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148-401: Arabic in al-Andalus existed largely in a situation of bilingualism with Andalusi Romance (known popularly as Mozarabic ) until the 13th century. It was also characterized by diglossia : in addition to standard written Arabic, spoken varieties could be subdivided into an urban, educated idiolect and a register of the less-privileged masses. Spoken Andalusi Arabic had distinct features. It

296-463: A superstrate , prestige language and the dominant medium of literary and intellectual expression in the southern half of the peninsula from the 8th century to the 13th century. Arabic in al-Andalus existed largely in a situation of bilingualism with Romance until the 13th century. It also coexisted with Hebrew , and Arabic features and traditions had a major impact on Jewish poetry in Iberia. There

444-412: A "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he or she is immersed in

592-550: A base for the Turkish fleet." Nothing came of it at the time, but the Duke of Lerma continued his antipathy toward the Moriscos. The humanist Pedro de Valencia wrote a treatise on the Moriscos in late 1605 or early 1606. His Tratado acerca de los Moriscos de España was composed at the request of Philip III's chaplain, Fray Diego de Mardones  [ es ] . Valencia is a critic of

740-472: A century after the death of Muhammad , involved a few thousand Arab tribesmen and a much larger number of partially Arabicized Amazigh , many of whom spoke little or no Arabic . According to Consuelo López-Morillas , "this population sowed the seeds of what was to grow into an indigenous Andalusi Arabic." Unlike the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania , through which Latin remained the dominant language,

888-601: A certain very marginally enhanced or no different executive function , and older onset for dementia . More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects. Second language acquisition results in

1036-529: A consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (e.g., Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more persons and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons. In sequential bilingualism , learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire

1184-470: A continuum between internationalization and localization . Due to the status of English in computing , software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of non-English-based programming languages ). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. The first recorded use of

1332-432: A continuum between internationalization and localization : Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages ) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites , web browsers , etc.). Due to

1480-524: A culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric , then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing. People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer –

1628-444: A different language from the source text; macaronic texts which mix together two or more languages with the expectation that the reader will understand both; the existence of separate sacred and vernacular languages (such as Church Latin vs. common forms of Latin , and Hebrew vs. Aramaic and Jewish languages ); and the frequency of linguistic borrowings and other results of language contact . The definition of multilingualism

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1776-637: A few business records and one letter written at the beginning of the 17th century in Valencia . Multilingualism Multilingualism is the use of more than one language , either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. When the languages are just two, it is usually called Bilingualism . It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population . More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue ; but many read and write in one language. Being multilingual

1924-521: A few years later. The Kingdom of Aragon was, after Valencia, the part of the peninsula with the largest rate of expelled Moriscos and suffered the consequences as disastrously as Valencia, according to Henri Lapeyre . Of those permanently expelled, the majority eventually settled in the Barbary Coast ( Maghreb ), with around 30,000 to 75,000 people ultimately returning to Spain. Those who avoided expulsion or who managed to return to Spain merged into

2072-451: A global lingua franca , sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries in question have just one domestic official language. This occurs especially in regions such as Scandinavia and the Benelux , as well as among Germanophones , but the phenomenon has also been expanding into some non-Germanic countries. One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls

2220-722: A language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms ) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively can form an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy , open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity , which claims that

2368-644: A lexical deficit due to second language acquisition and bilingualism results in decreased verbal fluency. Bilingual and multilingual individuals are shown to have superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals. Several investigations have compared auditory processing abilities of monolingual and bilingual individuals using tasks such as gap detection, temporal ordering, pitch pattern recognition etc. In general, results of studies have reported superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. Furthermore, among bilingual individuals, one's level of proficiency in one's second language

2516-600: A majority – either avoided expulsion or returned in the years following expulsion. In the Kingdom of Valencia, which held the bulk of the Morisco population in the Crown of Aragón, the situation was radically different to Castile. Valencian Moriscos were the overwhelming majority of the landless peasantry and lived segregated from Christian populations. Economic and social rivalry was a major driver of resentment towards them, particularly from

2664-411: A native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation

2812-772: A new one. Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the critical period , around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced. There is no evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive function and there is a small bilingual disadvantage in verbal fluency. Some initial reports concluded that people who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals, and this idea persisted in part due to publication bias . Current meta-analyses find no effect. Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have

2960-401: A picture of a well-run affair that succeeded in channeling the vast majority of Moriscos (around 270,000) out of the country in a short period of time. As a result, early estimates of Moriscos who succeeded in remaining in the country after the expulsion were as low as 15,000. However, a number of recent investigative studies have challenged the traditional discourse on the supposed success of

3108-422: A prodigious capacity for languages. Savant syndrome is almost always associated with an increased memory capacity of some sort, which can, for certain savants, aid in storing and retrieving knowledge of different languages. In 1991, for example, linguists Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described a man, named Christopher, who learned sixteen languages even with a non-verbal IQ between 40 and 70. Christopher

