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110-458: The innovations of Andriamasinavalona were numerous and enduring. He created two additional noble castes and defined their associated rights, responsibilities and restrictions, and was responsible for introducing the tradition of the red parasol as an indicator of royalty; he also decreed that all women had the right to choose their husbands. Trade with the Sakalava kingdom enabled this king to increase

220-468: A zebu kidney (considered unpalatable), which the prince ordered to be prepared as a meal nonetheless, leading the elder to remark, "This man can't even resist the temptation to eat the kidney." He visited Andrianavalonimerina at Ambohitrabiby carrying a lemon and a weaver's stake, which the prince's wife demanded he give to them, demonstrating their greediness. Andriamampandry also visited prince Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana at Ambohimanga, carrying an axe and

330-535: A Merina nationalist and deputy, was an Andriana of the Andriamasinavalona sub-caste. The secret nationalist organization V.V.S. ( Vy Vato Sakelika ) was composed of some Andriana of the intelligentsia. A 1968 study showed that 14% of the population of Imerina was Andriana. The Andriana have been key players in Madagascan political and cultural life after independence as well. The Andriana were deeply affected by

440-508: A band along the coast from Onilahy River in the southwest to Nosy Be in the north. These people also feature the zebu cattle herds similar to those found in Africa, which are less common in other regions and interior of the island. The traditional religion of the Sakalava people (60%), called Fomba Gasy, was centered around royal ancestor worship, aided by the noble dady lineage who preserved

550-515: A beautiful parrot, which the prince killed and served as food. The elder concluded that he was "a gun that loads itself." The oldest son, Andrianjakanavalonamandimby, was given a pot of honey, which he smashed in order to eat every last drop. Afterward Andriamampandry remarked that the kingdom had become a pot of honey without a lid, implying the first one to come along would be free to reach his hand inside and take all its bounty for himself. He visited Andriantomponimerina at Ambohidratrimo and offered him

660-1007: A commemorative stone at the battle site that he named Ankazonorona, designating it the site where newly enthroned kings would stand to receive their first expression of hasina (homage, affirmation of authority) from their subjects. Andriamasinavalona also introduced the practice of gathering his subjects to consult them and obtain their consent before making certain decisions. This practice was continued by subsequent rulers in Imerina. Andriamasinavalona married twelve wives and produced nine sons and one daughter. The children of four of his wives would go on to rule their own kingdoms: Ratompoindroandriana gave birth to Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana at Ambohimanga ; Ramananandrianjaka gave birth to Andriantomponimerina at Ambohidratrimo; Ramananimerina had her son Andrianjakanavalona at Antananarivo ; and Rasolomanambonitany had Andrianavalonimerina near Ambohitrabiby. The children of four other wives would renounce all claims to

770-462: A distant hill named Ambohitrakanga when he noticed a bonfire lit on its southern face 24 kilometers away from his rova at Antananarivo; the visibility of the site from his capital led Andriamasinavalona to desire the hill as a residence for his son, Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana. Andriamasinavalona gave the hill its current name, and when he divided the Kingdom of Imerina into four quadrants in 1710, he gave

880-510: A friendly relationship with Andriamasinavalona. The two agreed to a challenge: each would leave his palace simultaneously on a chosen Friday night, and walk toward the other's palace until the two met. They crossed paths at the Ombifotsy ("White Zebu") river, so named because the two sacrificed a white zebu there in honor of their friendship and the peace agreement between their two territories of Imamo and Imerina. Andriambahoakafovoanitany's son dug

990-406: A girl named Andriamanitrinitany. She was housed with her adoptive mother at Ambohipeno and died without producing children of her own, although she likewise adopted a child named Ramasina, who was most likely the son of her sister. Andriamasinavalona is remembered in Imerina as a king of significant achievements. He is credited with unifying a number of warring principalities in Imerina and expanding

1100-426: A human sacrifice; if a citizen offered his life for the king, this gesture would indicate the public was still loyal to him. Andriamasinavalona followed this recommendation and gathered the people to request a volunteer who was willing to have his throat slit with a long dagger to sanctify the king. In another version of the story, this proposal was made to sanctify the new Besakana palace that the king ordered rebuilt at

1210-456: A key dike that supported irrigation of the capital's rice paddies, producing the silk used to make the king's clothing, and conscripting soldiers for the king's army. They were also responsible for gathering used hoes for the royal blacksmiths to melt down and then supervise the artisans as the metal was crafted into nails, shackles and other forged objects. Within Antananarivo, the territory of

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1320-593: A major expansion of the Betsimitatatra rice fields around Antananarivo, significantly increasing their rice production to feed the populace. Andriamasinavalona's reorganization and refinement of the subdivisions of the noble class took into account the precedents set by earlier Merina kings Andrianjaka and Ralambo . He declared that only members of the Zazamarolahy ("Numerous Children") caste, composed of nobles descended from Andrianjaka's children, could be shaded by

1430-440: A messenger to the Sakalava king requesting his support. The Sakalava reaffirmed their loyalty to Andriamasinavalona, however, and threatened to attack the prince if the rightful king was not released from his captivity. According to one version of the oral history, having failed to use the king as a pawn to gain power, the prince decided to ransom his father for 7,000 piastres to increase his personal wealth. Every citizen of Imerina

