91-443: See text. The pipits are a cosmopolitan genus, Anthus , of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Along with the wagtails and longclaws , the pipits make up the family Motacillidae . The genus is widespread, occurring across most of the world, except the driest deserts, rainforest and the mainland of Antarctica. They are slender, often drab, ground-feeding insectivores of open country. Like their relatives in
182-449: A broad range of environmental tolerances or from rapid dispersal compared to the time needed for speciation . Flight feather Flight feathers ( Pennae volatus ) are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired pennaceous feathers on the wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges ( / ˈ r ɛ m ɪ dʒ iː z / ), singular remex ( / ˈ r iː m ɛ k s / ), while those on
273-442: A clear trilling courtship call. A curve-tipped secondary on each wing is dragged against an adjacent ridged secondary at high speeds (as many as 110 times per second—slightly faster than a hummingbird's wingbeat) to create a stridulation much like that produced by some insects. Both Wilson's and common snipe have modified outer tail feathers which make noise when they are spread during the birds' roller coaster display flights; as
364-467: A continent was reached. In South America, however, vicariance appears to have played an important role in speciation. The genus has more than 40 species , making it the largest genus in terms of numbers in its family. The exact species limits of the genus are still a matter of some debate, with some checklists recognising only 34 species. For example, the Australasian pipit , A. novaeseelandiae , which
455-413: A cosmopolitan species is an endemic (native) species, or one that is found only in a single geographical location. Endemism usually results in organisms with specific adaptations to one particular climate or region, and the species would likely face challenges if placed in a different environment. There are far more examples of endemic species than cosmopolitan species; one example being the snow leopard ,
546-517: A genus Hemimacronyx , which is considered to be intermediate between the longclaws and pipits. The split was originally proposed based on morphological features, but it has also found support based upon genetic analysis. Formerly, some authorities placed the Kakamega greenbul (nominate) in this genus (as Anthus kakamegae ). The pipits are generally highly conservative in appearance. They are generally 16–21 cm (6.3–8.3 in) in length, although
637-511: A large extent in size and shape (except in the case of mutation or damage), though not necessarily in the pattern. They are given different names depending on their position along the wing. Primaries are connected to the manus (the bird's "hand", composed of carpometacarpus and phalanges ); these are the longest and narrowest of the remiges (particularly those attached to the phalanges), and they can be individually rotated. These feathers are especially important for flapping flight, as they are
728-528: A more protracted moult. In many species, there is more than one focus along the wing. Here, moult begins at all foci simultaneously, but generally proceeds only in one direction. Most grouse, for example, have two wing foci: one at the wingtip, the other between feathers P1 and S1. In this case, moult proceeds descendantly from both foci. Many large, long-winged birds have multiple wing foci. Birds that are heavily "wing-loaded"—that is, heavy-bodied birds with relatively short wings—have great difficulty flying with
819-634: A planet too large for local populations to interbreed routinely with each other include genetic effects such as ring species , such as in the Larus gulls, and the formation of clines such as in Drosophila . Cosmopolitan distributions can be observed both in extinct and extant species. For example, Lystrosaurus was cosmopolitan in the Early Triassic after the Permian-Triassic extinction event . In
910-458: A sound during display flights. Tiny serrations on the leading edge of their remiges help owls to fly silently (and therefore hunt more successfully), while the extra-stiff rectrices of woodpeckers help them to brace against tree trunks as they hammer on them. Even flightless birds still retain flight feathers, though sometimes in radically modified forms. The remiges are divided into primary and secondary feathers based on their position along
1001-496: A sound during territorial or courtship displays. Over time, a small number of bird species have lost their ability to fly. Some of these, such as the steamer ducks , show no appreciable changes in their flight feathers. Some, such as the Titicaca grebe and a number of the flightless rails, have a reduced number of primaries. The remiges of ratites are soft and downy; they lack the interlocking hooks and barbules that help to stiffen
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#17328592083631092-520: A species found only in Central Asian mountain ranges, an environment to which the cats have adapted over millions of years. The caveat "in appropriate habitat" is used to qualify the term "cosmopolitan distribution", excluding in most instances polar regions, extreme altitudes, oceans, deserts, or small, isolated islands. For example, the housefly is highly cosmopolitan, yet is neither oceanic nor polar in its distribution. The term pandemism also