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3256-465: A reaction to an internal problem of the stretched Spanish Empire . Between 1609 through 1614, the Crown systematically expelled Moriscos through a number of decrees affecting Spain's various kingdoms, with varying levels of success. Between 1492 and 1610 alone, about three million Muslims left or were expelled from Spain. Although initial estimates of the number expelled such as those of Henri Lapeyre range between 275,000 and 300,000 Moriscos (or 4% of

3404-510: A register of the less-privileged masses. Many features of Andalusi Arabic have been reconstructed by Arabists using Hispano-Arabic texts (such as the azjāl of ibn Quzman , al-Shushtari and others) composed in Arabic with varying degrees of deviation from classical norms, augmented by further information from the manner in which the Arabic script was used to transliterate Romance words. The first complete linguistic description of Andalusi Arabic

3552-635: A result agricultural output in Valencia dropped greatly. The expulsion was a crippling blow not just to the economies of Aragon and Valencia, but also to the power of their nobles. The former Crown of Aragon had been in the shadow of the richer and more populous Crown of Castile for some time, but with this, their stature dropped still further. Of the eastern kingdoms themselves, the Catalan nobles now rose to prominence, their incomes far less affected since, unlike their southern and western neighbours, they never had

3700-683: A result of the Royal Decree. Upon the coronation of Felipe IV, the new king gave the order to desist from attempting to impose measures on returnees and in September 1628 the Council of the Supreme Inquisition ordered inquisitors in Seville not to prosecute expelled Moriscos "unless they cause significant commotion." An investigation published in 2012 sheds light on the thousands of Moriscos who remained in

3848-572: A royal councilor, supported giving time to the Moriscos to assimilate and become full Christians. This option was lightly supported by the Catholic Church in Rome, too. The most dedicated defenders of the Moriscos were the Valencian and Aragonese nobility, as their self-interest was involved. These nobles benefited the most from the poor and cheap workforce that the Moriscos provided. Opposing this view were

3996-647: A royal decree in Spain forbidding Moriscos from the use of Arabic on all occasions , formal and informal, speaking and writing. Using Arabic henceforth would be regarded as a crime. Arabic speakers were given three years to learn a "Christian" language, after which they would have to get rid of all Arabic written material. This triggered one of the largest revolts, the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–1571) . Still, Andalusi Arabic remained in use in certain areas of Spain (particularly

4144-524: A school setting where instruction is offered in a different language. In simultaneous bilingualism , the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language. The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition

4292-453: A shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of

4440-506: A significant Morisco population. Thus the expulsion helped shift power away from its traditional centers in Valencia to the Principality of Catalonia within the Crown of Aragon. In reaction to the policy of Spain to facilitate access to Spanish citizenship by descendants of the Jews who were expelled from Spain, there has been demand from Muslims to apply a similar policy to the descendants of

4588-442: A strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages. This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within

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4736-664: A substratum to an adstratum to a superstratum with respect to Arabic. Semantic fields such as plant and animal names, domestic objects, and agriculture received the most loanwords. Sometimes both the Romance and Arabic words were used, such as the words imlíq (from UMBILICU ) and surra ( سُرَّة ) for navel ; Consuelo Lopez-Morillas recalls "the many households made up of Hispano-Roman women and Arab men." Once subsumed into Arabic morphological patterns, Romance loanwords became difficult to distinguish as such. For example, nibšāriuh (from aniversario 'anniversary' or 'birthday')

4884-445: A unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to

5032-516: A variety of notables and classes of people. Clerics against Aliaga included Jaime Bleda , the most prominent member of the Inquisition in Valencia. Bleda made several early proposals to King Philip III to banish or otherwise end the Morisco problem; he even recommended genocide . At first, these entreaties were without success. In 1596 the Duke of Lerma , King Philip III's chief financial officer, accused

5180-608: A way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT Jan A. Nelson and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive

5328-415: A year later found that switching to a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from social norms and constraints, such as political correctness . In 2014, another study showed that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with moral dilemmas, such as the trolley problem and its variations. Participants in this study chose the utilitarian option more often in

5476-460: Is a cognitive process , rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning. Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation . European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to

5624-603: Is a fusion of two or more languages that is grammatically simplified but can be understood by native speakers of any of the original languages. Some pidgins develop into "real" creole languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore ), while others simply evolve into slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang , which remains more or less mutually intelligible with standard Finnish and Swedish). In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have

5772-422: Is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages. A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while

5920-613: Is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. At one end of the linguistic continuum, multilingualism may be defined as the mastery of more than one language. The speaker would have knowledge of and control over the languages equivalent to that of a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent . In addition, there

6068-460: Is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots . Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood,

