126-569: The Anglo-Burmese people , also known as the Anglo-Burmans , are a community of Eurasians of Burmese and European descent; they emerged as a distinct community through mixed relationships (sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary) between the British and other Europeans and Burmese people from 1826 until 1948 when Myanmar gained its independence from the British Empire . Those who could not adjust to
252-518: A Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities , and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952 , 1956 and 1960 . The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement , which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. In 1961, U Thant ,
378-592: A socialist , xenophobic and isolationist regime was born. Many more Anglo-Burmese left due to discriminatory measures taken against minority groups, particularly those the military deemed as the vestiges of the colonial period, specifically the Anglo-Burmese and the Karen . Anglo-Burmese already in the Armed Forces were dismissed and those who wanted to join were now barred. There were mass dismissals of Anglo-Burmese from
504-516: A British actress raised in Thailand and Malaysia by a Burmese-Indian mother and an English father. American television host and liberal commentator Alex Wagner , who was born to a Burmese mother and a father of German and Irish descent, can be called Anglo-Burmese by basis of heritage. Burmese writer Wendy Law-Yone and her daughter Jocelyn Seagrave , who is a U.S. actress, are also Anglo-Burmese. Australian singer and former Xfactor contestant Reigan Derry
630-569: A grand two-story brick building, colloquially "Thibaw's Palace," built of laterite and lava rock, set in 20 acres (8.1 ha) of gardens. The Government of India initially gave Thibaw an annual allowance varying between 35,000 and 42,000 rupees. This was increased in 1906 to 100,000 rupees (c. £7000). Thibaw was reported to be reclusive and did not leave the property during his time in Ratanagiri, but he sponsored local festivals, particularly during Diwali . He died at age 57 on 15 December 1916 and
756-546: A grandparent, if not a parent, originating from outside of Burma's borders. As such, the connection with the West was strong, and many Anglo-Burmans did not settle down as a truly Burmese ethnic group. Of course, some Anglo-Burmans did, and most of the community felt Burma was their own country, with no wish to "repatriate" back to their European homeland. In fact, after Independence, the Anglo-Burman Union carried out research among
882-589: A long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə] . So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact a spelling pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions. However, Burma is pronounced [ˈbɜːrmə] by rhotic speakers of English due to a phonotactic constraint, as /ɜː/ occurs only before /r/ in those accents. Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in
1008-549: A meeting at Mandalay Palace's North Garden significantly expanded the size of the Hluttaw from four departments to 14: During King Thibaw's reign, a new administrative unit, the district ( ခရိုင် , khayaing ), based on the administrative units of British India , was created, in order to centralize administration from the court. Altogether, the kingdom was divided into 10 districts and administrated by district ministers ( ခရိုင်ဝန် ), who had authority over smaller administrative units,
1134-671: A police officer in the Indian Imperial Police force in Burma , and wrote the book Burmese Days on his experiences as an Imperial officer in the country. British writer Hector Hugh Munro , better known by his pen name Saki , was born in Akyab , British Burma , and like Orwell served in the Indian Imperial Police in Burma. Anglo-Burmese football player Fred Pugsley is considered as
1260-676: A prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom . Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty. After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating
1386-629: A relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices. In response, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years – meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Thibaw Min Thibaw Min , also Thebaw ( Burmese : သီပေါမင်း , pronounced [θìbɔ́ mɪ́ɰ̃] ; 1 January 1859 – 19 December 1916),
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#17328526726381512-485: A smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar , Upper Myanmar , Shan states , Lan Na and upper Tenasserim . The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built
1638-463: A stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India . In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur , Assam and Tenasserim to
1764-627: A unified state. Aung Zan Wai , Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung , Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948,
1890-547: A younger son of Myat Phaya Galay. The fourth daughter, Myat Phaya Galay (1887–1936), married a former Burmese monk, Ko Ko Naing, and had six children, the eldest of whom, Taw Phaya Gyi (1922–1948), became pretender to the throne. His son Soe Win is the present pretender. Another son, Taw Phaya , married his cousin, Phaya Rita, daughter of Myat Phaya. Both the third and fourth daughters were born in India but died in Burma and two of their children married each other, pretender to
2016-464: Is "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" ( Burmese : ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် , Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw , pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀] ). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead. In English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar . In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on
2142-547: Is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once being part of the British Empire . Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization . The country is very rich in natural resources , such as jade , gems , oil , natural gas , teak and other minerals , as well as also endowed with renewable energy , having the highest solar power potential compared to other countries of