1183-433: A state known as diastataxis (those that do have the fifth secondary are said to be eutaxic). In these birds, the fifth set of secondary covert feathers does not cover any remiges, possibly due to a twisting of the feather papillae during embryonic development. Loons , grebes, pelicans , hawks and eagles , cranes , sandpipers , gulls , parrots, and owls are among the families missing this feather. Tertials arise in
1274-457: Is also found, though to a lesser extent, in some other species that feed along tree trunks, including treecreepers and woodcreepers . Scientists have not yet determined the function of all flight feather modifications. Male swallows in the genera Psalidoprocne and Stelgidopteryx have tiny recurved hooks on the leading edges of their outer primaries, but the function of these hooks is not yet known; some authorities suggest they may produce
1365-531: Is called saltatory or transilient wing moults. In simple forms, this involves the moulting and replacement of odd-numbered primaries and then the even-numbered primaries. There are however complex variations with differences based on life history. Arboreal woodpeckers , which depend on their tails—particularly the strong central pair of rectrices—for support while they feed, have a unique tail moult. Rather than moulting their central tail feathers first, as most birds do, they retain these feathers until last. Instead,
1456-592: Is currently treated as nine subspecies found in New Zealand, Australia, and New Guinea, once also included Richard's pipit and the paddyfield pipit of Asia, and the African pipit of Africa. In addition, the Australian and New Zealand populations could be split, or even that New Zealand's subspecies found on its outlying Subantarctic Islands be split from the mainland species. In part the taxonomic difficulties arise due to
1547-493: Is diminished when the outer primaries are worn, and absent when those feathers have been moulted. During the northern lapwing 's zigzagging display flight, the bird's outer primaries produce a humming sound. The outer primaries of the male American woodcock are shorter and slightly narrower than those of the female, and are likely the source of the whistling and twittering sounds made during his courtship display flights. Male club-winged manakins use modified secondaries to make
1638-530: Is found in open woodland savanna and miombo woodland. The pipits range from entirely sedentary to entirely migratory . Insular species such as Berthelot's pipit , which is endemic to Madeira and the Canary Islands , are entirely sedentary, as are some species in warmer areas like the Nilgiri pipit . Other species are partly nomadic during the nonbreeding season, like the long-legged pipit of central Africa or
1729-527: Is home to some indigenous species within the Myrmeleontidae, but nonetheless no one species, nor even genus, of the Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan. Conversely, partly as a result of human introduction of unnatural apiculture to the New World, Apis mellifera probably is the only cosmopolitan member of its family; the rest of the family Apidae have modest distributions. Even where a cosmopolitan population
1820-430: Is in use, but not all authors are consistent in the sense in which they use the term; some speak of pandemism mainly in referring to diseases and pandemics , and some as a term intermediate between endemism and cosmopolitanism, in effect regarding pandemism as subcosmopolitanism . This means near cosmopolitanism, but with major gaps in the distribution , say, complete absence from Australia. Terminology varies, and there
1911-466: Is known as moult (molt in the United States). The loss of wing and tail feathers can affect a bird's ability to fly (sometimes dramatically) and in certain families can impair the ability to feed or perform courtship displays . The timing and progression of flight feather moult therefore varies among families. For most birds, moult begins at a certain specific point, called a focus (plural foci), on
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#17328592083632002-660: Is moulted at a different time. The flight feathers of adults and juveniles can differ considerably in length, particularly among the raptors. Juveniles tend to have slightly longer rectrices and shorter, broader wings (with shorter outer primaries, and longer inner primaries and secondaries) than do adults of the same species. However, there are many exceptions. In longer-tailed species, such as swallow-tailed kite , secretary bird and European honey buzzard , for example, juveniles have shorter rectrices than adults do. Juveniles of some Buteo buzzards have narrower wings than adults do, while those of large juvenile falcons are longer. It
2093-535: Is recognised as a single species, such as indeed Apis mellifera , there generally will be variation between regional sub-populations. Such variation commonly is at the level of subspecies , varieties or morphs , whereas some variation is too slight or inconsistent for formal recognition. For an example of subspecific variation, consider the East African lowland honey bee ( Apis mellifera scutellata )—best known for being hybridized with various European subspecies of
