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128-635: The Abir Congo Company (founded as the Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company and later known as the Compagnie du Congo Belge ) was a company that exploited natural rubber in the Congo Free State , the private property of King Leopold II of Belgium . The company was founded with British and Belgian capital and was based in Belgium. By 1898 there were no longer any British shareholders and

256-502: A chicotte , a hippopotamus hide whip, being reported. Some agents would tie men to platforms facing the sun or burn them with gum from the copal tree as a means of punishment. Abir collected 70 tons of dried rubber in 1895, rising to 410 tons in 1898 by which time it had eleven operational posts. At the same time the price of rubber also increased from 6.30 to 6.50 fr per kilogram in 1894 to 8.04–10.00 fr per kilogram in 1898. Abir's costs in 1897 amounted to 0.25 fr per kilogram to purchase

384-424: A "second skin" effect. Synthetic latices are used in coatings (e.g., latex paint) and glues because they solidify by coalescence of the polymer particles as the water evaporates. These synthetic latices therefore can form films without releasing potentially toxic organic solvents in the environment. Other uses include cement additives and to conceal information on scratchcards . Latex, usually styrene -based,

512-439: A better protection to the plant from enemies than all the thorns, prickles, or hairs that could be provided. In this plant, so copious and so distasteful has the sap become that it serves a most important purpose in its economy. Evidence showing this defense function include the finding that slugs will eat leaves drained of their latex but not intact ones, that many insects sever the veins carrying latex before they feed, and that

640-406: A branching system extending throughout the plant. In many euphorbs , the entire structure is made from a single cell – this type of system is known as a non-articulated laticifer , to distinguish it from the multi-cellular structures discussed above. In the mature plant, the entire laticiferous system is descended from a single cell or group of cells present in the embryo . The laticiferous system

768-521: A campaign to drive the slavers, traders and the Manyema from the region, the first stage of which was the establishment of a supply post at Basankusu in May 1890. The campaign would be long but eventually successful and the entire basin was under Free State control by 1898. The Free State began using its new-found control of the region to levy taxes from the local population, gathered using similar hostage tactics to

896-540: A concern. Responses and solutions to natural resource exploitation have emerged across the globe as communities and stakeholders grapple with the environmental, social, and economic impacts of unsustainable practices. These movements often employ a variety of tactics, including protests, legal challenges, boycotts, and direct actions, to challenge destructive practices and promote alternatives that prioritize environmental sustainability, social justice, and community well-being. Additionally, there has been growing recognition of

1024-640: A consequence the Free State required them to instead plant the Clitandra vine which was more easily recognisable but did not produce rubber in its first eight years. These vines may never have reached maturity as there is no evidence that these plantations ever produced rubber. In 1904 Abir began to run out of vines to tap and rubber production fell to half of that of 1903, which was 1000 tons. By 1904 rubber vines within 50 miles of Abir posts had been depleting, leading to violent clashes between rival villages over control of

1152-757: A culture of rentierism . For instance, revenues obtained from resources can be used for political manipulation. Additionally, extra capital from resources can dilute government accountability to both citizens and businesses by abandoning taxation completely, which leads to lack of government incentive to support economic growth through innovation. At the same time, citizens may lack the motives to advocate for better governance and transparency. Because of environmental pollution , cities whose economies rely on natural resources face difficulties in attracting technology-driven businesses and skilled labor , posing significant challenges to their economic transformation and advancement. These resource-centric cities face disadvantages in

1280-412: A force of 65–100 "village sentries", often ex-slaves armed with muzzle loading rifles, which resided in the villages to enforce taxation. The sentries were kept at the expense of the villagers and often used flogging, imprisonment or execution to keep production up. Sentries who failed to enforce the quota or made mistakes could be fined up to half their salary or fired, imprisoned or flogged. In addition to

1408-422: A global scale. The interconnectedness of economies and the proliferation of multinational corporations have led to increased competition for access to natural resources, such as minerals, fossil fuels, timber, and agricultural products, in diverse regions around the world. This heightened demand for resources has driven intensified extraction activities, often in environmentally sensitive areas, and has contributed to

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1536-416: A large force of men and river steamers which were stationed at Basankusu and could redeploy quickly to the site of large scale rebellions. Effective police commanders would receive bonuses paid for by Abir. Each post maintained a census of all the males from the nearby villages to implement the tax which was initially set at 4 kg of dry rubber (8 kg of wet rubber) per man per fortnight. Each post had

1664-532: A large number of the Congolese population vulnerable to internal displacement , lacking resources to adapt to climate change. Beyond climate impacts, mineral mining has also been linked with adverse health impacts, such as high levels of cobalt in urine and blood samples in populations located on or near industrial mines. Mining ores pose health risks long after mining has ceased, as wastelands generate toxic metal-rich dust. The injustice perpetrated by unsafe mining ores

1792-405: A latex allergy. Latex-fruit syndrome Many people with latex allergy also experience allergic reactions to certain fruits. This association has led to research regarding latex-fruit syndrome (LFS). This is a phenomenon characterized by cross-reactivity between natural latex rubber allergens and certain fruit allergens, leading to allergic reactions in sensitized individuals. It was described for

1920-617: A liquid. Synthetic latex : Latex obtained as a product of an emulsion , mini-emulsion, micro-emulsion, or dispersion polymerization . The cells ( laticifers ) in which latex is found make up the laticiferous system, which can form in two very different ways. In many plants, the laticiferous system is formed from rows of cells laid down in the meristem of the stem or root . The cell walls between these cells are dissolved so that continuous tubes, called latex vessels, are formed. Since these vessels are made of many cells, they are known as articulated laticifers . This method of formation