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6216-581: Is based on the observation of the Swedish language in Finland in environments such as schools is subordinated to the majority language Finnish for practical and social reasons, despite the positive characteristics associated with mutual language learning. Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of

6364-507: Is estimated they constituted a fifth of the population, and the Valencia area specifically, where they were a third of the total population. The rich and those who lived in the cities were mostly Christians, while the Moriscos occupied the outlying countryside and the poor suburbs of the cities. In the Crown of Castile , which included the Guadalquivir valley in present Andalusia, the situation

6512-483: Is evidence that code-switching was commonplace among bilingual populations in al-Andalus. It also had some contact with Berber languages or al-lisān al-gharbī ( اللسان الغربي 'the western tongue') in periods of Berber rule, particularly under the Almoravids and Almohads, though Federico Corriente identified only about 15 Berberisms that entered Andalusi Arabic speech. The influence of Romance on Andalusi Arabic

6660-592: Is evidenced by occasional Romance or even local Arabic transcription of / a / as [ o ] or [ u ] . There was a fair amount of compensatory lengthening involved where a loss of consonantal gemination lengthened the preceding vowel, whence the transformation of عشّ /ʕuʃ(ʃ)/ ("nest") into عوش /ʕuːʃ/ . New phonemes introduced into Andalusi Arabic, such as /p/ and /t͡ʃ/ were often written as geminated بّ and جّ respectively. This would later be carried over into Aljamiado , in which /p/ and /t͡ʃ/ in Romance languages would be transcribed with

6808-478: Is generally referred to as a polyglot , a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in

6956-538: Is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English . Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects; after

7104-527: Is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia . Most speakers of Swedish , Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages

7252-414: Is one form of language contact . Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India . Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of

7400-434: Is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can logically speak any language they write in (aside from mute multilingual people ), but they cannot necessarily write in any language they speak. More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person

7548-399: Is unique among colloquial dialects in retaining from Standard Arabic the internal passive voice through vocalization. Through contact with Romance , spoken Andalusi Arabic adopted the phonemes / p / and / tʃ / . Like the other Iberian languages, Andalusi lacked vowel length but had stress instead (e.g. Andalusí in place of Andalusī ). A feature shared with Maghrebi Arabic was that

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7696-731: Is usually called non-convergent discourse , a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans , although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia , where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages ( Czech and Slovak ) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it

7844-461: The viceroy ordered the publication of the decree. The Valencian aristocracy met with the government to protest the expulsion, as losing their workers would ruin their agricultural incomes. The government offered some of the confiscated property and territory of the Moriscos to them in exchange, but this didn't come close to compensating for the loss. The Moriscos would be allowed to take anything they could carry, but their homes and land would pass into

7992-523: The 11th century on, in stanzaic dialectal poems ( zajal ) and dialectal proverb collections. Substantial material on late Granadan Arabic survives in the work of Pedro de Alcalá —the Vocabulista aravigo en letra castellana and Arte para ligeramente saber la lengua araviga , both published in 1505 to explain the language of the conquered to the conquerors following the Fall of Granada . Its last documents are

8140-453: The 1620s. The Council of Castile evaluated the expulsion in 1619 and concluded that it had no economic impact for the country. This was basically true for Castile, as some scholars of the expulsion have found no economic consequences on sectors where the Morisco population was important. However, in the Kingdom of Valencia , fields were abandoned and a vacuum was left in sectors of the economy

8288-590: The African influence on the Iberian Peninsula is, by far, more intense than in other European surrounding territories and populations. Approximately 5% of Spaniards have E-M81 Y-haplogroup, which is the characteristic haplogroup of North Africans or Berbers which is generally attributed to Islamic rule and settlement of the Iberian peninsula. Common North African genetic markers which are relatively high frequencies in

8436-600: The Basque country. The uneven distribution of admixture in Spain has been explained by the extent and intensity of Islamic colonization in a given area, but also by the varying levels of success in attempting to expel the Moriscos in different regions of Spain, as well as forced and voluntary Morisco population movements during the 16th and 17th centuries. As for tracing Morisco descendants in North Africa, to date there have been few genetic studies of populations of Morisco origin in

8584-533: The Classical language. Alternatively in higher registers, [ e ] and [ o ] were only allophones of / i / and / u / respectively, while diphthongs were mostly resistant to monophthongization. However, / a / could turn into [ e ] or [ i ] via imāla . In the presence of velar or pharyngeal contour, / a / was backed into [ ɑ ] and sometimes even rounded into [ o ] or [ u ] , or even [ ɒ ] . This

8732-518: The Crown to expel them, to the point that in Plasencia the Crown officials sent to deport the Moriscos were immediately jailed upon arrival and in Avila the local Moriscos were integrated in the clergy and government positions to avoid expulsion. At the time however, an additional Morisco community co-existed with these Mudejar Moriscos: a large number of Granada Moriscos who had been deported or dispersed after