2184-481: Is referred to as the primary extension or primary projection. As with wing formulae, this measurement is useful for distinguishing between similarly plumaged birds; however, unlike wing formulae, it is not necessary to have the bird in-hand to make the measurement. Rather, this is a useful relative measurement—some species have long primary extensions, while others have shorter ones. Among the Empidonax flycatchers of
2275-406: Is seen on the back, wings, and breast. The drab, mottled-brown colours provide some camouflage against the soil and stones on which they are generally found. A few species have slightly more colourful breeding plumages; for example, the rosy pipit has greenish edges on the wing feathers. The yellow-breasted pipit, if it is retained in this genus, is quite atypical in having bright yellow plumage on
2366-508: Is some debate whether the true opposite of endemism is pandemism or cosmopolitanism. A related concept in biogeography is that of oceanic cosmopolitanism and endemism. Rather than allow ubiquitous travel, the World Ocean is complicated by physical obstacles such as temperature gradients. These prevent migration of tropical species between the Atlantic and Indian/Pacific oceans. Conversely,
2457-524: Is the range of a taxon that extends across most or all of the surface of the Earth, in appropriate habitats ; most cosmopolitan species are known to be highly adaptable to a range of climatic and environmental conditions, though this is not always so. Killer whales ( orcas ) are among the most well-known cosmopolitan species on the planet, as they maintain several different resident and transient (migratory) populations in every major oceanic body on Earth, from
2548-410: Is theorized that the differences help young birds compensate for their inexperience, weaker flight muscles and poorer flying ability. A wing formula describes the shape of distal end of a bird's wing in a mathematical way. It can be used to help distinguish between species with similar plumages, and thus is particularly useful for those who ring (band) birds. To determine a bird's wing formula,
2639-522: Is unclear; in the related wagtails it is thought to be a signal to predators of vigilance. The diet of the pipits is dominated by small invertebrates. Insects are the most important prey items; among the types taken include flies and their larvae, beetles, grasshoppers and crickets, true bugs, mantids, ants, aphids and particularly the larvae and adults of moths and butterflies. Outside of insects other invertebrates taken include spiders and, rarely, worms and scorpions. They are generally catholic in their diet,
2730-478: The Arctic Circle to Antarctica and every coastal and open-water region in-between. Such a taxon (usually a species ) is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution, or exhibit cosmopolitanism , as a species; another example, the rock dove (commonly referred to as a ' pigeon '), in addition to having been bred domestically for centuries, now occurs in most urban areas around the world. The extreme opposite of
2821-554: The Arctic tern occur from the Arctic to the Southern Ocean , but at any one season of the year they are likely to be largely in passage or concentrated at only one end of the range. Also, some such species breed only at one end of the range. Seen purely as an aspect of cosmopolitanism, such distributions could be seen as temporal, seasonal variations. Other complications of cosmopolitanism on
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2912-484: The Atlantic . Some six species occur on more than one continent. As might be expected from a genus with such a wide distribution, the pipits are found in an equally wide range of habitats. They occur in most types of open habitat, although they are absent from the very driest deserts. They are mostly associated with some kind of grassland, from sea-level to alpine tundra. The rock pipit and South Georgia pipit are found in
3003-684: The ochre-breasted pipit of South America. These seasonal movements are in response to conditions in the environment, and are poorly understood and unpredictable. Longer, more regular migrations between discrete breeding and wintering grounds are undertaken by several species. The tree pipit , which breeds in Europe and northern Asia, winters in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, a pattern of long-distance migration shared with other northerly species. Species may also be partly migratory, with northern populations being migratory but more temperate populations being resident (such as
3094-433: The olecranon and performing the same function as true tertials) in an effort to distinguish them from other secondaries. The term humeral is sometimes used for birds such as the albatrosses and pelicans that have a long humerus. The calami of the flight feathers are protected by a layer of non-flight feathers called covert feathers or tectrices (singular tectrix ), at least one layer of them both above and beneath
3185-479: The western honey bee to create the so-called " African killer bee "—and the Cape bee , which is the subspecies Apis mellifera capensis ; both of them are in the same cosmopolitan species Apis mellifera , but their ranges barely overlap. Other cosmopolitan species, such as the house sparrow and osprey , present similar examples, but in yet other species there are less familiar complications: some migratory birds such as