2048-527: A lower-allergen substitute. Additionally, chemical processes may be employed to reduce the amount of antigenic protein in Hevea latex, yielding alternative materials such as Vytex Natural Rubber Latex which provide significantly reduced exposure to latex allergens. About half of people with spina bifida are also allergic to natural latex rubber. People who have had multiple surgeries and who have had prolonged exposure to natural latex are also more susceptible to

2176-631: A more just and sustainable future in the Global South and beyond. Anti-mining protests in Peru have emerged as a significant expression of resistance against large-scale mining projects that pose environmental and social threats to local communities. One notable instance is the resistance against the Conga mining project in the Cajamarca region. José Manuyama Ahuit, a native Peruvian activist working against local mining,

2304-473: A one-year term with five or six wives which they then sold. To comply with Congo law the company had to pay the villagers for bringing them rubber, these payments were often made in goods. Roger Casement , the British Consul in the Free State, recorded payments of a nine-inch knife of 1.25 fr value for a full basket of rubber, a five-inch knife worth 0.75 fr for a less full basket and beads worth 0.25 fr for

2432-584: A poor condition and the posts at Bongandanga and Mompono recorded death rates of three to ten prisoners per day each in 1899. Those with records of resisting the company were deported to forced labour camps . There were at least three of these camps, one at Lireko , one on the Upper Maringa River and one on the Upper Lopori River. In addition to imprisonment corporal punishment was also used against tax resisters with floggings of up to 200 lashes with

2560-540: A result of globalization.” Globalization has spurred the development of complex supply chains and trade networks that connect resource-rich regions with centers of production and consumption across the globe. While this interconnectedness has fueled economic growth and development in some regions, it has also led to the commodification and commercialization of natural resources, where resources are valued primarily for their economic potential rather than their intrinsic ecological or cultural value. Globalization has contributed to

2688-484: A result, these cities tend to rely heavily on a singular economic development model centered around resource exploitation, making them ill-equipped to address environmental crises effectively. Economic gains from natural resources are mostly beneficial when directed towards initiatives such as job creation, skill enhancement, capacity building, and pursuit of long-term developmental objectives. Thus, reliance on one or more natural resources holds financial risk when aiming for

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2816-569: A smaller amount of rubber. Yet the main incentive for villagers to bring rubber was not the small payments but the fear of punishment. If a man did not fulfil his quota his family may have been taken hostage by Abir and released only when the quota was filled. The man himself was not imprisoned as that would prevent him from collecting rubber. Later agents would simply imprison the chief of any village which fell behind its quota, in July 1902 one post recorded that it held 44 chiefs in prison. These prisons were in

2944-553: A stable economic growth. Multiple scholars have explained how Settler colonialism has had profound influence on the dynamics of resource exploitation throughout history, especially in regions where settler populations have previously asserted dominance over indigenous peoples and their territories. Among these scholars Dina Gilio-Whitaker, an expert in Native American Studies from California State University explains that, “Indigenous peoples fighting for political autonomy from

3072-588: A term for the fluid substance in plants, deriving from the Latin word for "liquid". It serves mainly as defense against herbivorous insects . Latex is not to be confused with plant sap ; it is a distinct substance, separately produced, and with different functions. The word latex is also used to refer to natural latex rubber , particularly non- vulcanized rubber. Such is the case in products like latex gloves , latex condoms , latex clothing , and balloons . Latex : Colloidal dispersion of polymer particles in

3200-472: A total profit of 131,340 fr, this had increased almost twentyfold by 1898 when they recorded a 2,482,697 fr profit just for one year. As a result, the dividend paid in 1898 was 1,100 fr per 500 fr share. These profits were made in spite of increasing costs due to the doubling of export duty in 1892 and the construction of the Leopoldville-Matadi railway in 1894 which increased the cost of moving rubber to

3328-623: A variety of tactics, including protests, legal challenges, direct actions, and advocacy campaigns to assert indigenous control over natural resources and resist exploitative practices. The Dakota Access Pipeline resistance, also known as the Standing Rock movement, emerged as a significant indigenous-led protest against the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline in the United States. The pipeline, proposed by Energy Transfer Partners,

3456-400: Is subsoil minerals , such as precious metals , mainly used to produce industrial commodities . Intensive agriculture is an example of a mode of production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment , for example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water pollution in an aquatic ecosystem . As the world population rises and economic growth occurs,

3584-489: Is actively moved to the area of injury; in the case of Cryptostegia grandiflora , latex more than 70 cm from the site of injury is mobilized. The large hydrostatic pressure in this vine enables an extremely high flow rate of latex. In a 1935 report the botanist Catherine M. Bangham observed that "piercing the fruit stalk of Cryptostegia grandiflora produced a jet of latex over a meter long, and maintained [this jet] for several seconds." The clotting property of latex

3712-465: Is also used in immunoassays . Some people only experience a mild allergy when exposed to latex, with symptoms such as eczema , contact dermatitis , or developing a rash . Others have a serious latex allergy , and exposure to latex products such as latex gloves can cause anaphylactic shock . Guayule latex has only 2% of the levels of protein found in Hevea latices, and it is being researched as

3840-632: Is animated by our ancestors' refusal to be forgotten, and it is our resolute refusal to forget our ancestors and our history that animates our visions for liberation. The Dakota Access Pipeline resistance garnered widespread attention and support, drawing thousands of people to the Standing Rock Indian Reservation in North Dakota to stand in solidarity with the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and protect their lands and water. Among

3968-478: Is facilitated by legal frameworks that prioritize settler property rights over indigenous land tenure systems, resulting in the dispossession and displacement of indigenous communities from their ancestral lands. Moreover, settler colonialism often entails the imposition of Western concepts of land ownership and resource management that marginalize indigenous knowledge and practices, further exacerbating environmental degradation and social injustice. Industrialization,

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4096-430: Is found as a milky fluid , which is present in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms). It is a complex emulsion that coagulates on exposure to air, consisting of proteins , alkaloids , starches , sugars , oils , tannins , resins , and gums . It is usually exuded after tissue injury. In most plants, latex is white, but some have yellow, orange, or scarlet latex. Since the 17th century, latex has been used as