1540-511: A mix of Austronesians and Bantu peoples . Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 400 and 900 CE. They arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian and Oceanian groups. The earliest confirmed settlements, on Nosy Mangabe and in the Mananara Valley, date to the eighth century. Bantu-speaking farmers, moving from Central and East Africa, arrived in Madagascar in

1650-459: A part in the decision-making responsibilities of the kingdom, so ignored the elder's advice. Finally Andriamampandry decided to give the king a very explicit warning. Andriamasinavalona had gathered his people in Andohalo to give a speech, when Andriamampandry set a bull loose into the crowd. In the panic that ensued, numerous people were gored or trampled to death, several pregnant women miscarried, and

1760-461: A particular hairstyle upon the Marovatana people he ruled, in disregard of the promise that the king had made to respect the diverse customs and taboos of Imerina. The Marovatana reminded the king of this vow and refused to submit, prompting the king and his sons to prepare for war against the people of the fief. This conflict provided the prince with an opportunity to seize power. Upon the suggestion of

1870-410: A rope. The prince asked to borrow the two items, then ordered a servant to use the axe and rope to butcher a zebu , put some of the best meat in a basket, cook the rest of the good meat for their meal, and set aside the neck and the ribbed part of the tripe in a second basket. The elder dined with the prince and spent the night at the village. When Andriamampandry was about to leave, the prince returned

1980-428: A series of new decrees that further formalized the relationship between the andriana and the hova (commoners) they ruled. The king's reign was marked by a drought lasting seven years that caused a famine in much of Imerina. According to oral history, the king attempted to purchase rice from his fief at Ambohipiainana. The town had a surplus but the local leader refused to sell rice to Andriamasinavalona, claiming none

2090-423: A trench along the river, where he erected a stone to commemorate the agreement. Imamo was divided into four parts, each administered by one of Andriambahoakafovoanitany's sons. In addition, Andriamasinavalona is credited with founding Ambohimanga , a site of spiritual and historical significance that was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. Oral history recounts that Andriamasinavalona first remarked

2200-466: A war with the Sakalava, which ended the hegemony of the Sakalava kingdom and their slave raids. The Merina then reversed the historical enslavement their people had faced, and began supplying slaves. Though the Merina were never to annex the two last Sakalava strongholds of Menabe and Boina ( Mahajanga ), the Sakalava never again posed a threat to the central highlands, which remained under Merina control until

2310-475: Is formed from "Andriana" and "Misara". In Madagascar today, names beginning with the "Andria" prefix are common. However, unlike in Western cultures, where children automatically inherit the family name of a parent, Malagasy parents are free to choose their child's first and last names as they please. Following the end of the monarchy in Imerina , many parents have chosen to give their children names that include

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2420-414: Is held in the highest veneration and esteem. He is said to have exercised great care over his district, and to have introduced many important improvements. His memory, laws and customs are still held in the greatest respect, and his name is always mentioned in the public kabarys with a degree of reverence." Sakalava The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar . They are found on

2530-424: Is remembered as a golden age of justice, harmony and prosperity. Andriamasinavalona was born Prince Andrianjakanavalondambo in the historic Merina capital of Alasora to his father King Andriantsimitoviaminandriandehibe and mother Rampanambonitany. He was made Prince of Alasora upon his father's death in 1670; his older brother, Andrianjaka Razakatsitakatrandriana , was named king. Andriamasinavalona ascended to

2640-607: Is traceable back to an ancient Javanese nobility title, although alternate theories have been proposed. In Malagasy, the term became Rohandryan and later Roandriana , mainly used in the Southeastern part of the island among the Zafiraminia, Antemoro, and Antambahoaka ethnic groups. In the central Highlands, among the Merina, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka , the term became Randryan and later Randriana or simply Andriana . Other proposed etymologies for Andriana includes

2750-570: The Mahafaly area, starting with the southern ones. The Merina oral histories and documents in Comoros mention series of annual expeditions by Sakalava slave raiders against their villages through the end of the 18th century. These expeditions were aided by guns obtained from the Arabs, a weapon that both Comoros and Merina people lacked. The largest and one of the most favored ports for slave trade on Madagascar

2860-529: The Mangoky River , aided by weapons obtained in exchange for slave trading. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo (also known as Tsimanatona ) extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga ). The chiefs of the different coastal settlements on the island began to extend their power to control trade. The first significant Sakalava kingdoms were formed about the 1650s. They dominated

2970-475: The "Andriana" prefix, despite lacking any family connection to the former aristocracy. Austronesian people settled in Madagascar between 200 and 500 CE, arriving by boat from various Southeast Asian regions. Mainland Africans began migrating to the island by the 9th century. Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century, soon followed by other European powers. This influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities by

3080-636: The 1995 destruction of the royal palace, the Rova , in Antananarivo. Their approval and participation were periodically solicited throughout the reconstruction process. In 2011, the Council of Kings and Princes of Madagascar promoted the revival of a Christian Andriana monarchy that would blend modernity and tradition. Much of the known genealogical history of the Andriana of Imerina comes from Father François Callet's book Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara ("History of