3276-712: The Latin word for "helmsman", help the bird to brake and steer in flight. These feathers lie in a single horizontal row on the rear margin of the anatomic tail. Only the central pair are attached (via ligaments ) to the tail bones; the remaining rectrices are embedded into the rectricial bulbs , complex structures of fat and muscle that surround those bones. Rectrices are always paired, with a vast majority of species having six pairs. They are absent in grebes and some ratites , and greatly reduced in size in penguins. Many grouse species have more than 12 rectrices. In some species (including ruffed grouse , hazel grouse and common snipe ),
3367-550: The Northern marine regions and Southern Ocean are separated by the tropics , too warm for many species to traverse. Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is that of ecological limitations. A species that is apparently cosmopolitan because it occurs in all oceans might in fact occupy only littoral zones , or only particular ranges of depths, or only estuaries , for example. Analogously, terrestrial species might be present only in forests, or mountainous regions, or sandy arid regions or
3458-418: The airfoil shape of the bird's wing. Secondaries tend to be shorter and broader than primaries, with blunter ends (see illustration). They vary in number from 6 in hummingbirds to as many as 40 in some species of albatross . In general, larger and longer-winged species have a larger number of secondaries. Birds in more than 40 non-passerine families seem to be missing the fifth secondary feather on each wing,
3549-678: The bird dives, wind flows through the modified feathers and creates a series of rising and falling notes, which is known as "winnowing". Differences between the sounds produced by these two former conspecific subspecies—and the fact that the outer two pairs of rectrices in Wilson's snipe are modified, while only the single outermost pair are modified in common snipe—were among the characteristics used to justify their splitting into two distinct and separate species. Flight feathers are also used by some species in visual displays. Male standard-winged and pennant-winged nightjars have modified P2 primaries (using
3640-405: The bird is in flight, especially in the case of raptors. The trailing edge of the wing of a juvenile bird can appear almost serrated, due to the feathers' sharp tips, while that of an older bird will be straighter-edged. The flight feathers of a juvenile bird will also be uniform in length, since they all grew at the same time. Those of adults will be of various lengths and levels of wear, since each
3731-444: The bird's "thumb" and normally lie flush against the anterior edge of the wing—function in the same way as the slats on an airplane wing, allowing the wing to achieve a higher than normal angle of attack – and thus lift – without resulting in a stall . By manipulating its thumb to create a gap between the alula and the rest of the wing, a bird can avoid stalling when flying at low speeds or landing. The development of
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3822-404: The bird's newly strengthened tail is best able to cope with the loss of the crucial central rectrices. Ground-feeding woodpeckers, such as the wrynecks , do not have this modified moult strategy; in fact, wrynecks moult their outer tail feathers first, with moult proceeding proximally from there. There are often substantial differences between the remiges and rectrices of adults and juveniles of
3913-454: The bird's wing closed, so as to maintain the relative positions of the feathers. While there can be considerable variation across members of a species—and while the results are obviously impacted by the effects of moult and feather regeneration—even very closely related species show clear differences in their wing formulas. The distance that a bird's longest primaries extend beyond its longest secondaries (or tertials) when its wings are folded
4004-451: The brachial region and are not considered true remiges as they are not supported by attachment to the corresponding bone, in this case the humerus. These elongated "true" tertials act as a protective cover for all or part of the folded primaries and secondaries, and do not qualify as flight feathers as such. However, many authorities use the term tertials to refer to the shorter, more symmetrical innermost secondaries of passerines (arising from
4095-609: The carpal joint) was formerly thought to be absent in some species, but the modern view of this diastataxy is that there is a gap between the fourth and fifth secondaries. Tertiary feathers growing upon the adjoining portion of the brachium are not considered true remiges. The moult of their flight feathers can cause serious problems for birds, as it can impair their ability to fly. Different species have evolved different strategies for coping with this, ranging from dropping all their flight feathers at once (and thus becoming flightless for some relatively short period of time) to extending