2268-642: Is of Anglo Burmese descent. However, there are also Anglo-Burmese people still living in Burma. They include famous singer and actress Rita Fairmen ( Myint Myint Khin ), and famous singers Marie Conway (Tin Moe Khaing) and Joyce Win ( Nwe Yin Win ). Anglo-Burmans were enrolled in missionary-run schools where English was the medium of instruction with Burmese as a second language. For some Anglo-Burmans who married full-blooded Burmese, their children, whilst still being counted as Anglo-Burmans, were usually more openly exposed to
2394-458: Is standard. Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries. Dictionaries—such as Collins —and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables. As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English , in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate
2520-606: Is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million. It is bordered by India to its west, Bangladesh to its southwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. The country's capital city is Naypyidaw , and its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon). Early civilisations in
2646-522: The Ayutthaya Kingdom , Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam). The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored
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#17328526726382772-554: The Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University , killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at
2898-554: The Burma Socialist Programme Party . On 8 August 1988, the 8888 Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-party system two years later, but the country's post-uprising military council refused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present. The country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad ethnic groups and has one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars . The United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systemic human rights violations in
3024-625: The Great Famine ), Germans , Austrians , the French , the Portuguese , Italians and other non-European Russians . Armenians , Syrian , Egyptians and the Anglo-Indian were also represented among Anglo-Burmans. One unusual addition to the mix was Baghdadi Jews . By the 1920s, the Anglo-Burman community was a distinct ethnic group in Burma. In 1935, colonial Burma was plagued with riots due to
3150-456: The Han Chinese , Wa , and Kachin . During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China. Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding
3276-511: The Kayin taking most of the central part of the country, including Mandalay . For a time, it was feared that Rangoon would fall to the rebels. Due to the insurrection and erupting civil war, there immediately followed, however, a stream of Anglo-Burmans leaving the country, who were fearful of what awaited them and the country since the end of British rule. At this time, about 30% of the population of Rangoon were reckoned as Anglo-Burmese. This proportion
3402-891: The Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State ; and a conflict between the Shan , Lahu , and Karen minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on
3528-575: The Rohingya conflict , continued to be a source of international tension and consternation. Following the 2020 Myanmar general election , in which Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military (Tatmadaw) again seized power in a coup d'état . The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community , led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by
3654-466: The State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law. In May 1990,
3780-589: The economy is controlled by cronies of the military junta . Myanmar is one of the least developed countries ; as of 2020, according to the Human Development Index , it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms of human development , the lowest in Southeast Asia . Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to the surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance. The name of
3906-447: The military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: Burma became Myanmar . The renaming remains a contested issue. Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government. The country's official full name
Anglo-Burmese people - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-659: The register used and is either Bama ( pronounced [bəmà] ) or Myamah ( pronounced [mjəmà] ). Official United States foreign policy retains Burma as the country's name although the State Department 's website lists the country as Burma (Myanmar) . The United Nations uses Myanmar , as does the ASEAN and as do Australia , Russia , Germany , China , India , Bangladesh , Norway , Japan , Switzerland , Canada and Ukraine . Most English-speaking international news media refer to
4158-532: The 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty , the country became the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period. The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Assam , the Lushai Hills , and Manipur as well. The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in
4284-431: The 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ' federalism ' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration. On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état , and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by
4410-574: The 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next 60 years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars , continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma. With
4536-528: The 19th century, and the country became a British colony . After a brief Japanese occupation , Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declared independence under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . Myanmar's post-independence history has been checkered by continuing unrest and conflict to this day. The coup d'état in 1962 resulted in a military dictatorship under
4662-515: The 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan . It was one of several competing city-states until