3190-551: The Andriana were the highest strata. They were above the Hova (free commoner castes) and Andevo (slaves). The Andriana and the Hova were a part of Fotsy , while the Andevo were Mainty in local terminology. The Andriana strata originally constituted the Merina society's nobility, warrior, and land-owning class. They were endogamous , and their privileges were institutionally preserved. While

3300-543: The Andrianamboninolona, designated generations before by King Andrianjaka, included the neighborhood of Ambatomasina (east of Andohalo) and extended from Ambohitantely eastward to Ambatolampy and north to the principal road that led to Ambavahadimasina. The neighborhoods reserved in Antananarivo for the Andriandranando, also decreed by Andrianjaka, laid to the northeast of Andohalo and extended from Ambavahadimasina in

3410-516: The European colonial powers in order to contain the reach of the Merina kingdom. The French military power led by Captain Passot arrived on Sakalava ports, accompanied with Jesuit and Catholic Christian missionaries. The island town of Nosy Be became their mission post, and by early 20th century, numerous Catholic churches had been built in the Sakalava region. Protestantism attempted to reach the Sakalava, but

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3520-564: The French colonization of the island, a century later, in 1896. The dynasty Zafimbolamena Belihisafra . After the reign of Abdriantonkafo the kingdom was split into two entities: Andramahatindriarivo was succeeded by In 1941 islands of Nosy Be and Nosy Komba became a French Protectorate. The historical formation process of the Sakalava kingdom explains the great diversity among its constituents, who continue to perpetuate distinctive regional customs, both culturally and linguistically. About

3630-544: The Merina and Betsileo people of the interior who became highly productive rice farmers, the coastal and valley region Sakalava have historically had limited agriculture. However, in contemporary Madagascar, migrants have expanded farms and agriculture into the northwestern provinces. Andriana Andriana was both the noble class and a title of nobility in Madagascar . Historically, many Malagasy ethnic groups lived in highly stratified caste-based social orders in which

3740-528: The Merina people who arrived in the central highlands around the 15th century and absorbed the existing population of Vazimba . Andriamanelo (1540–1575) consolidated the power of the Hova when he united many of the Hova chiefdoms under his rule. The term Hova remained in use through the 20th century. However, some foreigners transliterated that word to be Ankova . Beginning in the 16th century, slaves were brought into Madagascar's various kingdoms, and social strata emerged in Merina kingdom. The Hova emerged as

3850-406: The Merina society. In the 19th century, when Merina conquered the other kingdoms and ruled most of the island, a much larger army was needed; soldiers in this time were drawn from the Hova caste as well. The Andriana benefited from numerous privileges in precolonial Madagascar. Land ownership in Imerina was reserved for the Andriana class, who ruled over fiefs called menakely . The populace under

3960-853: The Nobles"). This collection of oral tradition about the history of the Merina Dynasty was originally written in Malagasy and published between 1878 and 1881. Callet summarized and translated it in French under the title Tantara ny Andriana (Histoire des rois) in 1908. Tantara ny Andriana constitutes the core material for the historians studying the Merina history and has been commented, criticised, and challenged ever since by historians from Madagascar, Europe , and North America . For examples, refer to Rasamimanana (1930), Ravelojaona et al. (1937), Ramilison (1951), Kent (1970), Berg (1988), or Larson (2000). The work

4070-466: The Omani and Zanzibar Sultanates, as the influence of Merina people and the European traders increased. Significant percentage of the Sakalava converted to Islam during the reign of Andriantsoly, while continuing their traditional religious practices such as spirit worship. Christianity (35%) arrived among the Sakalava people with European traders. In early 19th century, the Sakalava sought military support of

4180-570: The Sovereign"). This group comprised all the descendants of the royal wives who had given birth to the king's four designated heirs. New rulers could only be selected from among this new sub-class of nobles. The four wives of King Andriamasinavalona whose children were not chosen to rule one of the four districts of Imerina were assigned the noble sub-caste of "Andriamasinavalona" and transferred this ranking to their descendants. The king declared that members of this sub-caste would inhabit Ambatobevanja, at

4290-620: The Zana-tompo. The king decreed that they should inhabit the countryside south of the capital extending from Ambavahadimitafo southward to Ambatolampy. Outside of Antananarivo, the Zana-tompo lived in the village of Ambohimalaza. The Andrianamboninolona (or Zanakambony), Andriandranando (or Zafinandriandranando) and Zanadralambo were considered junior nobles. They were excluded from most of the rules imposed on other noble castes and exempted from fanampoana (forced labor in lieu of monetary tax payment). Instead, they were made responsible for maintaining

4400-563: The Zanaralambo inhabited Lazaina, Ambatofotsy and Masindray. In addition to these new roles for noble sub-castes, Andriamasinavalona singled out the Antehiroka as sacred royal advisers and custodians of ancestral traditions related to circumcision. This clan was formed of the descendants of Andriampirokana and his two sons, themselves descendants of a vazimba king. Andriampirokana befriended King Ralambo and played an integral part in establishing

4510-453: The Zazamarolahy were not constrained to inhabit a particular neighborhood, as Andriamasinavalona acknowledged the privilege of future sovereigns to determine the proximity of these most influential nobles according to the particularities of changing circumstances. Andriamasinavalona also narrowed the pool of potential future sovereigns by restricting this right to a new sub-group within the Zazamarolahy, which he termed Zanak'andriana ("Children of