4224-470: Is found in the poppy family and in the rubber trees ( Para rubber tree , members of the family Euphorbiaceae , members of the mulberry and fig family , such as the Panama rubber tree Castilla elastica ), and members of the family Asteraceae . For instance, Parthenium argentatum the guayule plant, is in the tribe Heliantheae ; other latex-bearing Asteraceae with articulated laticifers include members of

4352-455: Is functional in this defense since it limits wastage and its stickiness traps insects and their mouthparts. While there exist other explanations for the existence of latex including storage and movement of plant nutrients, waste, and maintenance of water balance that "[e]ssentially none of these functions remain credible and none have any empirical support". The latex of many species can be processed to produce many materials. Natural rubber

4480-532: Is not exclusive to the adult and child laborers. Instead, it impacts the whole country as low wages for high-risk mining worsen poverty rates, exacerbating negative social impacts such as conflict, higher crime rates, and child mortality . The effects of the exploitation of natural resources in the local community of a developing country are also exhibited in the impacts from the Ok Tedi Mine . After BHP entered into Papua New Guinea to exploit copper and gold,

4608-589: Is present in all parts of the mature plant, including roots, stems, leaves , and sometimes the fruits . It is particularly noticeable in the cortical tissues. Latex is usually exuded as a white liquid, but is some cases it can be clear, yellow or red, as in Cannabaceae . Latex is produced by 20,000 flowering plant species from over 40 families . These include both dicots and monocots . Latex has been found in 14 percent of tropical plant species, as well as six percent of temperate plant species. Several members of

4736-496: Is the most important product obtained from latex; more than 12,000 plant species yield latex containing rubber, though in the vast majority of those species the rubber is not suitable for commercial use. This latex is used to make many other products including mattresses , gloves , swim caps , condoms , catheters and balloons . Dried latex from the opium poppy is called opium , the source of several useful analgesic alkaloids such as codeine , thebaine , and morphine ,

4864-698: The Berlin Conference of 1885. What would later become Abir Company territory was the land between the Lopori and Maringa river basins, tributaries of the Congo River , in the north of the state. The local populace here were yam and cassava farmers who engaged in trade with river fishermen and pygmy hunters. In 1885 a force of the Manyema people, followers of Tippu Tip , the Swahili - Zanzibari slave trader, arrived at

4992-509: The Casement Report which condemned the Abir system; this resulted in the Free State launching another investigation later that year. Although evidence of unlawful killings made by Abir was uncovered the investigation had no powers of arrest and could only submit a report to the Free State authorities. This lack of action resulted in deteriorating relations between Abir and the missionaries and there

5120-477: The Cichorieae , a clade whose members produce latex, some of them in commercially interesting amounts. This includes Taraxacum kok-saghyz , a species cultivated for latex production. In the milkweed and spurge families, on the other hand, the laticiferous system is formed quite differently. Early in the development of the seedling, latex cells differentiate, and as the plant grows these latex cells grow into

5248-404: The depletion of natural resources influenced by the unsustainable extraction of raw materials becomes an increasing concern. The continuous alteration of the environment through water, mineral, and forest exploitation poses increased risks of climate-based displacement and conflict stemming from scarcity, which threaten to perpetuate social inequities. Natural resources are not limitless, and

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5376-455: The latex which could be used in the production of rubber for the European market. If the vines were a long distance from the ground the gatherer would have had to climb a tree, tap the plant and hold the collecting pot beneath the vine, possibly for an entire day. Hence rubber collection was a labour-intensive process which made it unpopular with the villagers. Indeed, they preferred the Manyema to

5504-507: The 0.5 fr per kilogram export tax. All initial capital investments had been amortised by 1899 along with material expenses in Africa and property and equipment expenses in Antwerp. In 1900 Abir reached the boundaries of its concession which covered eight million hectares. The next three years were spent filling gaps between existing posts and by 1903 Abir controlled 49 posts, managed by 58 agents. 1900

5632-451: The 19th century as the extraction and processing of raw materials (such as in mining , steam power , and machinery ) expanded much further than it had in pre-industrial areas. During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased. Today, about 80% of the world's energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels , which consists of oil , coal and natural gas . Another non-renewable resource humans exploit

5760-583: The Abir agent led a punitive expedition against the Seketulu tribe which resulted in 400 civilian deaths with hundreds captured and put in prison, where a further 100 died. When the Nsongo Mboyo tribe attempted to emigrate 1,000 were captured and sent to a forced labour camp. The Likongo, Lianja, Nkole, Yan a-Yanju, Nongo-Ingoli, and Lofoma people all successfully fled toward Tshuapa . Despite this chaos Abir managed to increase its exports for 1903 to 951 tons recording

5888-547: The Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company changed its name to the Abir Congo Company and changed its residence for tax purposes to the Free State. The company was granted a large concession in the north of the country and the rights to tax the inhabitants. This tax was taken in the form of rubber obtained from a relatively rare rubber vine. The collection system revolved around a series of trade posts along

6016-625: The Congo Free State were the Société Anversoise and the Lulonga Company but Abir was the largest in the country. Abir re-established their headquarters at Basankusu in 1893 and its position at the confluence of the Maringa and Lopori allowed Abir to expand along the rivers and their tributaries, establishing new posts along the way. Progress was slow as the Free State's activities had made

6144-407: The Congo Free State. Abir was only involved with primary resource gathering and, despite being owned by European industrialists, operated in a style similar to warlords such as Tippu Tip. Abir was supported in its operations by the Free State which required the enormous profits generated to strengthen its control over the country during its formative years. The concession companies gave the Free State