4788-485: The Anglo-Burman people including, most importantly, reserved seats in the Parliament of the newly established Union of Burma and a disproportionate number of Anglo-Burmans running the bureaucracy of day-to-day government and military operations. Aung San addressed the Anglo-Burman Union to press the issue of acceptance and the fears the community had for their presence in independent Burma. His assurances went to help with
4914-554: The Bamar had faced compared to other ethnic groups in Burma, affirmative action of sorts was introduced by the government of U Nu in the 1950s, primarily due to the disproportionate control the Anglo-Burmans had in government departments and the running of the country. Many Anglo-Burmese began to lose their jobs, to be replaced with pure Burmans as the bureaucracy of the country became increasingly Burmanized. Additional measures relating to
5040-466: The British TV personality Melanie Sykes , the jazz musician Jamie Cullum and his brother Ben Cullum and the singer Annabella Lwin . The alternative musician Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly (né Sam Duckworth) is also Anglo-Burmese. The sons of Aung San Suu Kyi and Michael Aris , Alexander and Kim, are technically Anglo-Burmese, despite not stemming from the colonial era. There is also Zuleikha Robinson ,
5166-488: The British as pretext that he was a tyrant who reneged on his treaties and they decided to complete the conquest they had started in 1824. The invasion force which consisted of 11,000 men, a fleet of flat-bottomed boats and elephant batteries, was led by General Harry Prendergast . Main article - Exile of Thibaw Min British troops quickly reached the royal capital of Mandalay with little opposition. Within twenty-four hours,
Anglo-Burmese people - Misplaced Pages Continue
5292-794: The British in the First Anglo-Burmese War . In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War . King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States . The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina , annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For
5418-468: The Burmese language were introduced so that to take the matriculation exam to enter Rangoon University , prospective students were required to be fluent in written Burmese (which many Anglo-Burmans had not been taught), even though all books and most teaching were still carried out in English. In 1962 General Ne Win overthrew U Nu 's government and established strict military rule. It soon became apparent that this new military government had other plans as
5544-555: The Burmese language, Eurasians are specifically known as bo kabya ; the term kabya refers to persons of mixed ancestry or dual ethnicity. The first "Euro-Burmese" community emerged in the early 17th century as the Portuguese and Bamar intermarried. This multicultural community was collectively known as the Ba-yin-gyi . The community was established near Syriam (modern Thanlyin ) on the outskirts of modern-day Yangon . The settlement
5670-567: The Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011. On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw , meaning "city of
5796-617: The Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from
5922-495: The Chinese side of the border. During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar. The military-backed Government had promulgated a "Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy" in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when
6048-560: The Civil Service in departments where they had previously dominated such as the Railways, the Union of Burma Airways, Customs Department, Division of Forestry and Mining and the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. All schools were nationalised, the principal target being missionary schools, and English was no longer taught from kindergarten level. Standards began to fall in the education system and
6174-708: The Constituent Assembly of 1947, Anglo-Burmans were to receive four assigned seats in the new parliament of independent Burma. On 4 January 1948, the Union of Burma declared its independence from the United Kingdom, immediately leaving the Commonwealth and severing all ties with the British Empire. The British left protection clauses in the Constitution and the legislative makeup of independent Burma to take account of
6300-599: The Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels. A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years - was boycotted by the NLD . The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of
6426-418: The Great Mekong Subregion. However, Myanmar has long suffered from instability , factional violence, corruption , poor infrastructure, as well as a long history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human development . In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$ 56.7 billion and its GDP ( PPP ) at US$ 221.5 billion. The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of
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#17328526726386552-480: The Japanese took control of the country, they found many there and simply incarcerated them in concentration camps for fear of their loyalty to the British. However, Anglo-Burmese who resembled Bamar were incognito and managed to pass, acting like the Burmans. Indeed, many Bamar sheltered their Eurasian friends and relatives from the Japanese and after the war, many Anglo-Burmans were not to forget this, refusing to take back their European names and dress, appreciative of
6678-507: The Konbaung army as gunners and played a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They were treated well and received Burmese wives. They became an elite corps, which was to play an important role in the Burmese battles against Thailand and Qing China . One of them, Pierre de Milard , was ultimately nominated Captain of the Guard and Master of the Ordnance for the Konbaung Dynasty. When they reached old age, these French soldiers were able to retire to Shwebo villages with