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4620-419: The animosity of Muslim Sakalava royalty for the Merina nobility who were already Protestants, as well as the refusal of Sakalava to abandon their traditional practices such as royalty spirit worship, particularly their Tromba -tradition, has made Sakalava continue with either Islam or Catholicism. Tromba has been a historic feature of the Sakalava people, and has centered around ceremonies and processions for

4730-575: The bed they shared there. Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana had his head highest on the pillow, but Andriamasinavalona failed to understand the significance of this, and Andriamampandry rebuked him, remarking "You are the king, and yet you do not understand?" According to oral history, Andriamasinavalona was temporarily usurped through the trickery of his son Andriantomponimerina, who ruled the western territory from his rova at Ambohidratrimo. Once Andriamasinavalona's sons had been installed in their territories, Andriantomponimerina tested his authority by imposing

4840-420: The boundaries of Imerina to include Fanongoavana to the west, Rangaina to the north, Ombifotsy to the east and Sahasarotra to the south. As he brought each territory under his control, he restricted the autonomy of its original rulers and imposed strict submission to his own authority. His diplomatic and political conquests enabled Andriamasinavalona to extend his kingdom to its fullest historical extent, making him

4950-438: The capital of the western principality was located at Ambohidratrimo . The southern principality was ruled from Antananarivo by Andriantomponimerina. Andriamampandry tried on several occasions to warn Andriamasinavalona of the danger of administering the kingdom in this way. In one instance, he placed a hen in the middle of a room, then set one red rooster free in each corner. The roosters attacked one another viciously, leaving

5060-463: The city walls. The highest ranks of Andriana were permitted to distinguish their tombs by the construction of a small, windowless wooden tomb house on top of it, called a trano masina (sacred house) for the king and trano manara (cold house) for the Zanakandriana, Zazamarolahy and Andriamasinavalona. This tradition may have originated with King Andriantompokoindrindra, who is said to have ordered

5170-413: The eastern quadrant of Avaradrano to Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana, who transformed his rova at Ambohimanga into its capital. The greatest point of controversy in Andriamasinavalona's reign was his decision to divide his kingdom among his four favorite sons: Andrianjakanavalonamandimby, Adrianmanotronavalonimerina , Andriantomponimerina I and Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana, who received the largest share of

5280-622: The elder sent it back with the four corners torn off. The king again returned the lamba, and this time the elder trampled it in the mud. Nonetheless, Andriamampandry dressed in the lamba, declaring "What's been torn can be mended, and what's been dirtied can be cleaned," then attended the king's kabary . There, the king declared that he would divide his kingdom into four parts, each one a fief to be inhabited by his four favorite sons, who would participate in royal decision-making without being made kings themselves. The two northern principalities had their capitals at Ambohimanga and Ambohidrabiby , while

5390-446: The elevated bed where they slept. He was buried in the royal tombs located at the Rova of Antananarivo. In opposition to Andriamasinavalona's intentions, after the king's death his sons forsook the concept of unity and instead fought one another in an effort to expand their realms. As a consequence of this decision, Imerina fragmented and was wracked with conflict for 77 years, until the kingdom

5500-430: The fief paid taxes ( isam-pangady ) to the local lord, and offered him the hindquarters of all slaughtered zebu as tribute. Parents who adopted or disowned a child paid a fee of one silver piastre to the lord, and the property of those who died without children would revert to the king, who would share it with him. The inhabitants of a fief were bound to execute any work or task ordered by the tompo-menakely. The authority of

5610-464: The firearms, cannons and gunpowder available for the defense of the kingdom, and expanded the availability of luxury items like silver piastres and porcelain dishes. The dikes around the Betsimitatatra rice fields of Antananarivo were expanded and raised to help ensure against famine. In the interest of strengthening the defenses of the kingdom, Andriamasinavalona divided his realm into four quadrants to be ruled by his four favorite sons. This decision had

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5720-519: The first trano masina to be built on his tomb in honor of his memory. Andriana were also subjected to certain restrictions. Marriage outside the caste was forbidden by law among the lowest three ranks of Andriana. A high-ranking woman who married a lower-ranking man would take on her husband's lower rank. Although the inverse situation would not cause a high-ranking man to lose status, he could not transfer his rank or property to his children. For these reasons, intermarriage across Andriana caste divisions

5830-569: The first Merina sovereign to rule over the entire province of Imerina. The first of these four territories to be incorporated into Imerina was Fanongoavana, then a principality ruled by Andriampanarivofomanjaka. Continual threats to his kingdom's security led Andriampanarivofomanjaka to secretly travel to the Rova of Antananarivo to pledge submission to Andriamasinavalona. He was accompanied by seven advisers who eloquently communicated their master's willingness to acknowledge Andriamasinavalona as his king. Andriamasinavalona accepted this offer and sealed

5940-626: The founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara ). They may also be descended from the Zafiraminia (sons of Ramini) clans from the southwestern part of the island, possibly from Arab origin. The demand for slaves by first Omani Arabs who controlled the Zanzibar slave trade, and later European slave-traders, led to slave raiding operations and exercise of control on