8880-466: The Fat Man dilemma when it was presented in a foreign language. For the related Switch Track dilemma, however, the use of a foreign language presented no significant influence on the choices participants made. The authors of this study surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language. Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of

9028-505: The Iberian peninsula as compared to most of the European continent are Y-chromosome E1b1b1b1 (E-M81) and mtDNA Haplogroups L and U6. Studies coincide that North African admixture tends to increase in the South and West of the peninsula, peaking in parts of Andalusia, Extremadura and North West Castile. Distribution of North African markers are largely absent from the northeast of Spain as well as

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9176-625: The Maghreb region, although studies of the Moroccan population have not detected significant recent genetic inflow from the Iberian peninsula. A recent study of various Tunisian ethnic groups has found that all were indigenous North African, including those who self-identified as Andalusians. In Turkey the Y-DNA and mt-DNA of Moriscos is also found as a result of the settlement of Moriscos in Galata between 1609 and

9324-671: The Middle classes of artisans. This had boiled over before in 1520, when in the Revolt of the Brotherhoods , the artisan guilds of Valencia revolted against both the landed aristocracy and the Muslim mudéjar peasantry. Although the rebellion was ultimately defeated in 1523, the rebels killed many, and forced the mass baptism and conversion of the remainder of the Muslim population. In 1525, these forced conversions were upheld by King Charles, thus creating

9472-492: The Moriscos of Castile, Extremadura and Andalusia (then all part of the Crown of Castile) was the most difficult task, since they were dispersed across the land after being broken in 1571 by the rebellion rather than being concentrated in any one place. Because of this, the Moriscos were given a first option of voluntary departure, where they could take their most valuable possessions and anything else that might sell. Thus, in Castile

9620-462: The Moriscos of Valencia. The plight of the Valencian Moriscos was the worst during the expulsion due to the long-standing hostility of their Christian neighbors. There was practically universal agreement in Spain that Islam was a threat that should be crushed. However, it was not clear how that should apply to the Moriscos, who were officially Christian. Some clerics such as Fray Luis de Aliaga,

9768-488: The Moriscos of collaboration with the Muslim Barbary pirates , a charge that had dogged them for years. Still, while many in the population held to this, others considered that this threat had long since passed. The Council of Aragon, in opposing any punitive measures, wrote that even if they wished to betray Spain, the Moriscos were in no position to do so "for they possess no arms, nor supplies, nor fortified positions, nor

9916-521: The Moriscos of the Catalan Low Segre . Crypto-Muslims continued to exist in Spain for centuries after decree on the expulsion of the Moriscos but Islam continued to slowly die out to the 19th century, as it being forced to be concealed led to its demise. Many Moriscos settled in parts of the Ottoman Empire from around 1609 until the 1620s, especially in Galata . Spain's Morisco population

10064-618: The Moriscos, in contrast, were devout in their new Christian faith, and in Granada , many Moriscos even became Christian martyrs , and were killed by Muslims for refusing to renounce Christianity. Much of the enmity between the Old and New Christians was based on ethnicity rather than religion. Several revolts broke out, the most notable being the 1568–1573 revolt against an edict of Phillip II's banning Arabic , Arabic names, and requiring Moriscos to give up their children to be educated by priests. After

10212-401: The Muslim conquest brought a language that was a vehicle for a cultural and religious subjugation. Over the centuries, Arabic spread gradually in al-Andalus, primarily through conversion to Islam . While Alvarus of Cordoba lamented in the 9th century that Christians were no longer using Latin, Richard Bulliet estimates that only 50% of the population of al-Andalus had converted to Islam by

10360-621: The Muslims of Granada were forced to choose between conversion and exile; those who converted became known as the Moriscos . In 1526, this requirement was extended to Muslims in the rest of Spain, the Mudéjars . In 1567, due to the wars against the Ottoman Empire and to the fact that the Moriscos had revealed themselves as agents of the enemy who helped the Ottomans against Spain, Philip II of Spain issued

10508-513: The Quran is a false book and that Muslims engage in taqiyya (strategic lying). His preferred solution to the problema morisco is assimilation. The duty of Spanish Christians was to fast and pray: [...] nor would it be a bad idea if the Moriscos were to see that we were saddened and were fasting for their salvation; that would be more edifying for them than for us to call them Moorish dogs. The Duke of Lerma eventually convinced King Philip III with

10656-504: The Spanish as corrupted by the Muslims and crypto-Muslims amongst them, which some of the nobility may have taken personally. The situation further deteriorated in the early 17th century. A recession struck in 1604 as the amount of gold and treasure from Spain's American holdings fell. The reduction in the standard of living led to increased tension between the Moriscos and Old Christians for precious jobs. The number of Moriscos in Spain at