6272-469: The Free State assuming control of the concession in 1906. Abir continued to receive a portion of profits from rubber exports and in 1911 was refounded as a rubber plantation harvesting company. The later history of the company is unknown but it was still active in 1926. The Congo Free State was a corporate state in Central Africa privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium founded and recognised by

6400-589: The Free State authorities as the Manyema only took low bulk, high value items such as ivory or slaves because of the long distances from their homeland whereas the state, with its steamboat transports, could afford to make the people harvest the low value high bulk rubber. By September 1892 the Free State was using its military forces to attack and occupy villages in the Lulonga and Maringa river valleys to expand its tax base . King Leopold decided to give concessions of his territory to private companies who would then collect

6528-401: The Free State dispatched a force of 650 men and 12 European officers under the command of Inspector Gerard to the concession. They returned four months later, leaving some areas still rebellious and with news that there were almost no rubber plants left. As a result, the quotas expected per man were cut to just 6 kg of rubber per year, with some struggling to find even that much. State income

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6656-417: The Manyema. The taxes were initially collected in the form of ivory but when ivory supplies began to run low the Free State switched to natural rubber. The rubber was collected from Landolphia owariensis gentilii rubber vines which were relatively scarce in the area with an average frequency of around one plant in each acre. The rubber was gathered by tapping a rubber vine and placing a pot beneath to collect

6784-548: The Maringa-Lopori basin for 30 years and all land within twenty miles of eight designated posts and had police powers within the limits of the concession. The Free State also had to supply guns, ammunition and soldiers to help establish the posts. In preparation two State employees were ordered to establish a headquarters for Abir at Basankusu but this was barely begun before the local villagers rebelled against State rule and killed both men. The concession provided to Abir lay in

6912-449: The US and Belgian governments, with his duties including the suppression of cannibalism and slavery in the Free State. He was given extensive executive powers and placed in a position of "unusual opportunity for the correction of past abuses". Despite this Abir's problems increased, the company reported an increase in rebellions against its rule and 142 of its sentries were killed or wounded during

7040-432: The agents' pay, for example the agent at Bongandanga received 16,800 fr in commission in 1903. As a result, there were many applicants for each post and agents were hired with the expectation that they would increase production by 0.5–3 tons per month. This was implemented by extending the post to include more villages or increasing the quotas expected from the villagers, often indirectly forcing women and children to harvest

7168-617: The case of extracting soil minerals, supply rate is exceedingly slow over geological time spans, inevitably leading to a consumption rate surpassing the supply rate. Such a scenario is evidently unsustainable in the long run. To ensure sustainability, the consumption rate must remain equal to or less than the supply rate. There has been an ongoing debate among scholars and researchers on the economic implications of dependence on natural resources. Natural resources yield economic rents that can be allocated towards public welfare initiatives and other projects beneficial to local communities. However, in

7296-406: The coast to 0.63 fr per kilo, more than the entire trip to Antwerp had taken in 1892. The Abir Company entered liquidation in 1898 as a means of tax avoidance and to escape Belgian business regulations. It was immediately refounded in the Congo Free State as the Abir Congo Company. The name was no longer an acronym of Anglo-Belgian India Rubber and was instead a name in its own right. This change

7424-502: The commodification of natural resources, where resources are valued primarily for their economic potential rather than their intrinsic ecological or cultural value. This commodification mindset often leads to unsustainable exploitation practices, as resources are overexploited for short-term economic gain without consideration for long-term environmental sustainability. Globalization has significantly impacted resource exploitation by reshaping patterns of production, consumption, and trade on

7552-749: The company's books. The other two major rubber companies in the Congo, the Société Anversoise and the Lulonga Company, also had their concessions taken back into state control in 1906. The Free State was happy to take over Abir's concession as the State had built up sufficient income to be able to afford to run tax collections by itself. In addition the Free State was embarrassed by the continuing allegations of atrocities caused by Abir and it could institute reforms more effectively if it were in control. Leopold authorised

7680-659: The competition among local governments striving for environmental quality . Analyzing panel data spanning from 2005 to 2017 for 30 coal-mining cities, it's been discovered that environmental regulations offer a new approach to potentially reversing the adverse effects of resource dependence, and thus fueling greener sustainable development in coal-mining regions. Despite the inevitability of environmental contamination associated with resource extraction because of current mining technologies, this pollution delays residents' engagement in agricultural and aqua cultural activities, which are negatively influenced by environmental conditions. As

7808-677: The conflict have been disrupted by deep-seated mistrust and differing interests among the stakeholders involved. Resistance to natural resource exploitation in native communities has been a recurring theme throughout history, as indigenous people  have sought to protect their lands, cultures, and ways of life from the adverse impacts of extractive industries. In many cases, indigenous resistance movements have emerged as powerful forces advocating for environmental justice, indigenous rights, and sovereignty over ancestral territories. These movements often mobilize around issues such as land rights, resource extraction, and environmental protection, employing

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7936-525: The country and around the world in a unified effort to oppose the pipeline's construction. Nick Estes, a scholar of American Indian studies who has followed the Dakota Access Pipeline protests closely, points out that the tactics being used in protest of the Dakota Access Pipeline have been used for generations. In his piece  “Our History is The Future”  he writes, “Our history and long traditions of Indigenous resistance provide possibilities for futures premised on justice. After all, Indigenous resistance

8064-427: The desolation of villages, murder, rape, hostage taking and excessive flogging. Abir was the only commercial body mentioned by name in the report for brutality which said that the concession was "the black spot on the history of Central African settlement". The commission instigated limited reforms, laying down new interpretations of existing legislation which included a limit of 40 working hours per week for collectors,

8192-582: The destruction of vines Abir issued orders in 1892 and 1904 which prohibited destructive harvesting methods but these were largely ineffective. In 1896 the Congo Free State ordered Abir to plant 150 rubber trees or vines for each ton of rubber exported to replace destructively harvested vines. This was increased to 500 plants per ton in 1902. By 1903 the plantation at the Bongandanga post held more than one million plants and by 1904 each Abir post employed around one hundred workers to manage its plantation. Despite this