6050-424: The four cardinal points surrounding a unifying center termed the "heart of Imerina" ( Imerina efa-toko ). Andriamasinavalona believed the kingdom would be better defended by four brothers than by one alone, and that they could support one another in warding off attackers from the outside. According to oral history, Andriamasinavalona asked the guardian of Matsatso, one of the three most prominent royal idols , to ask

6160-581: The free commoners' caste below the noble's hierarchy. During the rule of King Andriamanelo , a subset of Hova related to the king by blood gained the title Andriana . King Andriamanelo is credited with establishing the Andriana as a separate class in early Merina society. This class was subdivided into four groups by his son, the King Ralambo (1575–1600): The descendants of these three princes (Andriantompokoindrindra, Andrianamboninolona and Andriandranando) were called Andrianteloray . The caste

6270-459: The gathering dispersed in chaos. The king demanded to know who had loosed the bull so that he may be executed, but when Andriamampandry took responsibility he warned the king that yet more blood would be spilled before the earth would be quenched. He then criticized the king for his concern over the relatively few deaths at the gathering, in light of the number of people who would die as a consequence of his division of Imerina. He further predicted that

6380-403: The guardian of Soratra fled, while the guardian of Kelimalaza stated that only the king could choose his successor. Oral history relates that Andriamasinavalona then gathered the people at Andohalo to announce his decision. He requested the presence of his respected adviser and elder, Andriamampandry, who rebuffed the messenger by stating "I have no lamba ." The king sent him a lamba to wear, and

6490-413: The idol which of his sons should rule after him. The guardian hesitated to declare the idol's choice, but after the king promised no ill reaction to the decision, the man declared the successor to be Andrianavalonimerina. However, the king had hoped that the successor would be another son, Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana. He decided to test the prophecy by sending one of his wives to the guardian's house, where

6600-564: The island in increasing numbers between the 15th and the 18th centuries, particularly to the region where Sakalava people now live. This influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century, followed by other European powers. The founder of Sakalava legacy was Andriamisara. His descendant Andriandahifotsy ("the White Prince"), after 1610, then extended his authority northwards, past

6710-580: The island in the 15th century. They established their society there because of wars and migrant pressure at the coast. Merina people were settled in the central Madagascar and formed one of the three major kingdoms on the island by the 18th century, the other two being the Swahili-Arab influenced Sakalava kingdom in the northwest and the Austronesian Betsimisaraka kingdom in the northeast. The term Hova originally applied to all members of

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6820-464: The king by digging an escape passage under the wall of his heavily guarded enclosure. After returning to Antananarivo, Andriamasinavalona sent a messenger who announced that the king had decided to hand power to Andriantomponimerina and invited the prince to the capital to be enthroned. The prince hurried to the palace, and throughout the city he was greeted with cheers, singing and dancing. When Andriamasinavalona received him, however, he publicly condemned

6930-421: The king large shares of food and a tribute of silver. To reward the leader of the fief, Andriamasinavalona promised to give him anything he liked. Andriandrivotra declared that all he desired was the love of his sovereign. To show his appreciation, Andriamasinavalona declared that he would make Andriasisa into a great fief, and gave Andriandrivotra a large piece of land to the west of the territory. He then undertook

7040-411: The king simply preferred his company and had decided to reside with him at Ambohidratrimo. After some time, the king's designated successor, Andriambonimena, launched a retaliatory attack against the prince's half-brother Andrianentoarivo at Ambohipotsy and successfully chased him from his fief. Andriantomponimerina recognized the need to take more dramatic action to consolidate his grip on power and sent

7150-407: The king speechless. On another day, the elder brought four eagles to the king in a basket. When the basket was opened, the eagles flew wildly about the room, creating havoc. Andriamampandry warned the king that his realm would be no better off once his four sons got a taste of power. Andriamasinavalona recognized the danger but could not bear to choose which among his sons should be excluded from having

7260-444: The king. Outside of Antananarivo, the Zazamarolahy and the Andriamasinavalona settled throughout Imerina in the individual fiefs centered around the hill towns that they governed. In this way, nobles always lived in close proximity to the people they ruled, ensured their defense and provided for their livelihood. Andriamasinavalona established new rules to strengthen the authority of the tompo-menakely over their subjects. Inhabitants of

7370-495: The kingship of Imerina upon the deposition of his brother in 1675. The deposed king fled to the Sakalava kingdom to the west and attempted unsuccessfully to secure military support there to regain the throne. Two enduring royal traditions emerged in Imerina as a consequence of the power struggle between Andriamasinavalona and his older brother. Some versions of oral history describe a combat between their armies at Ambohibato in which Andriamasinavalona emerged victorious. He erected

7480-468: The land and was the most powerful of the four young sovereigns. Andriamasinavalona furthermore declared that his nephew Andriambonimena, his sister's son, would replace his own sons and succeed him as king after his death to rule all of Imerina as a united whole. The controversial decision to divide Imerina into four sub-kingdoms may have been rooted in the desire to reorganize the kingdom in accordance with traditional notions of symbolic unity as represented by

7590-414: The latter, the only real unifying factor of the different Sakalava dialects is their common membership to the western subgroup of Madagascar languages with strong influence from Africa, which distinguishes them from central and east coast languages of the island, which are primarily Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages. The Sakalava people are widely distributed, over about 128,000 square kilometers in