10804-455: The above letters, each containing a shadda . Andalusi Arabic is uniquely conservative among colloquial Arabic dialects for retaining the internal passive voice ( صيغة المجهول ' sighatu l-majhūl ') of Standard Arabic verbs , using the same stem of the active voice verb with different vocalization. The passive voice is expressed in the past or perfect tense with kasra (/i/) on the last syllable and damma (/u/) on all other syllables, and in

10952-556: The breakup of Yugoslavia , it was split into Serbian , Croatian , Bosnian and Montenegrin . Another example is the historical dismissal of Ukrainian as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings. Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages:

11100-923: The case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other. In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill that a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on

11248-480: The case that ق most often represented /q/ , sometimes /k/ , and marginally /ɡ/ based on a plethora of surviving Andalusi writings and Romance transcriptions of Andalusi Arabic words. The vowel system was subject to a heavy amount of fronting and raising, a phenomenon known as imāla , causing /a(ː)/ to be raised, probably to [ ɛ ] or [ e ] and, particularly with short vowels, [ ɪ ] in certain circumstances, particularly when i-mutation

11396-517: The community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved: Note that the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms polyglossia , omnilingualism , and multipart-lingualism are more appropriate. Taxell's paradox refers to the notion that monolingual solutions are essential to the realization of functional bilingualism, with multilingual solutions ultimately leading to monolingualism. The theory

11544-411: The community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French. Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome

11692-760: The country, and up to 70,000 of those expelled managed to return. A significant section of his work is devoted to the example of Villarubia de los Ojos in southern Castile. The Morisco population of this town, who may not have been authentic Moriscos but who had been classified as Moriscos to appropriate their property, was the target of three expulsions which they managed to avoid or from which they succeeded in returning from to their town of origin, being protected and hidden by their non-Morisco neighbours. Dadson provides numerous examples, of similar incidents throughout Spain whereby Moriscos were protected and supported by non-Moriscos and returned en masse from North Africa, Portugal or France to their towns of origin. A similar study on

11840-518: The death of Abd al-Rahman III in 961, and 80% by 1100. By about 1260, Muslim territories in Iberia were reduced to the Emirate of Granada , in which more than 90% of the population had converted to Islam and Arabic-Romance bilingualism seems to have disappeared. The colloquial Arabic of al-Andalus was prominent among the varieties of Arabic of its time in its use for literary purposes, especially in zajal poetry and proverbs and aphorisms . In 1502,

11988-425: The development of new languages by forming connections from one language to another. Second language acquisition results in a lexical deficit. Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as

12136-500: The development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to ensure that broad availability of multilingual app development is provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Universal Windows Platform apps as well as for iOS and Android apps. Expulsion of the Moriscos The Expulsion of the Moriscos ( Spanish : Expulsión de los moriscos )

12284-449: The dominant culture. The last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices took place in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. By the end of the 18th century, indigenous Islam and Morisco identity were considered to have been extinguished in Spain. Suspicions and tensions between Moriscos, who were called New Christians , and

12432-494: The early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more cognitive flexibility , including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required will perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools. A multilingual person

12580-642: The effect of changing one or both of them to the point a new, non-creole language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided by the political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and also has borrowings from Slavic languages. Bilingual interaction can even take place without speakers switching between languages or fusing them together. In certain areas, it

12728-532: The exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition. This is most commonly seen among immigrant communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to

12876-449: The exile was optional for children less than four years old. This was later expanded to 16 years of age. Archbishop Ribera strongly opposed this part of the measure; he lobbied that at the very least the children should be separated from their parents, enslaved, and Christianized "for the good of their souls." On September 30, the first of the exiles were taken to the ports, where, as a last insult, they were forced to pay their own fare for

13024-406: The expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of

13172-484: The expulsion in Andalusia concluded it was an inefficient operation which was significantly reduced in its severity by resistance to the measure from local authorities and populations. It further highlights the constant flow of returnees from North Africa, creating a dilemma for the local inquisition who did not know how to deal with those who had been given no choice but to convert to Islam during their stay in Muslim lands as

13320-416: The expulsion in purging Spain of its Morisco population. A number of modern studies have concluded that expulsion met widely differing levels of success, particularly within the two major Spanish crowns of Castile and Aragon. One of the earliest anglophone re-examinations of Morisco expulsion was carried out by Trevor J. Dadson in 2007. Dadson estimated that as much as 40% of Moriscos (around 200,000) never left

13468-566: The expulsion lasted three years, from 1611 to 1614. It is very difficult to gauge the success of the expulsion in purging Spain of its Morisco population, a topic which has been recently subject to academic reassessment. Even estimates of the number of Moriscos present in Spain prior to expulsion vary, ranging from numbers based on records of expulsion orders, such as those of Lynch and Lapeyre, (around 300,000) to more recent estimates of up to one million. Equally, traditional Spanish historiography, and early studies which drew heavily from it, paint

