain and its legacy for all of

5076-440: The Spanish provinces from Florida to California, as well as throughout the hemisphere". These judgments were handed down from Europeans who saw the Spaniards as inferior to other European cultures. In North America , hispanophobia thus preceded the United States Declaration of Independence by almost 200 years. Historians theorize that North European nations promoted hispanophobia in order to justify attacks on Spain's colonies in

5170-644: The Troubles and the second Ku Klux Klan in the United States. The anti-Catholic sentiment which resulted from this trend frequently led to religious discrimination against Catholic communities and individuals and it occasionally led to the religious persecution of them (frequently, they were derogatorily referred to as " papists " or " Romanists " in Anglophone and Protestant countries). Historian John Wolffe identifies four types of anti-Catholicism: constitutional-national, theological, popular and socio-cultural. Historically, Catholics who lived in Protestant countries were frequently suspected of conspiring against

5264-419: The affair in Britain led to two further priests being allowed to travel to the colony in 1820. The Church of England was disestablished in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836 . Drafted by the Catholic attorney-general John Plunkett , the act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists. By the late 19th century approximately

5358-437: The basis which the Catholics had enjoyed since the 1840s. Alone in North America Newfoundland had a state funded system of denominational schools. The compromise worked and politics ceased to be about religion and became concerned with purely political and economic issues. The presence of Catholicism in Australia came with the 1788 arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney. The colonial authorities blocked

5452-409: The children and parents through the protest each day. Some protesters shouted sectarian abuse and threw stones, bricks, fireworks, blast bombs and urine-filled balloons at the schoolchildren, their parents and the RUC . The "scenes of frightened Catholic schoolgirls running a gauntlet of abuse from loyalist protesters as they walked to school captured world headlines". Death threats were made against

5546-426: The citizens of Northern Ireland... They still boast of Southern Ireland being a Catholic State. All I boast of is that we are a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State." In 1957, Harry Midgley , the Minister of Education in Northern Ireland, said, in Portadown Orange Hall, "All the minority are traitors and have always been traitors to the Government of Northern Ireland." The first Catholic to be appointed

5640-412: The death of John Downes [sic]. No Fenian. Never. No". In Northern Ireland and Scotland, Fenian is used by some as a derogatory word for Roman Catholics. In 2001 and 2002, the Holy Cross dispute occurred in the Ardoyne area of north Belfast . The Holy Cross school, a Catholic primary school for girls, is situated in the middle of a Protestant area. In June 2001—during the last week of school before

5734-435: The defeat of Napoleon in 1814, some of the surviving exiles returned, but their position within French society was not recovered. Beginning in Britain, industrialization in the 19th century brought urbanization, with wealth increasingly concentrated in the cities, which absorbed political power. However, as late as 1900, aristocrats maintained political dominance in Britain, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Austria and Russia, but it

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5828-413: The definitive Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Mexico and Spain was signed. This process resulted in the effective expulsion of almost half of the Spanish population from Mexico. The murder of Spaniards—sometimes amidst cries of "death to whites", to "Spaniards" or to "gachupines"—lingered during the 1840s and 1850s in the countryside of the states of Guerrero , Morelos and Yucatán , spurred by

5922-407: The eleventh century . Not only dissidents and heretics but even saints had called the bishop of Rome the "Antichrist" when they wished to castigate his abuse of power . What Lutherans incorrectly understood as a papal claim to unlimited authority over everything and everyone reminded them of the Apocalyptic imagery of Daniel 11 , a passage that had been applied to the pope as the Antichrist of

6016-527: The establishment of a police force in London were subsequently made. Anglo-French conflicts during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , which lasted from 1793 until 1815, saw the rise of anti-Catholicism as an underlying method to unify the Protestant populations of England, Scotland and Wales. Permeating through all social classes , antagonism towards Catholicism became firmly enmeshed with British national identity . As noted by English historian Linda Colley in her seminal work Britons: Forging of

6110-444: The first meeting between an Archbishop of Canterbury and a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visited Rome in 1960. Since then, the dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences. Meanwhile, both the nonconformist churches such as the Methodists, and the established Church of England, have dramatically declined in membership. Membership in the Catholic Church continues to grow in Britain, thanks to

6204-436: The government. From the beginning, the Catholic Church faced general persecution, regimentation and oppression. Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Alfred Rosenberg and Martin Bormann saw the conflict with the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-Church and anti-clerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists. To many Nazis, Catholics were suspected of insufficient patriotism, or even of disloyalty to

6298-430: The hardening of the borders of its political community. Thus, already towards the heights of 1810, an independence hero like the priest Miguel Hidalgo decried the Spaniards as "denaturalized men" moved by "sordid greed" and whose only god was money. Throughout the 1820s, Spaniards were quantitatively insignificant (estimated by Harold Sims at 6500 people out of a population of about 6.5 million) but many of them―despite