6804-411: The Mon-Bamar conflict in the 18th century, Sieur de Bruno was acting as a military advisor to the Mons and French warships participated in fighting against the Burmese in Syriam and Dagon. From his two ships, Alaugpaya managed to put his hands on 35 24-pounder long guns , five field guns, 1300 muskets and a large quantity of ammunition. The French troops with their guns and muskets were incorporated in
6930-514: The Queen of the Middle Palace, Hsinbyumashin , helped to broker a marriage between her eldest daughter, Supayagyi and Thibaw, who were half-siblings by blood. In 1878, Thibaw succeeded his father in a bloody succession massacre. Hsinbyumashin, one of Mindon's queens, had grown dominant at the Mandalay court during Mindon's final days. Under the guise that Mindon wanted to bid his children (other princes and princesses) farewell, Hsinbyumashin had all royals of close age (who could potentially be heir to
7056-399: The Queen of the Northern Palace. He swore that if he were to break this promise, he would forfeit his throne, potentially leading to the downfall of the dynasty. Unfortunately, the king never fulfilled his promise, and Daing Khin Khin was executed by Supayalat while she was pregnant. In December 2012, the president of Burma Thein Sein paid homage at the tomb of the king in Ratnagiri and met
7182-519: The Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China . With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in
7308-420: The Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture . Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged. Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to
7434-451: The Spanish and French practice of plaçage , but legal marriages did take place. Frequently, when a "temporary" relationship ended, the European father left behind a sum of money for the upkeep of their children. Sometimes the children were removed from their mothers and placed into convent schools run by Europeans, where their Burmese heritage was often undermined. The issue of mixed marriages, particularly between Bamar women and British males,
7560-408: The Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations , a position he held for ten years. When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in
7686-459: The area included the Tibeto-Burman -speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar . In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley, and following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language , culture , and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions , and several warring states emerged. In
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#17328526726387812-532: The capital of the new colony. In 1852, the Second Anglo-Burmese War concluded with the annexation of the Bago Region to what became known as Lower or "British" Burma . The Third Anglo-Burmese War began in 1886 after a number of social and legal issues combined with the revelation of a commercial trade agreement King Thibaw Min had made with the French . Some European men took Burmese women as "temporary" wives, often abandoning them and their offspring after their tours of duty ended in Burma, not dissimilar to
7938-430: The community to gauge the feeling of its people with regard to nationality. It was discovered that around 60% intended to remain in Burma and take Burmese citizenship with the remaining 40% split between staying in Burma or leaving for Australia or the UK. Along with the British immigrants to Burma, Anglo-Indians came into Burma during the colonial era to work on the railways and customs departments; intermarriage between
8064-418: The country by the name Myanmar , including the BBC , CNN , Al Jazeera , Reuters , and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC )/ Radio Australia . Myanmar is known by a name deriving from Burma in Spanish , Italian , Romanian , and Greek . French-language media consistently use Birmanie . There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English name Myanmar , and no single one
8190-448: The country for safety in India alongside the retreating British forces. A vast majority of Anglo-Burmans made their way out of Burma by their own means, some by sea and others by air. Many were employed by government departments or were married to government employees and were able to flee on official evacuation convoys. Others stayed at their posts and ran the telegraphs and phone operations, railways and other infrastructure systems until it
8316-442: The country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using Myanmar versus Burma . Both names derive from the earlier Burmese Mranma or Mramma , an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of uncertain etymology. The terms are also popularly thought to derive from Sanskrit Brahma Desha , 'land of Brahma '. In 1989,
8442-513: The country having been absorbed into the Indian Empire . In response, in 1937, as Burma separated officially from the Raj and formed a separate crown colony, Anglo-Burmans were officially recognised as an ethnic group under the Government of Burma Act. Having European blood, Anglo-Burmans were a privileged class and became one of the dominant ethnic groups in Burmese life. They began assimilating to European customs with vigour. Most Anglo-Burman Burgher people in Sri Lanka ) were able to trace at least
8568-433: The country. In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election , and a nominally civilian government was installed. Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015 Myanmar general election was held, leading to improved foreign relations and eased economic sanctions , although the country's treatment of its ethnic minorities , particularly in connection with
8694-503: The critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts. Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including
8820-429: The decision by most of the community to remain in Burma after British withdrawal. However, Aung San and his entire cabinet were assassinated before independence could occur. This sent a ripple effect through the country and among all ethnic minority groups, who Aung San had personally addressed to reassure them of their place in the new country. In February 1948, ethnic rebellions immediately erupted throughout Burma, with