13616-482: The expulsion was particularly successful were the eastern Kingdom of Valencia , where Muslims represented the bulk of the peasantry and ethnic tension with the Christian, Catalan-speaking middle class was high; as a result, this region implemented the expulsion most severely and successfully, leading to the economic collapse and depopulation of much of its territory, worsened by the bubonic plague that hit Valencia only

13764-631: The extensive Berber presence in al-Andalus. Corriente identified about 15 Berberisms that entered Andalusi Arabic, only a few of which were still in use in the early 16th century. The phoneme represented by the letter ق in texts is a point of contention. The letter, which in Classical Arabic represented either a voiceless pharyngealized velar stop or a voiceless uvular stop , most likely represented some kind of post-alveolar affricate or velar plosive in Andalusi Arabic. Federico Corriente presents

13912-417: The family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of languages , namely

14060-420: The first language. Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire a second language. Previously, children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, but today, researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is closer to five years. An interesting outcome of studies during

14208-521: The first-person imperfect was marked with the prefix n- ( نلعب nalʿab 'I play') like the plural in Standard Arabic, necessitating an analogical imperfect first-person plural, constructed with the suffix -ū ( نلعبوا nalʿabū 'we play'). A feature characteristic of it was the extensive imala that transformed alif into an /e/ or /i/ (e.g. al-kirā ("rent") > al-kirē > Spanish " alquiler "). The Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, about

14356-466: The gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by O. Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits, as bilingual people were found to earn around $ 3,000 more per year in salary than monolinguals. A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It

14504-435: The hands of their masters. Burning or other destruction of their homes before the transfer was prohibited on death penalty. Certain exceptions were granted: six families out of every 100 would be allowed to stay behind and maintain the infrastructure of towns that had been predominantly Morisco-inhabited. Very few took advantage of this, considering that it was thought likely that they would still be exiled later. Additionally,

14652-621: The help of the Archbishop of Valencia, Juan de Ribera , who considered the Moriscos as universally heretics and traitors. The archbishop added an idea to make the plan more persuasive to the king: the king could confiscate the assets and properties of the Moorish population, thereby providing a dramatic one-time boost to the royal coffers. Ribera also encouraged the king to enslave the Moriscos for work in galleys , mines, and abroad as he could do so "without any scruples of conscience," but this proposal

14800-432: The human language acquisition device —a mechanism that enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty , which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2). If language learning

14948-496: The imperfect (prefix) form of a verb, preceded by either kān or kīn (depending on the register of the speech in question), of which the final -n was normally assimilated by preformatives y- and t- . An example drawn from Ibn Quzmān will illustrate this: The oldest evidence of Andalusi Arabic utterances can be dated from the 10th and 11th century, in isolated quotes, both in prose and stanzaic Classical Andalusi poems ( muwashshahat ), and then, from

15096-438: The imperfect tense with damma /u/ on the personal subject prefix—the first syllable—and fatḥah /a/ on the following syllables. Some nouns in Andalusi Arabic shifted gender to match the gender of corresponding terms in Romance, such as the feminine Arabic nouns ʿayn ( عين 'eye') and shams ( شمس 'sun'), which became masculine in al-Andalus, matching ojo and sol . Gender distinction in second-person pronouns and verbs

15244-951: The inner regions of Valencia and Aragon ) until the final expulsion of the Moriscos at the beginning of the 17th century. Andalusi Arabic is still used in Andalusi classical music and has significantly influenced the dialects of such towns as Sfax in Tunisia, Rabat , Salé , Fès , Tétouan and Tangier in Morocco, Nedroma , Tlemcen , Blida , Jijel , and Cherchell in Algeria, and Alexandria in Egypt. Andalusi Arabic also influenced Andalusi Romance ("Mozarabic"), Spanish , Judaeo-Spanish varieties, Catalan-Valencian-Balearic , Portuguese , Classical Arabic and Moroccan , Tunisian , Egyptian , Hassani and Algerian Arabics. Under Muslim rule, Arabic became

15392-545: The interconnectedness among neighboring countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union . Based on the research in Ann Fathman's The Relationship Between Age and Second Language Productive Ability , there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but

15540-508: The king's Morisco policy. He denigrates limpieza de sangre (purity of blood): Let us not fear that the blood of Spaniards will be infected by being mixed with that of the Moors; many have had this from time immemorial and it does not harm them because idem est non esse et non apparere (to be is not the same as to appear), as the jurists say. He considers the expulsions unjust and un-Christian, born out of greed and hatred: If we consider again

15688-485: The lands of the old Crown of Aragon ); 41,952 were sent to North Africa via Alfaques, and 13,470 were sent over the Pyrenees Mountains to France. The exasperated French sent most of them to the port of Agde , and those who took the land route were charged both the transit fee and the sea fare. In September, the Moriscos of Catalonia were exiled. Andalusia exiled some 32,000 Moriscos as well. The expulsion of