6392-508: The height of anti-Catholic legislation, half of the Prussian bishops were in prison or in exile, a quarter of the parishes had no priest, half the monks and nuns had left Prussia, a third of the monasteries and convents were closed, 1800 parish priests were imprisoned or exiled, and thousands of laymen were imprisoned for helping the priests. There were anti-Polish elements in Greater Poland and Silesia. The Catholics refused to comply; they strengthened their Centre Party. Pius IX died in 1878 and

6486-424: The ills of the New World, with the remaining insignificant Peninsular and Canarian population in the new republics being subsequently harassed, extorted and eventually expelled. According to historian Marco Antonio Landavazo, anti-Spanish sentiment in Mexico is underpinned by basic ideas that are synthesized in the interpretation of the conquest as genocide, the identification of an intrinsically perverse character in

6580-612: The immigration of Irish and more recently, the immigration of Polish workers. Conflict and rivalry between Catholicism and Protestantism since the 1920s, especially since the 1960s, has centered on the Troubles in Northern Ireland . Anti-Catholicism in Britain was long represented by the burning of an effigy of the Catholic conspirator Guy Fawkes during widespread celebrations of Guy Fawkes Night every 5 November. However, this celebration has lost most of its anti-Catholic connotations. According to Clive D. Field, only faint remnants of anti-Catholicism are found today. As punishment for

6674-444: The largest state in the new German Empire to destroy the political power of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Catholics were numerous in the South (Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg) and west (Rhineland) and fought back. Bismarck intended to end Catholics' loyalty with Rome ( ultramontanism ) and subordinate all Germans to the power of his state. Priests and bishops who resisted the Kulturkampf were arrested or removed from their positions. By

6768-565: The last Pope in this succession will be more eminently the Antichrist, the Man of Sin, adding to that of his predecessors a peculiar degree of wickedness from the bottomless pit." Referring to the Book of Revelation, Edward Gibbon stated that "The advantage of turning those mysterious prophecies against the See of Rome , inspired the Protestants with uncommon veneration for so useful an ally." Protestants condemned

6862-585: The most controversial issues was public support for Catholic French-language schools. Although the Confederation Agreement of 1867 guaranteed the status of Catholic schools when they were legalized by provincial governments, disputes erupted in numerous provinces, especially in the Manitoba Schools Question in the 1890s and in Ontario in the 1910s. In Ontario, Regulation 17 was a regulation by

6956-685: The parents and school staff by the Red Hand Defenders , a loyalist paramilitary group. Fears of the Catholic Church were quite strong in the 19th century, especially among Presbyterian and other Protestant Irish immigrants across Canada. In 1853, the Gavazzi Riots left 10 dead in Quebec in the wake of Catholic Irish protests against anti-Catholic speeches by ex-monk Alessandro Gavazzi . The most influential newspaper in Canada, The Globe of Toronto,

7050-721: The penalties and restrictions they faced. Anti-Catholic attitudes continued, however. In 1937, ten young men and boys, aged from 13 to 23, burned to death in a fire on a farm in Kirkintilloch , Scotland. All were seasonal workers from Achill Sound in County Mayo, Ireland. The Vanguard , the official newspaper of the Scottish Protestant League , referred to the event in the following text: Since World War II , anti-Catholic feeling in England has abated somewhat. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in

7144-469: The pope also sought to impose secular power over them in alliance with their arch-enemies France and Spain. In 1570, Pope Pius V sought to depose Elizabeth with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , which declared that she was a heretic and purportedly dissolved the duty of all of Elizabeth's subjects to maintain their allegiance to her. This rendered Elizabeth's subjects who persisted in their allegiance to

7238-659: The preponderance of Spanish landowners and merchants in Guerrero led mulatto militias to murder several Spanish merchants in 1827 and 1828. Anti-Spanish sentiment was one of the causes behind the sacking of the Parián market in Mexico City in 1828. Anti-Spanish sentiment motivated twelve state expulsion laws published in 1827, three federal laws of December 1827, March 1829 and January 1833, and two decrees, in January 1833 and 1834. Two years later,

7332-508: The sight of truth" ( Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce philosopher kings. In contrast to its original conceptual drawing by Aristotle in classical antiquity , aristocracy

7426-505: The situation in New Zealand has never been as clear as in Australia. Catholics first arrived in New Zealand in 1769, and the Church has had a continuous presence in the country from the time of permanent settlement by Irish Catholics in the 1820s, with the first Maori converted to Catholicism in the 1830s. The signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, which formalised New Zealand's status as

7520-612: The state in furtherance of papal interests. Their support of the alien pope led to allegations that they lacked loyalty to the state. In majority Protestant countries which experienced large scale immigration , such as the United States and Australia , suspicion of Catholic immigrants and/or discrimination against them frequently overlapped or was conflated with nativist , xenophobic , ethnocentric and/or racist sentiments (e.g. anti-Irish sentiment , anti-Filipino sentiment , anti-Italianism , anti-Spanish sentiment , and anti-Slavic sentiment , specifically anti-Polish sentiment ). In