8946-543: The emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay . Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE. Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand , as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade. Around
9072-593: The ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II. Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as
9198-543: The ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue. In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict , between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government; a civil war between
9324-479: The fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore . Burmese resentment
9450-635: The first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II . He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war , Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan. As a major battleground, Burma
9576-508: The first ever foreign footballer to play for an Indian club (signing with East Bengal in 1942). The most famous Anglo-Burmans today are to be found outside of Burma's borders such as the Bollywood actress Helen , the late British television actor Richard Beckinsale , his daughters the actresses Kate Beckinsale and Samantha Beckinsale , British writer and journalist Sue Arnold , Japanese-British music critic Peter Barakan ( ピーター・バラカン ),
9702-422: The first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism. In
9828-583: The form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves . The Bronze Age arrived c. 1500 BCE when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Region . The Iron Age began around 500 BCE with
9954-582: The four-century-old kingdom in 1287. Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until
10080-408: The funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising . Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed
10206-575: The general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism , which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning . A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system , with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through
10332-624: The government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. General Than Shwe took over
10458-457: The government of Burma in exile was stationed during the war, to discuss the future of the Anglo-Burmese community after the war. The Anglo-Burmese delegates were: One of the results of the conference was the giving of an assurance to the Anglo-Burmese community that they would be allowed to preserve their freedom of worship and allowed to teach their own religion, freedom to continue their own customs and maintain their own language of English. In
10584-580: The governor of Burma, Sir Reginald Dorman Smith , along with Anglo-Burman leaders (including James Barrington who was to become the first ambassador for post-independence Burma to the US and Canada), to discuss the future of Burma after the war and the status of the Anglo-Burmese community. After Japan was defeated, most Anglo-Burmans who had fled to India returned to Burma. Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, governor of Burma in exile, met Anglo-Burmese leaders in Simla in 1944, where
10710-608: The groups (Anglo-Indian and Anglo-Burmese) was frequent, especially in Yangon ("Rangoon") as both communities were innately drawn to one another. Community clubs were a mainstay of life during British rule, with most attending what was commonly called the "Anglo-Indian/Domiciled European Club". Between 1935 and 1948, Burma quickly became the jewel of the East, with a flourishing economy based on agricultural produce (primarily rice , oil, timber, gems and other natural resources). At this time, Rangoon
10836-450: The indigenous culture and spoke and used the Burmese language more frequently than their more "Anglo" counterparts. Notable schools include: Myanmar in ASEAN (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Myanmar , officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also rendered Burma (the official English form until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia . It
10962-569: The king and their descendants settled along the Mu River . When the British Burma Army was established in 1937, it was the Anglo-Burmans who comprised the only anti-aircraft battery. Additionally, a band of French soldiers in the late 18th century by Alaungpaya , founder of the Konbaung Dynasty , was provided with Bamar wives and established a new Eurasian community French-Burmese. They were employed as elite gunners under Pierre de Milard . During
11088-561: The kings". In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government. The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters
11214-608: The late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur. Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in
11340-629: The late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom , emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble
11466-587: The locals. As far as the Burmese community was concerned, those willing to intermingle or blend in were as readily accepted as any kabya in the days of the Burmese kings, but those who looked down on the Burmese themselves were held in mutual contempt. In 1942, the Japanese invaded East and Southeast Asia , including Burma, in hopes of creating an Empire for itself throughout Asia . Because of their European connections and appearance and fearful of Japanese rule, most Anglo-Burmans began making frantic preparations to leave
11592-514: The lost empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon -speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555. Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and
11718-498: The military, as well as a larger outbreak of the civil war . The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of the charges against her are "politically motivated" according to independent observers. Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit , Non-Aligned Movement , ASEAN , and BIMSTEC , but it