15836-576: The language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven : "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent

15984-526: The native Christians could not possibly fill. With the removal by 33% of the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Valencia, some counties in the north of the current Alicante province lost virtually their entire population. The infrastructure decayed, and the Christian nobles and landlords fell into arrears . Strapped for cash, many of the Valencian nobles increased rents on their Christian tenants to get even close to their previous income. The increase in rents drove off any new tenants from coming to replace them, and as

16132-444: The order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age. In second language class, students commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and cultural patterns. Robert B. Kaplan believes that in second language classes, foreign students' papers may seem out of focus because the foreign student employs rhetoric and sequences of thought that violate

16280-510: The other Christians, who were called Old Christians , were high in some parts of Spain but practically nonexistent in others. While some Moriscos did hold influence and power, and even had positions in the clergy, others, particularly in Valencia and Aragon, were a source of cheap labour for the local aristocracy. Where sectarian conflict existed, Old Christian communities suspected the Moriscos of not being sincere in their Christianity. The Moors who remained Muslims were known as Mudéjar . Many of

16428-522: The other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of " code-switching " in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize

16576-441: The parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in their parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or

16724-399: The perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of

16872-417: The person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described by the communication accommodation theory . Some multilingual people use code-switching , which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching allows speakers to participate in more than one cultural group or environment. Code-switching may also function as

17020-462: The population of Africa is multilingual. In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify

17168-436: The process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life. Translanguaging also supports the acquisition of new languages. It helps

17316-568: The province of Granada alone, surviving both the initial expulsion to other parts of Spain in 1571 and the final expulsion of 1604. These Moriscos managed to evade the royal decrees in various ways, thereafter hiding their true origin. More surprisingly, by the 17th and 18th centuries much of this group accumulated great wealth by controlling the silk trade and also holding about a hundred public offices. Most of these lineages were nevertheless completely assimilated over generations despite their practice of endogamy . A compact core of active crypto-Muslims

17464-500: The question of justice, how can one justify before God or man, or what Christian could there be that could bear to see in the fields, and on the beaches such a large crowd of baptised men and women, who were calling out to God and to the world that they were Christians and wished to be so and that people were taking their children and their property from them out of greed and hatred, without listening to them or judging them in court, and they were sending them to become Moors. He admits that

17612-449: The remote valley of Ayora and Muela de Cortes . Five days later, a new rebellion broke out on the southern coast, with 15,000 rebels holding the Valley of Lugar . The rebels were defeated by November. In only three months, 116,000 Moriscos had been transported to North Africa from Valencia. The start of 1610 saw the expulsion of the Moriscos of Aragon (the specific area of Aragon, not all

17760-556: The rest of Spain. At around the same time, Spain recognized the loss of more than half of its holdings in the Low Countries to the Protestant Dutch Republic . The ruling class already thought of Spain as the defender of Catholic Christendom, and this defeat helped lead to a radicalization of thinking and a desire to strike a blow to regain Spain's honor. Some critiques of Spain from Protestant countries included insults of

17908-535: The same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing . This results in speakers using terms like courrier noir (literally, mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail in French, chantage . Sometimes pidgins develop. A pidgin

18056-588: The so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals . It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other. People who speak more than one language have been reported to be better at language learning when compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of

18204-424: The status of English in computing , software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages ), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as

18352-419: The suppression of the revolt, Philip ordered the dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada to other areas. Philip expected that this would break down the Morisco community and facilitate their assimilation into the rest of the Christian population. This may have happened to a degree to Granada's Moriscos, but not in Valencia or Aragon, where Islam was still widely practised and ethnic tensions were much higher than in

18500-411: The time of expulsion is unknown and most estimates are based on the numbers of Moriscos who were expelled. Figures of between 300,000 and 400,000 are often cited. However, modern studies estimate between 500,000 and one million Moriscos present in Spain at the beginning of the 17th century out of a total population of 8.5 million. A significant proportion resided in the former Crown of Aragon , where it

18648-490: The total Spanish population), the extent and actual success of the expulsion order in purging Spain of its Moriscos has been increasingly challenged by modern historians, starting with the seminal studies carried out by François Martinez (1999) and Trevor Dadson (2007). Dadson estimates that, out of a total Morisco population of 500,000, a figure accepted by many, around 40% avoided expulsion altogether and tens of thousands of those expelled managed to return. The places where

18796-425: The trip. The Moriscos were transported to North Africa, where at times they were attacked as invaders by the people of the recipient countries. Other times, small revolts broke out on the ships, causing some of the exiles to be slain in battle with the crew. This caused fears in the Morisco population remaining in Valencia, and on October 20 there was a rebellion against the expulsion. The rebels numbered 6,000 and held

18944-441: The two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian. In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India , schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being