8320-408: The detrimental impacts of resource extraction. In response to the anti-mining protests, Peruvian authorities have often deployed security forces to quell dissent, leading to clashes and instances of violence. These clashes have resulted in injuries and fatalities on both sides, escalating tensions between mining companies, local communities, and the government. Efforts to find a peaceful resolution to

8448-509: The developing country. In addition to unequal distribution , the adaption of consumerist values also results in conflict over resources within local communities . Despite being rich in natural resources , the Democratic Republic of Congo is one country in the global south suffering from the effects of the resource curse . Its valuable copper and cobalt mineral deposits make Congo vulnerable to local and international conflict over

8576-485: The distribution of resources. These conflicts, along with the environmental degradation effects of mining, exacerbate high poverty rates, which approximately 64% of the Congolese population live under. Natural resource extraction and climate change are intertwined in Congo, as mining for copper and cobalt creates a biodiversity loss as green covers are cleared for constructing artisanal mines and roadways. Conflict over resources, poverty, and environmental degradation leaves

8704-486: The economy of the indigenous peoples boomed. Although their quality of life has improved, initially disputes were common among the locals in terms of land rights and who should be getting the benefits from the mining project. The consequences of the Ok Tedi environmental disaster illustrate the potential negative effects from the exploitation of natural resources. The resulting mining pollution includes toxic contamination of

8832-598: The exploitation of natural wealth to fuel economic growth, infrastructure development, and territorial expansion. One of the key way which settler colonialism drives resource exploitation is through the appropriation of indigenous lands and natural resources. Kyle Powys Whyte, an expert in natural resources and the environment highlights how the continued legacy of settler colonialism continues to harm indigenous communities. In his piece “The Dakota Access Pipeline, Environmental Injustice, and US Settler Colonialism” he writes, “as climate change becomes more apparent in its homelands,

8960-430: The first half of 1905. An uprising at the post of Baringa resulted in the spearing of several sentries and the cutting off of food supplies to the Abir post. Abir's military forces proved insufficient to restore control throughout the spring and summer of 1905 and they were forced to call in state troops. Three European officers and their Free State troops toured the area threatening villages with recriminations if rubber

9088-707: The first time by Blanco et al. in 1994. In a 2024 comprehensive review by Gromek et al., the last 30 years of research on LFS were summarized, focusing on its prevalence, common cross-reactions, and clinical manifestations. The review found that the prevalence of LFS in latex-allergic patients varies widely, ranging from 4% to 88%, depending on diagnostic methods, geographical regions, and study populations. The most commonly implicated fruits in LFS include banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and papaya. Clinical manifestations are predominantly systemic, with 73% of hypersensitivity symptoms being systemic and 27% localized. Gromek et al. also highlighted

9216-603: The following consequences can arise from the careless and excessive consumption of these resources: Natural resources are vital for human survival, however, if their consumption surpasses their natural replenishment rate, the resources can become depleted. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization , around 33% of the Earth's soils are presently classified as moderately to highly degraded, with projections indicating that more than 90% could face degradation by

9344-447: The fungal kingdom also produce latex upon injury, such as Lactarius deliciosus and other milk-caps . This suggests it is the product of convergent evolution and has been selected for on many separate occasions. Latex functions to protect the plant from herbivores. The idea was first proposed in 1887 by Joseph F. James, who noted that latex of milkweed carries with it at the same time such disagreeable properties that it becomes

9472-545: The head of the Lopori River from Stanley Falls . They took hostages from nearby villages to ransom in return for ivory . By 1892 they had enrolled local people into their army and controlled the entire eastern half of the basin. The Free State was concerned by this development and in 1889 had enacted the Monopoly Act which declared that all products in the area were to be under their jurisdiction alone. The Free State also began

9600-446: The hegemony of the State are fighting the forces of colonialism while simultaneously fighting capitalism—all aimed at control of land and resources" This encompasses the establishment of permanent settler communities, typically accompanied by the displacement, marginalization, or even extermination of indigenous populations. Settler Colonial exploration is most often driven by the pursuit of land and resources which has historically created

9728-447: The importance of indigenous knowledge, traditional ecological practices, and community-based approaches in addressing the root causes of resource exploitation and advancing sustainable development goals. Resistance to natural resource exploitation in the developing countries is often intertwined with broader social and economic struggles. Many communities facing exploitation are marginalized and economically disadvantaged which exacerbates

9856-545: The large scale growth of industry, has had profound impacts on natural resource exploitation. As societies undergo industrialization, there is an increased demand for raw materials to fuel manufacturing, construction, and energy production. As outlined by Farhan Ahmed, professor of economics and finance, industrialization can bring a myriad of challenges for natural resources. In his piece “The environmental impact of industrialization and foreign direct investment: empirical evidence from Asia-Pacific region” Ahmed writes “In addition to

9984-411: The latex of Asclepias humistrata (sandhill milkweed ) kills by trapping 30% of newly hatched monarch butterfly caterpillars. Other evidence is that latex contains 50–1000× higher concentrations of defense substances than other plant tissues. These toxins include ones that are also toxic to the plant and consist of a diverse range of chemicals that are either poisonous or " antinutritive. " Latex

10112-441: The latter two of which can then further be used in the synthesis and manufacture of other (typically stronger) opioids for medicinal use, and of heroin for the illegal drug trade . The opium poppy is also the source of medically useful non-analgesic alkaloids, such as papaverine and noscapine . Latex is used in many types of clothing . Worn on the body (or applied directly by painting), it tends to be skin-tight , producing