11844-717: The mining towns of the Shan States . Although prejudice existed towards the Anglo-Burmese populace among both European immigrants and the local Burmese, they were not held in the same contempt as the Anglo-Indians were in India, despite their similar origins and heritage. This was reflected in the Burmese derogatory term bo kyet chee kala ("shit-colored Indians who think they are British") to refer to Anglo-Indians, in contrast to bo kabya which referred to Anglo-Burmans. Many Anglo-Indians in Burma never learnt to speak Burmese and managed to get by with Hindustani , which tended to alienate
11970-401: The nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . The new country was named the Union of Burma , with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth . A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of
12096-434: The new way of life after independence and the ushering in of military dictatorship are dispersed throughout the world. How many stayed in Myanmar is not accurately known. The term "Anglo-Burmese" is also used to refer to Eurasians of European and other Burmese ethnic minority groups (e.g. Karen , Mon , Shan , and Sino-Burmese etc.) descent. It also, after 1937, included Anglo-Indian residents in Myanmar. Collectively, in
12222-614: The palace court by Mindon and spent her final years as a thilashin , a kind of female Burmese Buddhist renunciant. During the early years of his life, Thibaw studied Buddhist texts at a kyaung to win his father's favor. He passed the Pahtamabyan religious examinations and gained respect and recognition from his father and the chief queen. He was also educated at Aitchison College in Lahore (now in Pakistan ). One of Mindon's chief consorts,
12348-569: The pretender to the throne and married her father's private secretary, Khin Maung Lat , who was also his nephew. They did not have any children, but Lat adopted her Nepalese maidservant's son. The third daughter, Myat Phaya, went on to marry twice. Her first marriage was to a Burmese prince, Hteik Tin Kodawgyi, with whom she had a daughter, Phaya Rita. After a divorce, she married secondly a Burmese lawyer, Mya U. Phaya Rita married her cousin, Taw Phaya ,
12474-579: The previously highly esteemed University of Rangoon was closed for some time, after which the Rangoon University Student Union (RUSU), hotbed of the nationalist movement during the 1930s and 1940s, was broken up by the military. Once the university reopened its doors, English as the principal medium of instruction was abolished and foreign institutions no longer accepted degrees obtained from the university. The Anglo-Burman Social Club in Rangoon
12600-407: The region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago. The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in
12726-523: The rest of the country. Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo , a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War . His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na , Manipur, Mong Mao ,
12852-403: The royal palace and were subsequently banished. At the time, the kingdom's treasury reserves had diminished, forcing the government to increase taxation on the peasants. In 1878, the national lottery was also introduced on a trial basis, which became popular but soon went awry, with many families losing their livelihoods. The lottery experiment was ended in 1880. In October to November 1878,
12978-589: The second century BCE the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan . The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation. By
13104-473: The security and protection offered to them, and disgraced with the manner in which the British handled the evacuation of the country and the abandonment of the community. Others less fortunate during the war were interned in prison camps whilst others, particularly the Anglo-Burman women, were taken as servants and mistresses by the Japanese army, most often unwillingly. In 1944, Burma's colonial government met in exile at Simla , India. Among those who attended were
13230-508: The spiritual support of a priest of the Catholic Church . To this day, some Catholic villages are still extant in the area where an awareness of some European ancestry remains. The First Anglo-Burmese War formally ended in 1826 with the Treaty of Yandabo , which resulted in the coastal provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim being annexed by the British rule with Moulmein being established as
13356-458: The three returned to Ratnagiri and spent the rest of their lives there. Gyi and Tutu lived in poverty and survived by making paper flowers to sell on the markets, as Sawant took all of her pension from the British government; he did however buy them a house. Tutu also lived her life in poverty and had eleven children who knew little about their royal ancestry until 21st century interest in the royal family. The second daughter, Myat Phaya Lat, became
13482-450: The throne Taw Phaya and princess Phaya Rita. They had seven children, thus securing the royal family line. King Thibaw had a secret love affair with the noblewoman Daing Khin Khin , in the absence of his queen, Supayalat, orchestrated by his close companion, Maung Maung Toke . To marry her, King Thibaw made a solemn promise to ensure her safety within the palace and grant her the royal title of
13608-400: The throne) mercilessly slaughtered by edict, to ensure that Thibaw and her daughter Supayagyi would assume the throne. During the royal Aggamahesi coronation, Supayalat pushed in next to her sister to be anointed queen at the same time, breaking an ancient royal custom. This resulted in two queens being anointed in parallel, a situation that had never occurred before in the history of Burma. At
13734-549: The throne, Thibaw, his wife Supayalat and two infant daughters were coerced by British authority to move to Ratnagiri , British India , a port city off the Arabian Sea . During their first 24 years in India, Thibaw's family lived at Outram Hall, in Dharangaon , inland from Ratanagiri, but in 1906 the Government agreed to spend over 125,000 rupees (c. £9000) to construct a new official residence for them. The family then moved into