4186-463: The centermost pair outwards in both directions. The flight feathers of some species provide additional functionality. In some species, for example, either remiges or rectrices make a sound during flight. These sounds are most often associated with courtship or territorial displays. The outer primaries of male broad-tailed hummingbirds produce a distinctive high-pitched trill, both in direct flight and in power-dives during courtship displays; this trill
4277-450: The composition of their diet apparently reflecting the abundance of their prey in the location (and varying with the season). The diet consumed by adults may vary to that of the young birds; for example adult tree pipits take large numbers of beetles but do not feed many to their chicks. Species feeding on the seashore are reported to feed on marine crustaceans and molluscs. A few species have been reported to feed on small fish, beating them in
4368-453: The descendant numbering scheme explained above) which are displayed during their courtship rituals. In the standard-winged nightjar, this modified primary consists of an extremely long shaft with a small "pennant" (actually a large web of barbules) at the tip. In the pennant-winged nightjar, the P2 primary is an extremely long (but otherwise normal) feather, while P3, P4 and P5 are successively shorter;
4459-453: The distance between the tip of the most distal primary and the tip of its greater covert (the longest of the feathers that cover and protect the shaft of that primary) is measured in millimeters. In some cases, this results in a positive number (e.g., the primary extends beyond its greater covert), while in other cases it is a negative number (e.g. the primary is completely covered by the greater covert, as happens in some passerine species). Next,
4550-504: The dramatically coiled twin plumes of the magnificent bird-of-paradise . Owls have remiges which are serrated rather than smooth on the leading edge. This adaptation disrupts the flow of air over the wings, eliminating the noise that airflow over a smooth surface normally creates, and allowing the birds to fly and hunt silently. The rectrices of woodpeckers are proportionately short and very stiff, allowing them to better brace themselves against tree trunks while feeding. This adaptation
4641-412: The ends. These plumes are raised up over the bird's head (along with a fine spray of modified uppertail coverts) during his extraordinary display. Rectrix modification reaches its pinnacle among the birds of paradise , which display an assortment of often bizarrely modified feathers, ranging from the extremely long plumes of the ribbon-tailed astrapia (nearly three times the length of the bird itself) to
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#17328592083634732-443: The event that a species is missing the small distal 10th primary, as some passerines are, its lack does not impact the numbering of the remaining primaries. Ascendant numbering, on the other hand, allows for uniformity in the numbering of non-passerine primaries, as they almost invariably have four attached to the manus regardless of how many primaries they have overall. This method is particularly useful for indicating wing formulae, as
4823-407: The extreme similarities in appearance across the genus. The family has an additional species, the golden pipit , Tmetothylacus tennelus , which belongs to a distinct, monotypic genus. This species is apparently intermediate in appearance between the pipits and the longclaws, and is probably more closely related to the longclaws. One species, the yellow-breasted pipit , is sometimes split out into
4914-503: The family, the pipits are monogamous and territorial . Pipits are ground nesters, laying up to six speckled eggs. The genus Anthus was introduced in 1805 by German naturalist Johann Matthäus Bechstein . The type species was later designated as the meadow pipit . The generic name Anthus is the Latin word for a small bird of grasslands mentioned by Pliny the Elder . Molecular studies of
5005-413: The feather edges. These narrowings are called either notches or emarginations depending on the degree of their slope. An emargination is a gradual change, and can be found on either side of the feather. A notch is an abrupt change, and is only found on the wider trailing edge of the remex. (Both are visible on the primary in the photo showing the feathers; they can be found about halfway along both sides of
5096-829: The feather tracts of the two groups; while many larks have crests , no pipit does; pipits have only one prominent row of scapulars , whereas larks have two. The pipits have a cosmopolitan distribution , occurring across most of the world's land surface. They are the only genus in their family to occur widely in the Americas (two species of wagtails marginally occur in Alaska , as well). Three species of pipits occur in North America, and seven species occur in South America. The remaining species are spread throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia, along with two species restricted to islands in
5187-415: The flight feathers of other birds. In addition, the emu 's remiges are proportionately much reduced in size, while those of the cassowaries are reduced both in number and structure, consisting merely of 5–6 bare quills. Most ratites have completely lost their rectrices; only the ostrich still has them. Penguins have lost their differentiated flight feathers. As adults, their wings and tail are covered with