10240-403: The long term, uncertainties linked to potentially unstable terms of trade for commodities might lead to decline in public finances and deter investment. For instance, if oil prices decline, it may lead to fiscal unease in significant petroleum-producing countries such as Russia, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia. Resource abundance challenges the progress of political and governance institutions by nurturing

10368-408: The main killers in the area were lung and intestinal diseases which killed twenty times as many people as smallpox and sleeping sickness combined. At least one missionary attributed the rise of disease with rubber collecting. Abuses of power over the villagers by Abir had been reported by missionaries almost since they began operations in the Congo but the first real public disclosure came in 1901 with

10496-666: The many benefits of foreign direct investment and industrialization that have affected economic growth, both have significant potential for environmental degradation because most of their activities are related to the production and exploitation of natural resources." This demand often leads to intensified extraction activities, such as mining, logging, and drilling, which can result in extensive habitat destruction, deforestation, and ecosystem degradation. Additionally, industrial processes often generate pollution and waste, further exacerbating environmental impacts and threatening ecosystems and biodiversity. industrialization has been associated with

10624-477: The natural water supply for communities along the Ok Tedi River , causing widespread killing of aquatic life. When a mining company ends a project after extracting the raw materials from an area of a developing country , the local people are left to manage with the environmental damage done to their community and the long run sustainability of the economic benefits stimulated by the mining company's presence becomes

10752-418: The need for standardized diagnostic criteria and severity grading systems to improve the accuracy of LFS diagnosis and treatment. Several species of the microbe genera Actinomycetes , Streptomyces , Nocardia , Micromonospora , and Actinoplanes are capable of consuming rubber latex. However, the rate of biodegradation is slow, and the growth of bacteria utilizing rubber as a sole carbon source

10880-643: The north of the country and was one of nine commercial concession areas established by Leopold in the Congo Free State. The concession was bounded to the north by the Congo River and the Société Anversoise concession, to the east by the Lomami River and the Lomami Company concession and to the west by the Lulonga Company concession which straddled the Lulonga River , into which the Maringa and Lopori flowed. To

11008-482: The operation of the Free State were issued starting with the British Consul, Roger Casement 's Casement Report and followed by reports commissioned by the Free State and Leopold II. These detailed unlawful killings and other abuses made by Abir and Leopold II was embarrassed into instituting reforms. These began with the appointment of American Richard Mohun by Leopold II as director of Abir. However, rubber exports continued to fall and rebellions increased, resulting in

11136-418: The option of paying taxes in commodities other than rubber and the removal of sentries from the villages. Two months after this Leopold sent a Royal High Commissioner to Abir to check that the reforms were being carried out, he was told that Abir had no intention of instituting any reforms. The commissioner established two deputy public prosecutors in the Abir concession but one investigated only missionaries and

11264-473: The overexploitation and depletion of finite resources. Haiying Liu, professor of economics, explains how globalization results in more environmental stress in her piece “Impact of governance and globalization on natural resources volatility”. In this piece she writes, “In addition to natural resources exported from the region, the technical capability required to explore natural resources is also dependent on economic globalization. Environmental pressure increases as

11392-552: The pipeline's construction and holding the government and energy companies accountable for violating indigenous rights and environmental regulations. The resistance movement also sparked a broader conversation about indigenous sovereignty, environmental justice, and the impacts of fossil fuel infrastructure on indigenous communities and the environment. Latex Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latices are found in nature , but synthetic latices are common as well. In nature, latex

11520-499: The plantation project was ultimately a failure due in part to the fact that each Abir agent remained at a post for just two years and was uninterested in working the plantation which would only benefit his successor. Congo Free State forestry officers also noted that Abir plantations were smaller than required or even existed only on paper. Abir would also plant vines which looked similar to the Landolphia vine but did not produce rubber, as

11648-477: The population in the west hostile to colonisation and the east remained in the control of the Manyema and the Zanzibari slavers. The company's first post on the Lopori River had to be relocated because of threats from locals and rubber collection at Befori began only after a series of bloody conflicts between the villagers and Abir's men. The post system was the cornerstone of Abir's commercial activity. Each post

11776-427: The potential negative effects gain the cooperation of the local people. Advantageous factors are primarily in economic development establishments, such as health centers, police departments, and schools, that the government may not provide. However, these advantages are not always distributed evenly among local populations, and the income generated from extracting natural resources can result in internal conflict within

11904-572: The publication of a report, written by an ex-agent, in several Belgian newspapers. The Free State began an investigation into Abir's abuses during which an inquiry established at Bongandanga heard evidence from missionaries in the concession. As a result, Abir took action against the missionaries, stopping the carriage of their mail on company steamers, stopping the missionaries' boats and confiscating any mail that they carried. Abir also forbade missionaries from buying food from villagers, forcing them to buy from Abir's own stores. In 1904 Roger Casement issued

12032-464: The remaining plants. The entirety of the Lulonga concession, to the west of Abir, produced just 7 tons of rubber in 1905. The presence of Abir in the area exacerbated the effect of natural disasters such as famine and disease. Abir's tax collection system forced men out from the villages to collect rubber which meant that there was no labour available to clear new fields for planting. This in turn meant that

12160-576: The rubber as well. If production fell below the quota agents made up the shortfall in lost profits to the company from their pay. Each post consisted of a residence for the agent, barracks for armed sentries and sheds for rubber drying and storage, all built using labour conscripted from the villagers. A typical post employed ten African workmen to sort and dry the rubber, seven servants for the agent and thirty canoemen for local river transport. These were paid around 36.5 fr per year in goods, commonly 5 kg of salt, one blanket, five machetes and trade goods to

12288-448: The rubber from the collectors (in lieu of tax), 0.4 fr for transportation, 0.25 in export duty paid to the Congo Free State and 0.45 for storage for a total cost of 1.35 fr per kilogram. In the same year Abir could sell on the rubber in Europe for up to 10 fr per kilogram. Abir's profits rose with the increasing quantity and price of rubber, for the first two years (1892–94) the company recorded