7700-434: The location of their clan tomb. In the countryside, Andriamasinavalona decreed that they should inhabit Ambohitrinimanga and Amboditsiry. At the time of Andriamasinavalona's reign, the highlands around Imerina were wracked with violent conflict among minor princedoms centered around fortified hill towns. Andriamasinavalona successfully united a number of these principalities in the territory bordering his own, thereby expanding

7810-454: The lord was highly independent and interference of the king was infrequent, in part due to the close kinship ties uniting the king to the Zazamarolahy and Andriamasinavalona sub-castes. The Zana-tompo (or Andriantompokoindrindra) were also considered elders, and Andriamasinavalona decreed that kings would henceforth select their wives and royal food tasters from among this caste. The rites pertaining to circumcision were another honor reserved for

7920-454: The major ports on the north and northwest region of Madagascar. Initially the Arabs exclusively supplied weapons to the Sakalava in exchange for slaves. These slaves were obtained from slave raids to Comoros and other coastal settlements of Madagascar, as well as from merchant ships arriving from the Swahili coast of Africa. The Sakalava kingdom quickly subjugated the neighbouring territories in

8030-409: The mid-2nd millennium. The Merina were probably the early arrivals, though this is uncertain, and other ethnic groups on Madagascar consider them relative newcomers to the island. The Merina people's culture likely mixed with the Madagascar natives named Vazimba, about whom little is known. According to the island's oral traditions, the "most Austronesian looking" Merina people reached the interior of

8140-468: The names of similar sites in the nearby village of Antananarivokely. During his reign the production of the Betsimitatatra rice fields around Antananarivo was dramatically increased. He also increased the number of guns and quantity of gunpowder in Imerina through trade with neighboring kingdoms, and imported the kingdom's first cannons for its defense. Other innovations included the importation and fabrication of plates made from sea turtle skin. He strengthened

8250-412: The neighborhoods of Antananarivo and in the countryside surrounding the capital. These territorial divisions were strictly enforced: members of subcastes were required to live within their designated territories and were not authorized to stay for extended periods in the territories reserved for others. Andriamasinavalona decentralized governance and strengthened the power of local administrators by creating

8360-506: The ninth century. According to Gwyn Campbell, "the most accurate genetic data to date indicates that the founding settlement, on the northwest coast, comprised a maximum of 20 households, totalling [sic] around 500 people, either genetically mixed, or half Austronesian and half African." Later, Africans of the Swahili , Arab and Indian and Tamil traders came to the island's northern regions. Enslaved people from mainland Africa were brought to

8470-577: The noble class in the 19th century. The valiha featured heavily in the music of the Merina royal court performed at palaces such as Ambohimanga or the Rova at Antananarivo . The strings of the valiha were more easily plucked with the fingernails, which were commonly grown long for this purpose; long fingernails became fashionable and symbolic of belonging to the Andriana class within the Kingdom of Imerina. At Antananarivo, only Andriana tombs were allowed to be constructed within town limits. Hovas (freemen) and slaves were required to bury their dead beyond

8580-480: The opposite effect, however; each was interested in expanding his own realm, prompting one son to kidnap the king and hold him hostage for seven years. After the king's eventual release, he famously committed a mock human sacrifice to re-sanctify his authority. Upon his death, Andriamasinavalona's sons launched military campaigns against one another to seize each other's territories, triggering 77 years of civil war in Imerina. In Madagascar today, Andriamasinavalona's reign

8690-401: The population showed her respect by offering zebu for her to eat. The zebu cooked inconsistently, and the king interpreted this as a sign that the guardian was dishonest and intended to seize power himself, so Andriamasinavalona ordered him put to death and had the idol Matsatso discarded in a lake. He then asked the guardians of the two other idols (Kelimalaza and Soratra) to declare a successor;

8800-446: The prince and stripped him of his rank and power. Two stories exist around a ritual of human sacrifice that Andriamasinavalona conducted after his imprisonment. In one version of the oral history, Andriamampandry and his fellow royal advisers were concerned that the king's imprisonment had weakened his authority and could lead the population to revolt against him. They suggested the king test his people by claiming to be ill and requesting

8910-463: The prince at Ambohimanga would unite Imerina and lead it back to greatness. Andriamasinavalona reportedly had no response to give Andriamampandry, but instead hung his head in shame. The 19th century transcription of Merina oral history, Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara , relates that Andriamampandry privately assessed the leadership qualities of each of the four selected sons, with disappointing results. He presented Andriambonimena of Alasora with

9020-418: The prince's half-brother, Andrianentoarivo, the prince hid himself in a trench he dug into the dirt floor of his royal residence at Ambohidratrimo, then ordered his people to send word to his father that he was "in the ground". Believing his son to be buried alive by the Marovatana as a punitive measure, Andriamasinavalona hurried to Ambohidratrimo carrying reeds as a symbol of peace; upon the king's entrance into

9130-424: The red parasol of royalty; the tradition of the royal parasol was introduced to Imerina during Andriamasinavalona's reign and persisted until the dissolution of the monarchy in 1897. He also decreed that their tombs should be topped with a tranomasina , a small wooden house without windows or hearth and containing their worldly riches, where their spirit could return to visit after death. Unlike other noble subcastes,