5278-407: The flight feathers of the wings as well as above and below the rectrices of the tail. These feathers may vary widely in size – in fact, the upper tail tectrices of the male peafowl , rather than its rectrices, are what constitute its elaborate and colorful "train". The outermost primaries of large soaring birds, particularly raptors, often show a pronounced narrowing at some variable distance along
5369-418: The fully formed feather. These growth bars and their widths have been used to determine the daily nutritional status of birds. Each light and dark bar correspond to around 24 hours and the use of this technique has been called ptilochronology (analogous to dendrochronology ). In general, juveniles have feathers which are narrower and more sharply pointed at the tip. This can be particularly visible when
5460-751: The ground. They will fly in order to display during breeding, while migrating and dispersing, and also when flushed by danger. A few species make use of trees, perching in them and flying to them when disturbed. Low shrubs, rocks and termite nests may also be used as vantage points. Like their relatives the wagtails, pipits engage in tail-wagging. The way in which a pipit does this can provide clues to its identity in otherwise similar looking species. Upland pipits, for example, flick their tails quite quickly, as opposed to olive-backed pipits which wag their tails more gently. In general pipits move their tails quite slowly. The buff-bellied pipit wags its tail both up and down and from side to side. The exact function of tail-wagging
5551-403: The habits of the species, more arboreal species have shorter, more curved hind claws than the more terrestrial species. The bills are generally long, slender, and pointed. In both size and plumage , few differences are seen between the sexes . One unusual feature of the pipits, which they share in common with the rest of their family, but not the rest of the passerines, is that the tertials on
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#17328592083635642-541: The left hand feather—a shallow notch on the left, and a gradual emargination on the right.) The presence of notches and emarginations creates gaps at the wingtip; air is forced through these gaps, increasing the generation of lift. Feathers on the alula or bastard wing are not generally considered to be flight feathers in the strict sense; though they are asymmetrical, they lack the length and stiffness of most true flight feathers. However, alula feathers are definitely an aid to slow flight. These feathers—which are attached to
5733-414: The letter S, those of tertials with T and those of rectrices with R. Most authorities number the primaries descendantly, starting from the innermost primary (the one closest to the secondaries) and working outwards; others number them ascendantly, from the most distal primary inwards. There are some advantages to each method. Descendant numbering follows the normal sequence of most birds' primary moult. In
5824-430: The like. Such distributions might be patchy, or extended, but narrow. Factors of such a nature are taken widely for granted, so they seldom are mentioned explicitly in mentioning cosmopolitan distributions. Cosmopolitanism of a particular species or variety should not be confused with cosmopolitanism of higher taxa. For example, the family Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan in the sense that every continent except Antarctica
5915-404: The longest primary feather is identified, and the differences between the length of that primary and that of all remaining primaries and of the longest secondary are also measured, again in millimeters. If any primary shows a notch or emargination, this is noted, and the distance between the feather's tip and any notch is measured, as is the depth of the notch. All distance measurements are made with
6006-528: The loss of even a few flight feathers. A protracted moult like the one described above would leave them vulnerable to predators for a sizeable portion of the year. Instead, these birds lose all their flight feathers at once. This leaves them completely flightless for a period of three to four weeks, but means their overall period of vulnerability is significantly shorter than it would otherwise be. Eleven families of birds, including loons , grebes and most waterfowl , have this moult strategy. The cuckoos show what
6097-405: The manner of a kingfisher having caught them. Rock pipits have also been observed feeding on fish dropped by puffins. These fish, which include sand eels and rocklings, were dropped by puffins being harassed by gulls. A few species also are reported as consuming berries and seeds. The genus contains 46 species: Cosmopolitan distribution In biogeography , a cosmopolitan distribution
6188-609: The meadow pipit in Europe). The distances involved do not have to be that long; the mountain pipit of southern Africa breeds in the Drakensberg of South Africa and migrates north only as far as Angola and Zambia. Migration is usually undertaken in groups and may happen both during the day and at night. Some variation happens in this, for example, Sprague's pipit of North America apparently only migrates by day. The pipits are active terrestrial birds that usually spend most of their time on