12416-449: The rubber tax and export it. With this in mind he approached British Colonel John Thomas North , who had made a fortune through speculating on Chilean nitrates , for capital with which to fund a concession company. North agreed and provided £40,000 of the 250,000 Belgian francs ' (fr) initial investment. As a result, the Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company (informally known as Abir) was established at Antwerp on 6 August 1892. The company

12544-513: The rubber. Once this process was completed the rubber tax was abolished. The Abir company merged with the Société Anversoise in May 1911 to form the Compagnie du Congo Belge and now focussed on the management of rubber plantations and the gathering of rubber from them. However, later that year it agreed with the Belgian government to reduce the size of its operations and its monopoly status. In July 1911 it

12672-462: The second brought few cases against Abir men. One important result of the Congo Commission of Inquiry was that it spurred Leopold into carrying out reforms. One of the first stages of these reforms was Leopold's appointment of Richard Dorsey Mohun , an American explorer and soldier of fortune, as director of Abir. Mohun held a keen interest in the eradication of the slave trade and had worked for

12800-583: The second highest profit in its history. However, this partial recovery did not last long and soon profits were falling once more. Leopold was embarrassed by complaints made by the British government about human rights abuses in the Congo Free State and dispatched a Commission of Inquiry to investigate the entirety of the Congo. This commission visited the Abir concession from 1 December 1904 to 5 January 1905 and, despite Abir's attempts to keep witnesses away, heard evidence of violence committed by Abir. This included

12928-442: The shifting plant and animal habitats tied to agriculture, wildlife, and ceremonial species, as well as the loss of territory and resources as a result of US settler colonialism, will make it harder to adjust.” Settler societies often view the land as a commodity to be exploited for economic gain, leading to the establishment of extractive industries such as mining, logging, and agriculture on indigenous territories. This exploitation

13056-416: The situation in the area was out of control and suggested that the Congo Free State should assume control of the concession. By September of that year Abir was unable to contain the increasing number of rebellions and, facing falling profits, was forced to completely withdraw from the area and hand control of the concession back to the Free State. At this point there were still 47,000 rubber collectors listed on

13184-526: The south lay the Crown Domain ( Domaine de la Couronne ), the private property of Leopold, which comprised the best land in the Free State and was the richest in rubber. The Abir concession included the Bolombo river , Yekokora river and Lomako river which were tributaries of the two main rivers. Each concession operated independently and exploited its own area commercially. The other main rubber companies in

13312-534: The supporters was activist and performing artists Dallas Goldtooth of the Dakota tribe. Goldtooth highlighted the importance of social media in modern protests saying, “social media allowed immediate direct one-on-one access and kind of this perception of unfiltered access – unfiltered access to what was happening on the ground" The movement was characterized by nonviolent protests, prayer ceremonies, and acts of civil disobedience, as well as legal challenges aimed at halting

13440-431: The takeover in the hope that the Free State would be able to resume rubber collection and exports and on 12 September 1906 an agreement was signed which stated that all profits from the concession would go to the Free State in return for payment to Abir of 4.5 fr per kilogram of rubber harvested until 1952. Leopold told Abir's shareholders that he expected exports to return to normal levels within two years. To restore control

13568-631: The time and revenue required to secure the Congo and to plan a long-term and more stable program of colonisation. Abir ultimately failed as its harvesting process valued high production over sustainability and it doomed to live out its own boom and bust cycle. Despite this the Abir production model was used by the French government as the basis for its concession system in the French Congo . Exploitation of natural resources The exploitation of natural resources started to emerge on an industrial scale in

13696-512: The turn of the century and that five Abir sentries had been killed near Bongandanga in 1901 and 1902. The Boangi and Likeli peoples were forcibly resettled closer to the post at Bosow and in 1903 Abir troops intervened to stop the emigration of the Lika people and villagers near Samba. To stop small-scale emigration Abir instigated a permit system for people wishing to visit another village. At the Momponi post

13824-552: The two main rivers in the concession. Each post was commanded by a European agent and manned with armed sentries to enforce taxation and punish any rebels. Abir enjoyed a boom through the late 1890s, by selling a kilogram of rubber in Europe for up to 10 fr which had cost them just 1.35 fr. However, this came at a cost to the human rights of those who could not pay the tax with imprisonment, flogging and other corporal punishment recorded. Abir's failure to suppress destructive harvesting methods and to maintain rubber plantations meant that

13952-429: The unequal distribution of benefits and burdens associated with resource exploitation, with marginalized communities often bearing the environmental and social costs of resource extraction while multinational corporations and rich nations reap the profits When a mining company enters a developing country in the global south to extract raw materials, advocating the advantages of the industry's presence and minimizing

14080-515: The unequal power dynamics at play. Resistance movements often demand not only environmental justice but also fair compensation, employment opportunities, and community development initiatives. Solidarity networks, both within countries and internationally, have been crucial in amplifying the voices of affected communities and exerting pressure on governments and corporations to adopt more sustainable and equitable practices. Despite facing significant challenges, these movements continue to inspire hope for

14208-503: The value of 6.35 fr. The post system was managed by the Director of Congo Operations at the central office in Basankusu. He was assisted in his job of keeping production up and expenses down by the only Free State employee in the concession, the commander of the police. The police commander was in charge of suppressing revolts and punishing villages which dropped below the quota. He had access to

14336-450: The village sentries were "post sentries" who were 25–80 men armed with modern, breech-loading Albini rifles who lived on the post and were used to punish villages and suppress rebellions. Sentries were paid similar wages to the post workmen and despite the strict working conditions it was a popular job as it offered a position of power over the other villagers. The sentries had their choice of food, women and luxury items and many left after