9240-449: The remains of the deceased rulers. The dady priests would conduct a ceremony called Tromba , whereby they divined the spirits of the dead ancestors and communicated their words back to the Sakalava people. Islam (5%) arrived among the Sakalava people with the Arab traders. It was adopted by the rulers of the Sakalava people in the eighteenth century, in order to gain the military support of

9350-418: The residence, however, Prince Andriantomponimerina locked Andriamasinavalona inside and refused to release him for the next seven years. During this time the prince repeatedly offered to free the king on the condition that Andriamasinavalona accept to transfer power to him, which the king repeatedly refused. Andriantomponimerina prevented his brothers from taking action against him by telling their messengers that

9460-404: The root Handrina , which means "head or forehead" in Malagasy. In Madagascar, the name of a Malagasy sovereign, prince, or nobleman was often historically composed by placing "Andriana" as a prefix to the remainder of the name. For example, the name of Merina king Andrianampoinimerina is a composite of "Andriana" and "Nampoinimerina", while that of the celebrated Sakalava warrior Andriamisara

9570-441: The rope and axe, gave him the basket of fine meat for his wife, and gave him the second basket, declaring "These are the parts for the axe (i.e. the neck) and the rope (i.e. the striated omasum)." Andriamampandry was deeply impressed by the hospitality and foresight of the prince. He related these incidents to Andriamasinavalona, who decided to test his sons in turn by calling them together to his house, then observing how they slept on

9680-460: The rova in Antananarivo. A man named Trimofoloalina stepped forward to sacrifice his life. In the first version of the story, royal advisers bound him with ropes and laid him on the ground to the west of the Masoandro palace within the rova compound at Antananarivo, but rather than kill the man they symbolically "sacrificed" him by pouring rooster blood mixed with water onto his throat. In the second, he

9790-468: The rule of an Andriana lord owed him, as well as the king, a certain amount of free labor each year ( fanompoana ) for public works such as the construction of dikes, rice paddies, roads and town walls. Posts of privilege within the government, such as judges or royal advisers, were likewise reserved for certain groups of Andriana. The valiha , the national instrument of Madagascar, was originally played by all classes of society, but became affiliated with

9900-456: The social order by creating two new noble castes, putting in place further restrictions and responsibilities for each, and decreeing the right of every woman to choose her own husband. Under Andriamasinavalona's rule, the political administration of Imerina became more clearly defined. The number of andriana (noble) sub-castes was expanded from four to six and additional roles and specific territories were designated for each group, both within

10010-415: The social taboo on intermarriage was weaker between the Andriana and Hova, but remained strong between Andriana and Andevo. The social mores and restrictions on inter-marriage between social strata were historically present among other Malagasy ethnic groups. The Andriana, along with the other castes, played an important part in the independence of Madagascar. For instance, Joseph Ravoahangy-Andrianavalona,

10120-427: The southern limit of the neighborhood of Andohalo in Antananarivo, just outside the walls of the royal palace. Although not authorized to rule the kingdom, the Andriamasinavalona were deemed societal elders and gained the right to become "masters of the fief" ( tompo-menakely ) and construct tranomasina on their tombs. They were also assigned the honor of burying deceased sovereigns and carrying out sacrifices requested by

10230-494: The spirits of their deceased royalty. The procession is more than a religious event, it has historically been a form of community celebration and identity affirming festival. Tromba is also found among other ethnic groups in other parts of Madagascar, but with Sakalava it has had a long association and support of the royal dynasties, which mutually perpetuated the practice and associated importance. The Sakalava society became socially stratified, like many other ethnic groups, with

10340-530: The start of the slavery. The Sakalava stratification system was hierarchical based on presumed purity of each stratum. In the Sakalava kingdom, the strata included the Ampanzaka , or the royal caste, and the Makoa , or the term for the descendants of African slaves. The Sakalava have been pastoralists with large zebu cattle herds, traditionally allowed to graze freely over the grasslands in their northwest region. Unlike

10450-838: The term and concept of Andriana is associated with the Merina people of Madagascar, the term is not limited to them. The use of the word "Andriana" to denote nobility occurs among numerous other Malagasy ethnic groups such as the Betsileo , the Betsimisaraka , the Tsimihety , the Bezanozano , the Antambahoaka , and the Antemoro . "Andriana" often traditionally formed part of the names of Malagasy kings, princes, and nobles. Linguistic evidence suggests its origin

10560-413: The territory of the kingdom to its largest extent. He created the Andohalo town square outside the gate of Antananarivo, where all successive sovereigns delivered their royal speeches and announcements to the public. Andriamasinavalona gave the city - previously called by the name of its hill, Analamanga - its current name of Antananarivo, and assigned the names of numerous locations within the city, based on

10670-808: The throne: Andriamborosy and Rafaralahimanjaka, born to Renilambo in Ambohidrapeto; Andriantsilavo, born to Ranavalona in Anosimanjaka; Andrianavalona, born to Rakalafohy in Isoraka; and Andriankotofananina, born to Reninandriankotofananina in Anosipatrana. The descendants of Andriamasinavalona's wives who renounced claim to the throne were ennobled by him as the royal Andriamasinavalona class. The remaining four marriages (to wives Ralanimboahangy, Raseranolona, Ranavalotomponimerina and Ramanamabahoaka) would not produce children, but one of these wives - Ralanimboahangy - adopted