6279-474: The modern world, the orca , the blue whale , and the great white shark all have cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the Earth's oceans . The wasp Copidosoma floridanum is another example, as it is found around the world. Other examples include humans , cats , dogs , the western honey bee , brown rats , the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata , and the mollusc genus Mytilus . The term can also apply to some diseases. It may result from
6370-422: The moult over a period of several years. Remiges (from the Latin for "oarsman") are located on the posterior side of the wing. Ligaments attach the long calami (quills) firmly to the wing bones, and a thick, strong band of tendinous tissue known as the postpatagium helps to hold and support the remiges in place. Corresponding remiges on individual birds are symmetrical between the two wings, matching to
6461-518: The next feathers in line (P2 and S2 on the wing, and both R2s on the tail) are dropped. This pattern of drop and replacement continues until moult reaches either end of the wing or tail. The speed of the moult can vary somewhat within a species. Some passerines that breed in the Arctic , for example, drop many more flight feathers at once (sometimes becoming briefly flightless) in order to complete their entire wing moult prior to migrating south, while those same species breeding at lower latitudes undergo
6552-450: The number of primaries they possess. The number in non-passerines generally varies between 9 and 11, but grebes , storks and flamingos have 12, and ostriches have 16. While most modern passerines have ten primaries, some have only nine. Those with nine are missing the most distal primary (sometimes called the remicle) which is typically very small and sometimes rudimentary in passerines. The outermost primaries—those connected to
6643-452: The number varies among individuals. Domestic pigeons have a highly variable number as a result of changes brought about over centuries of selective breeding. In order to make the discussion of such topics as moult processes or body structure easier, ornithologists assign a number to each flight feather. By convention, the numbers assigned to primary feathers always start with the letter P (P1, P2, P3, etc.) , those of secondaries with
6734-418: The outermost primary is the one with which the measurements begin. Secondaries are always numbered ascendantly, starting with the outermost secondary (the one closest to the primaries) and working inwards. Tertials are also numbered ascendantly, but in this case, the numbers continue on consecutively from that given to the last secondary (e.g. ... S5, S6, T7, T8, ... etc.). Rectrices are always numbered from
6825-418: The overall effect is a broadly forked wingtip with a very long plume beyond the lower half of the fork. Males of many species, ranging from the widely introduced ring-necked pheasant to Africa's many whydahs , have one or more elongated pairs of rectrices, which play an often-critical role in their courtship rituals. The outermost pair of rectrices in male lyrebirds are extremely long and strongly curved at
6916-423: The phalanges—are sometimes known as pinions . Secondaries are connected to the ulna . In some species, the ligaments that bind these remiges to the bone connect to small, rounded projections, known as quill knobs , on the ulna; in other species, no such knobs exist. Secondary feathers remain close together in flight (they cannot be individually separated like the primaries can) and help to provide lift by creating
7007-743: The pipits suggested that the genus arose in East Asia around seven million years ago (Mya), during the Miocene , and that the genus had spread to the Americas, Africa, and Europe between 5 and 6 Mya. Speciation rates were high during the Pliocene (5.3 to 2.6 Mya ), but slowed down during the Pleistocene . Repeated dispersal between continents seems to have been important in generating new species in Eurasia, Africa, and North America, rather than species arising by radiation once
7098-426: The principal source of thrust , moving the bird forward through the air. The mechanical properties of primaries are important in supporting flight. Most thrust is generated on the downstroke of flapping flight. However, on the upstroke (when the bird often draws its wing in close to its body), the primaries are separated and rotated, reducing air resistance while still helping to provide some thrust. The flexibility of
7189-585: The remiges (and alulae) of nestling hoatzins is much delayed compared to the development of these feathers in other young birds, presumably because young hoatzins are equipped with claws on their first two digits . They use these small rounded hooks to grasp branches when clambering about in trees, and feathering on these digits would presumably interfere with that functionality. Most youngsters shed their claws sometime between their 70th and 100th day of life, but some retain them— though callused -over and unusable— into adulthood. Rectrices (singular rectrix) from