7614-442: The summer break—Protestant loyalists began picketing the school, claiming that Catholics were regularly attacking their homes and denying them access to facilities. The picket resumed on 3 September, when the new school term began. For weeks, hundreds of loyalist protesters tried to stop the schoolchildren and their parents from walking to school through their area. Hundreds of riot police , backed up by British soldiers , escorted

7708-591: The tension between Spanish hacienda owners and the impoverished indigenous peasantry, even though the behavior of the former did not differ substantially from that of the Criollo hacienda owners. Although lesser in terms of casualties than xenophobic outbursts of anti-American and Sinophobic sign, anti-Spanish sentiment manifested itself during the Mexican Revolution of 1910 , with slightly more than 200 Spaniards killed. In 1890s United States, anti-Spanish propaganda

7802-613: Was "an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a heroic-German world view". Hitler's chosen deputy, Martin Bormann, was a rigid guardian of Nazi orthodoxy and saw Christianity and Nazism as "incompatible", as did the official Nazi philosopher, Alfred Rosenberg , who wrote in Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930) that the Catholic Church were among the chief enemies of the Germans. In 1934,

7896-412: Was a devout Catholic. She tried to reverse the Reformation during her five years as Queen (1553-1558), marrying the Catholic king of Spain and executing Protestant leaders. Protestants reviled her as "Bloody Mary". Anti-Catholicism among many of the English was not only grounded in their fear that the pope sought to reimpose religio-spiritual authority over England, it was also grounded in their fear that

7990-494: Was a favorite target of attack. After the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, anti-clerical forces gained strength in some primarily Catholic nations, such as France, Spain, Mexico, and certain regions of Italy (especially in Emilia-Romagna ). Certain political parties in these historically Catholic regions subscribed to and propagated an internal form of anti-Catholicism, generally known as anti-clericalism, that expressed

8084-516: Was a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and the survival of the fittest ". For political reasons, Hitler was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism, seeing danger in strengthening the Church by persecuting it, but he intended to wage a show-down against it after the war. Joseph Goebbels, the Minister for Propaganda, led the Nazi persecution of the Catholic clergy and wrote that there

8178-456: Was a secular ideology, founded on modern science: "Science, he declared, would easily destroy the last remaining vestiges of superstition". Germany could not tolerate the intervention of foreign influences such as the Pope and "Priests, he said, were 'black bugs', 'abortions in black cassocks ' ". Nazi ideology desired the subordination of the Church to the State and could not accept an autonomous establishment, whose legitimacy did not spring from

8272-681: Was a violent anti-Catholic riot in London against the Papists Act of 1778 . Passed by Parliament , the new law was supposed to reduce official discrimination against British Catholics . Lord George Gordon , head of the Protestant Association, warned that the law would enable Catholics who were serving in the British Army to become a dangerous threat. The protest evolved into riots and widespread looting . Local magistrates feared reprisals and as

8366-641: Was disseminated by outlets published by the likes of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst , aiming to set the mood of the public opinion in favour of War against Spain . Anti-Catholicism Anti-Catholicism , also known as Catholophobia , is hostility towards Catholics and opposition to the Catholic Church , its clergy , and its adherents. At various points after the Reformation , many majority- Protestant states, including England , Northern Ireland , Prussia and Germany , Scotland , and

8460-477: Was edited by George Brown , a Presbyterian immigrant from Ireland who ridiculed and denounced the Catholic Church, Jesuits , priests, nunneries, etc. Irish Protestants remained a political force until the 20th century. Many belonged to the Orange Order , an anti-Catholic organization with chapters across Canada that was most powerful during the late 19th century. A key leader was Dalton McCarthy (1836–1898),

8554-568: Was exacerbated by the imposition of anti-Catholic laws. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the penal laws prohibited Irish Catholics from either purchasing or leasing land, from voting, from holding political office, from living either within 5 miles (8 km) away from a corporate town, from obtaining an education, from entering a profession, and doing many of the other things which a person needed to do in order to succeed and prosper in society. The laws had largely been reformed by 1793, and in 1829, Irish Catholics could again sit in parliament following

8648-664: Was long a sore point, until the matter was resolved by the Irish War of Independence . Limited freedom of belief is protected by Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia , but sectarianism in Australia was prominent (though generally nonviolent) in the 20th century, flaring during the First World War , again reflecting Ireland's place within the Empire, and the Catholic minority remained subject to discrimination and suspicion. During

8742-572: Was replaced by more conciliatory Pope Leo XIII who negotiated away most of the anti-Catholic laws beginning in 1880. Bismarck himself broke with the anti-Catholic Liberals and worked with the Catholic Centre Party to fight Socialism. Pope Leo officially declared the end of the Kulturkampf on 23 May 1887. The Catholic Church faced repression in Nazi Germany (1933–1945). Hitler despised

8836-467: Was rooted in the assumption that the masses could only produce average policy, while the best of men could produce the best policy, if they were indeed the best of men. Later Polybius in his analysis of the Roman Constitution used the concept of aristocracy to describe his conception of a republic as a mixed form of government, along with democracy and monarchy in their conception from then, as

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