14464-520: The vines became increasingly scarce and by 1904 profits began to fall. During the early 1900s famine and disease spread across the concession, a natural disaster judged by some to have been exacerbated by Abir's operations, further hindering rubber collection. The 1900s also saw widespread rebellions against Abir's rule in the concession and attempts at mass migration to the French Congo or southwards. These events typically resulted in Abir dispatching an armed force to restore order. A series of reports into

14592-402: The women had to continue to plant worn-out fields resulting in lower yields, a problem aggravated by Abir sentries stealing crops and farm animals. The post at Bonginda experienced a famine in 1899 and in 1900 missionaries recorded a "terrible famine" across the Abir region. The modern descendants of Abir's villagers refer to the period of company control as "Lonkali", the period of famine. Disease

14720-430: The year 2050 and thus cause significant economic consequences. With such rate of erosion of fertile soil, agricultural commodity prices tend to increase significantly. The connection between the consumption rate and the supply rate of resources holds significant implications for long-term economic growth, as sustained high consumption rates of certain resources ultimately jeopardize economic sustainability. For instance, in

14848-442: Was Abir's most profitable year and the Congo Free State's shares and taxes provided 2,567,880.50 fr of revenue for the state, 10% of that year's total. The share dividend in 1900 was 2,100 fr, in the early 1890s it had been around 2 fr per share. The rubber vine could be destructively harvested by cutting up the vine and squeezing out the latex whilst it lay on the ground. This was quicker and easier than non-destructive harvesting and

14976-467: Was also a problem with smallpox moving in from the east being reported in the Upper Lopori in 1893 and reaching Bongandanga in 1901. A concurrent smallpox epidemic moving from the west destroyed villages along the Lulonga in 1899, and reached Basankusu in 1902. Sleeping sickness was also reported around the Lulonga by 1900 and spread up the Maringa and Lopori. Despite the arrival of these deadly diseases

15104-530: Was at least one attempted shooting of a missionary. Evidence for Abir's abuses also came from the governor of the French Congo , to the north-west, who claimed that prior to 1903 30,000 people had been driven from the Free State to the French Congo by Abir's actions. It is also known that Abir had been forced to put down rebellions of the Yamongo, Boonde, Bofongi, Lilangi, Bokenda, Pukaonga and Kailangi peoples around

15232-430: Was banned from collecting rubber within the confines of its old concession for 18 months and was subject to new laws introduced by the Free State. The later history of the company is unknown but it continued to operate until at least 1926 when it split off its oil palm concessions into the Maringa company. Abir's rubber gathering practices made it the most notorious of all the concession companies for human rights abuses in

15360-438: Was because the company was no longer supported by British investment, partly because Colonel North had died and his heirs had sold their shares. The new company had a simpler shares system with just 2,000 shares (of 14,300 fr value each) divided between investors. The Free State held 1,000 of these shares. As Abir was now tax resident in the Congo the Free State received 2% of their profits through corporation tax , in addition to

15488-455: Was divided into 2,000 shares of 500 fr value each. British investors (including North) held 1880 shares whilst Belgians held the remaining 120 shares. In addition to the 2,000 ordinary shares there were 2,000 "actions" which entitled the holder to a share of the profits after a 6% dividend was paid to the shareholders. The Congo Free State was the holder of 1,000 of these actions. In return Abir received exclusive rights to all forest products from

15616-498: Was intended to transport crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois, traversing ancestral lands and sacred sites of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, as well as posing potential threats to water sources, including the Missouri River, which serves as a vital water supply for the tribe and millions of others downstream. The resistance movement, which began in 2016, brought together indigenous activists, environmentalists, and allies from across

15744-488: Was later burned down. The company, unwilling to admit falls in rubber plant stocks, publicly stated that the rebellions were fomented by missionaries. When Viscount Mountmorres visited the concession in 1905 he reported abandoned villages across the territory and that villagers had fled to the deepest parts of the forest to avoid Abir's taxes. These villagers were living in makeshift leaf shelters and with few comforts. By March 1906 Richard Mohun, Abir's director, admitted that

15872-442: Was not harvested, but despite this the post recorded absolutely no harvest for 1905 to 1906. A similar event occurred at Mompono where around half of the population fled the area, those that remained being forcibly relocated closer to the Abir post. The agent at Bongandanga tried to prevent a rebellion by reducing rubber collection from once per fortnight to once every three weeks. This was only temporarily successful and an Abir outpost

16000-426: Was practised by villagers who wished to fill their quotas and avoid punishment, especially once supplies of the vine began to run low. In addition some vines were destroyed deliberately by villagers who believed that once the rubber was gone Abir would leave the concession. Because of this destruction all rubber vines within 10 km of Basankasu were depleted within 18 months of that post opening. In an attempt to slow

16128-773: Was quoted saying, “The river forms part of our spirit and culture. If the river dies, so does our human dignity, now this river is doomed. The colour of the water is changing, and the same devastation in other mining areas is beginning to be reproduced here in the Nanay. Local communities, including farmers and indigenous groups, have vehemently opposed the project due to concerns of water contamination and depletion. The proposed mining operation, led by multinational corporations, has been met with widespread demonstrations, blockades, and legal challenges. These protests underscore broader issues of environmental protection and indigenous rights, as communities seek to safeguard their lands and livelihoods from

16256-409: Was run by one or two European agents to oversee local operations. The salary for an agent was 1,800 fr per year, sometimes increasing to 2,100 fr in the second year, and the standard contract period was three years. Agents also received 60 fr of trade goods each month with which to buy their food. Despite the low wages the 2% commission that each agent received on rubber production made up the majority of

16384-416: Was therefore negligible whilst the costs of controlling the concession continued to increase. Throughout this time Abir was still making a profit by taking its share of the rubber exported for almost no expenditure. By 1901 there were so few rubber plants left in the concession that the Free State authorities granted permission for the villagers to cut down the remaining plants and grind their bark to retrieve

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