13860-610: The time of his accession, Lower Burma , half of the kingdom's former territory, had been under British occupation for thirty years and it was no secret that the King intended to regain this territory. Relations had soured during the early 1880s when the King was perceived as having made moves to align his country with the French more closely. Relations deteriorated further in an incident later called "The Great Shoe Question", where visiting British dignitaries refused to remove their shoes before entering
13986-545: The troops had marched to the Mandalay Palace to demand the unconditional surrender of Thibaw and his kingdom within twenty-four hours. At the time, the king and queen had retired to a summer house in the palace gardens. The following morning, King Thibaw was forced on a bullock cart, along with his family, and proceeded to a steamer on the Irrawaddy River , in the presence of a huge crowd of subjects. After abdicating
14112-507: The upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu , Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric , Mahayana , Hinduism , and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled
14238-462: The villages and towns. Thibaw also rolled back the conversion of local administrators from myo-thugyi ( မြို့သူကြီး ) to myo-ok ( မြို့အုတ် ), which had been part of administrative reforms carried out by Mindon, based on the prevailing administrative system in Lower Burma. A proclamation issued by the court of King Thibaw in 1885 which called on his countrymen to conquer Lower Burma was used by
14364-601: The votes; fraud, however, was alleged. A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president. A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission , the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes,
14490-412: Was buried in a small walled plot adjacent to a Christian cemetery, along with one of his consorts, Hteiksu Phaya Galay. The surviving exiled royal family was relocated to Burma in 1919, after the king's death. In exile, the king's first born daughter, Myat Phaya Gyi, had had a romance with a married Indian gatekeeper, Gopal Sawant, which resulted in a daughter, Tutu. Despite the royal family's opposition,
14616-527: Was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion . Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate 's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders , followed
14742-433: Was founded by Filipe de Brito e Nicote . De Brito is said to have gone mad, having declared himself king of Lower Burma and captured Natshinnaung in an attack on Syriam, causing his outpost to be destroyed and himself executed by the Burmese king Anaukpetlun in 1613. Most of his small community of European settlers and their families were banished inland to Shwebo , then known as Moksobo; they were employed as gunners by
14868-481: Was part of the British Empire as part of India after the introduction of British rule, Anglo-Burmans were once counted as Anglo-Indians; today, Anglo-Indians accept Anglo-Burmese as their "kith and kin". World reunions of Anglo-Indians usually include many who would be classed more correctly as Anglo-Burmese, to reflect their Burmese blood. The world famous writer George Orwell was an Anglo-Burman by its original definition – he spent five years from 1922 to 1927 as
14994-652: Was said to be the most cosmopolitan city east of the Suez Canal ; the city and its environs were estimated to hold at least 50% of the Anglo-Burmese community. During British rule, Yangon and Maymyo (modern Pyin Oo Lwin ) became principal population centres for the Anglo-Burmese, although substantial communities existed in the Irrawaddy River delta towns as well as in Mandalay , Mawlamyine, Amherst (now Kyaikkami ), Taunggyi , Kalaw , Taungoo , Pyinmana , Meiktila , Yenangyaung and
15120-425: Was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s. Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara , an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became
15246-411: Was subsequently requisitioned by the military and turned into an officer's mess and the Anglo-Burman Union was banned. During this time, many Anglo-Burmans left for Australia and New Zealand, with small numbers emigrating to Canada and the U.S.A. Today, some people identifying themselves as Anglo-Burmans are believed to remain in Burma. Because of the similar heritage and roles played, and because Burma
15372-610: Was the last king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) and also the last Burmese monarch in the country's history . His reign ended when the Royal Burmese armed forces were defeated by the forces of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Burmese War , on 29 November 1885, prior to its official annexation on 1 January 1886. Prince Thibaw was born Maung Yay Set ( မောင်ရေစက် ), the son of King Mindon and one of his consorts, Laungshe Mibaya . Thibaw's mother had been banished from
15498-557: Was to become a major issue in the independence movement as it further developed. Anglo-Burmans represent a very diverse heritage, their Asian heritage primarily Bamar, but also Karen , Shan and Mon as well as other smaller Burmese ethnic groups like the Kuki , Jingpo and Rakhine . The European element included, aside from the English, other European influence, chiefly Greeks , the Dutch , Scandinavians , Irish (who left their country due to
15624-414: Was to decline steadily through to the late 1960s. Following the British withdrawal in 1948, some Anglo-Burmans left Burma, primarily for the United Kingdom. Many more remained behind in Burma and carried on with their lives. Through the 1950s, the situation steadily declined in the country, with armed insurrections and rebellions, principally among the Kayin people. Due to the perceived discrimination that
15750-409: Was too late to escape. Sadly, of those who were left behind, many opted to walk through the jungles to safety in India. This exodus has become historically known as "The Trek", and many Anglo-Burmans alongside Europeans, Indians and Chinese died en route. Those who remained behind suffered horrendously. Many Anglo-Burmese during colonial times were concentrated in and around the town of Maymyo . As
15876-688: Was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government . In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division . It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless. In
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