10780-479: The tradition of circumcision in Imerina. The collection of water gourds and arranging of freshly woven mats for use in the ceremony were made the responsibility of this clan. The Antehiroka were also tasked with delivering royal benedictions, receiving hasina (tribute) on behalf of the king, and wrapping deceased sovereigns in the traditional lambamena shroud. In Antananarivo, the Antehiroka were placed in Ampamaho,

10890-438: The union of their territories by marrying Andriampanarivofomanjaka to his sister, Ranavalontsimitovy. Andriampanarivofomanjaka then returned to his realm, announced the union to his people, and then spoke with the leaders of the neighboring Bezanozano people to successfully persuade them to join the kingdom and benefit from Andriamasinavalona's protection. The territory of Ombifotsy was ruled by Andriambahoakafovoanitany, who had

11000-742: The west to Ambohimanoro in the east, and from the road to Ambavahadimasina northward to Ambatonandriankoto. King Andriamasinavalona decreed that within the capital city, the Zanaralambo would live in the area delimited by Ambohitsoa to the southwest, Ambodivoanonoka to the east, and Andohalokely in the north. Outside the capital, each group had its designated villages. The Andrianamboninolona lived in Ambohitromby, Fieferana, Ambohipiainana and Ambohitriniandriana. The Andriandranando lived in Ambohibe, Ambohimailala, Manankasina, Soamanandrariny, Betsizaraina, Iadiambola, Masinandriana, Ampomanjaka and Akadindramamy. Finally,

11110-541: The western and northwest region of the island, in a band along the coast. The Sakalava constitute about 6.2 percent of the total population, that is about 2,079,000 in 2018. Their name means "people of the long valleys." They occupy the western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to the Sambirano River in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of smaller ethnic groups that once comprised an empire, rather than an ethnic group in its own right. The origin of

11220-517: The western of northwestern regions of Madagascar during the 1700s. The Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe , centred in what was then known as Andakabe, now the town of Morondava , were principal among them. The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana , Mahajanga and Toliara . The Sakalava kingdom reached its peak geographic spread between 1730 and 1760, under King Andrianinevenarivo. According to local tradition,

11330-489: The word Sakalava itself is still subject to controversy, as well as its actual meaning. The most common explanation is the modern Malagasy translation of Sakalava meaning long ravines, denoting the relatively flat nature of the land in western Madagascar. Another theory is that the word is possibly from the Arabic saqaliba , which is in turn derived from Late Latin sclavus , meaning slave. Sakalavas are considered to be

11440-454: Was available. The king then sent porters to purchase rice from Antsahatovoka, where the residents declared that while the land was his and it was thus unnecessary for the king to purchase what already belonged to him, there was no rice available to share. Finally Andriamasinavalona sought to purchase rice in Andraisisa. His money was refused by the local leader, Andriandrivotra, who willingly gave

11550-572: Was bound and hoisted to the top of the central pillar of the new building, and his ear was nicked to allow several drops of blood to fall on the top of the pillar to sanctify it. Trimofoloalina was then released and the king asked him to name a reward for his courageous gesture. The man requested that he and his descendants would forever after be exempted from the death penalty for any crime they might commit; Andriamasinavalona agreed to grant this reward. Andriamasinavalona died in 1710 when one of his wives, Rasolomananambonitany, inadvertently pushed him from

11660-433: Was further divided into six groups by Ralambo's great-great-grandson King Andriamasinavalona (1675–1710), based on locality and genealogical proximity to the ruling family. The Andriana class was divided again into seven groups by King Andrianampoinimerina (1778–1810). In rank order, these groups were: The Andriana caste was originally the source of nobility, and specialized in the rituals and warrior occupations in

11770-467: Was obligated to contribute, and those who had no money sold their children or themselves into slavery in order to raise the necessary funds. The money was placed in seven baskets and transported by dugout canoe to the prince at Ambohidratrimo, who released the king. According to another version of the story, Prince Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana of Ambohimanga sent two hunters of the Tsimahafotsy clan to free

11880-503: Was once again united during the reign of Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). The reign of Andriamasinavalona is remembered in Madagascar as a golden age of prosperity, justice, abundance and harmony. He is described in oral histories as a talented politician and kind and just ruler. His name is often traditionally invoked in Imerina when paying tribute to the ancestors or making a binding pledge. Regarding Andriamasinavalona's legacy, Ellis (1832) remarked, "The character of this chieftain

11990-470: Was relatively infrequent. The Andriana, the Hova, and the Andevo strata were endogamous in the Merina society. According to the colonial era missionary William Ellis's memoir of 1838, an Andriana in the Malagasy society was prohibited from marrying a Hova or an Andevo. The exception, stated Ellis, was the unmarried Queen, who could marry anyone from any strata including the Hova, and her children were deemed to be royal. In contrast, Sandra Evers states that

12100-404: Was the Sakalava coastal town of Mahajanga . The Sakalava had a monopoly on slave trade in Madagascar till the end of the 18th century. Although smaller by population, their weapons permitted them wide reach and power, allowing them to force other more populous ethnic groups to pay tribute to them in the eighteenth century. The Merina king Radama I bought guns in late 18th century, launched

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