7280-410: The remiges on the wingtips of large soaring birds also allows for the spreading of those feathers, which helps to reduce the creation of wingtip vortices , thereby reducing drag . The barbules on these feathers, friction barbules, are specialized with large lobular barbicels that help grip and prevent slippage of overlying feathers and are present in most of the flying birds. Species vary somewhat in
7371-472: The rocks and cliffs of the seashore, whereas several species are restricted (for part of the year in some cases) to alpine areas. The family also ranges from the northern tundra and the subantarctic islands of New Zealand and the South Georgia group to the tropics. They are absent from tropical rainforest, but a few species are associated with open woodland, for example the wood pipit of southern Africa, which
7462-524: The same small, stiff, slightly curved feathers as are found on the rest of their bodies. The ground-dwelling kākāpō , which is the world's only flightless parrot, has remiges which are shorter, rounder and more symmetrically vaned than those of parrots capable of flight; these flight feathers also contain fewer interlocking barbules near their tips. Once they have finished growing, feathers are essentially dead structures. Over time, they become worn and abraded, and need to be replaced. This replacement process
7553-415: The same species. Because all juvenile feathers are grown at once—a tremendous energy burden to the developing bird—they are softer and of poorer quality than the equivalent feathers of adults, which are moulted over a longer period of time (as long as several years in some cases). As a result, they wear more quickly. As feathers grow at variable rates, these variations lead to visible dark and light bands in
7644-492: The second pair of rectrices (both R2 feathers) are the first to drop. (In some species in the genera Celeus and Dendropicos , the third pair is the first dropped.) The pattern of feather drop and replacement proceeds as described for passerines (above) until all other rectrices have been replaced; only then are the central tail rectrices moulted. This provides some protection to the growing feathers, since they're always covered by at least one existing feather, and also ensures that
7735-408: The smallest species, the short-tailed pipit , is only 11.5–12.5 cm (4.5–4.9 in). In weight, they range from 15–40 g (0.53–1.41 oz). The largest species may be the alpine pipit . Like all members of the family, they are slender, short-necked birds with long tails and long, slender legs with elongated (in some cases very elongated) hind claws . The length of the hind claw varies with
7826-411: The structure of the tarsi , and in many lark genera, the presence of a distinct 10th primary , a fourth tertial , and feathers at least partially covering the nostrils. Bill shape differs between larks and pipits, with larks having an evenly sloping culmen , whereas most pipits have a small hump over the nostrils, and lark bills are generally heavier, reflecting differences in diet. Differences occur in
7917-587: The tail are called rectrices ( / ˈ r ɛ k t r ɪ s iː z / or / r ɛ k ˈ t r aɪ s iː z / ), singular rectrix ( / ˈ r ɛ k t r ɪ k s / ). The primary function of the flight feathers is to aid in the generation of both thrust and lift , thereby enabling flight . The flight feathers of some birds perform additional functions, generally associated with territorial displays, courtship rituals or feeding methods. In some species, these feathers have developed into long showy plumes used in visual courtship displays, while in others they create
8008-476: The throat, breast, and belly. Pipits are morphologically similar to some larks , but the two groups are quite distantly related; the lark family Alaudidae is part of the superfamily Sylvioidea , rather than the Passeroidea , where the pipits are placed. Morphological differences between the two groups of birds are, in fact, plentiful. Anatomical differences include a differently structured syrinx , differences in
8099-402: The wing entirely cover the primary flight feathers. This is thought to be a feature to protect the primaries, which are important to flight , from the sun, which causes the feathers to fade and become brittle if not protected. The plumage of the pipits is generally drab and brown, buff, or faded white. The undersides are usually darker than the top, and a variable amount of barring and streaking
8190-466: The wing or tail and proceeds in a sequential manner in one or both directions from there. For example, most passerines have a focus between the innermost primary (P1, using the numbering scheme explained above) and outermost secondary (S1), and a focus point in the middle of the center pair of rectrices. As passerine moult begins, the two feathers closest to the focus are the first to drop. When replacement feathers reach roughly half of their eventual length,
8281-418: The wing. There are typically 11 primaries attached to the manus (six attached to the metacarpus and five to the phalanges), but the outermost primary, called the remicle, is often rudimentary or absent; certain birds, notably the flamingos, grebes, and storks, have seven primaries attached to the metacarpus and 12 in all. Secondary feathers are attached to the ulna. The fifth secondary remex (numbered inwards from
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