19092-430: The uprising and war of the Alpujarras, who were the target of more suspicion within the communities in which they settled. Local sympathies for Moriscos meant that Castile and Andalusia experienced only half-hearted efforts at identifying and expelling them. The expulsion was slower and a far less thorough process than in the Crown of Aragon and particularly Valencia and a significant portion of Moriscos – according to Dadson

19240-555: The use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual. The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called language attrition . It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to

19388-427: The verbal system was substantially altered. One example is the initial n- on verbs in the first person singular , a feature shared by many Maghrebi varieties. Likewise the form V pattern of tafaʻʻal-a ( تَفَعَّلَ ) was altered by epenthesis to atfa``al ( أتْفَعَّل ). Andalusi Arabic developed a contingent/subjunctive mood (after a protasis with the conditional particle law ) consisting of

19536-489: The word multilingual in the English language occurred in the 1830s. The word is a combination of multi- ("many") and - lingual ("pertaining to languages"). The phenomenon of multilingualism is as old as the very existence of different languages. Today, evidence of multilingualism in an area includes things such as bilingual signs , which represent the same message in more than one language. Historical examples include glosses in textual sources, which can provide notes in

19684-406: The world. Many polyglots know up to five or six languages, but the frequency of polyglotism drops off sharply past this point. Those who know more languages than five or six— Michael Erard suggests eleven or more, while Usman W. Chohan suggests six to eight (depending on proficiency) or more—are sometimes classed as hyperpolyglots . Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti , for example, was a Cardinal who

19832-455: Was abandoned. There were about twenty suffixes from Romance that were attached to Arabic bases. The -an which, in Classical Arabic, marked a noun as indefinite accusative case (see nunation ), became an indeclinable conjunctive particle, as in ibn Quzmān's expression rajul-an 'ashīq . The unconjugated prepositive negative particle lis developed out of the classical verb lays-a . The derivational morphology of

19980-480: Was also reported to influence auditory processing abilities. Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and

20128-455: Was born in 1962, and he was diagnosed with brain damage approximately six months after his birth. Despite being institutionalized because he was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, could speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered to be unusual for most diagnosed with savant syndrome. Widespread multilingualism

20276-522: Was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilingualism still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate since Czechoslovakia split up. With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of

20424-445: Was considerably different. Overall, the proportion of Moriscos is considered to be lower but more significantly, the majority of them were former Mudejar (Muslims) Christians who were highly integrated in mainstream society, had abandoned many of their distinguishing cultural traits and crucially, unlike in Valencia, they did not suffer from hostility from their old-Christian neighbours, many of whom actively protected them from attempts by

20572-457: Was decreed by King Philip III of Spain on April 9, 1609. The Moriscos were descendants of Spain's Muslim population who had been forced to convert to Christianity . Since the Spanish were fighting wars in the Americas, feeling threatened by the Ottomans raiding along the Spanish coast and by two Morisco revolts in the century since Islam was outlawed in Spain, it seems that the expulsions were

20720-423: Was especially pronounced in situations of daily Arabic-Romance contact . For example, an Arabic letter written by a Valencian Morisco in 1595 contained constructions such as taʿmál alburšíblī 'do what is possible' and aquštiš matáʿī 'at a cost to me.' It was also characterized by diglossia : in addition to standard written Arabic, spoken varieties could be subdivided into an urban, educated idiolect and

20868-649: Was given by the Spanish Arabist Federico Corriente , who drew on the Appendix Probi , zajal poetry, proverbs and aphorisms, the work of the 16th century lexicographer Pedro de Alcalá , and Andalusi letters found in the Cairo Geniza . As Arabisms moved into varieties of Iberian Romance over time, Andalusi Arabic borrowed widely from the Romance lexicon. Corriente observes three periods in which Romance words entered Arabic, as Romance shifted from

21016-423: Was made plural as nibšāriyāt and lubb (from lobo 'wolf') became a broken plural as lababah . Romance loanwords were used in Andalusi Arabic through the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, even after Granada had been monolingually arabophone for two centuries. The lexical impact of Berber language on Andalusi Arabic appears to be considerably less than that of Romance and very small in proportion to

21164-430: Was possible. Contact with native Romance speakers led to the introduction of the phonemes / p / , / ɡ / and, possibly, the affricate / tʃ / from loanwords . Monophthongization led to the disappearance of certain diphthongs such as /aw/ and /aj/ which were leveled to / oː / and / eː / , respectively, though Colin hypothesizes that these diphthongs remained in the more mesolectal registers influenced by

21312-619: Was prosecuted by the Inquisition in 1727, receiving comparatively light sentences. These convicts kept alive their identity until the late 18th century. Besides, many Moriscos of the Catalan Low Ebro were officially excluded from expulsion and remained in their villages and towns, as well as some other expelled who returned, given the fact that they were very well integrated into Catalan Christian society, unlike those in Aragon, Valencia and even

21460-446: Was rejected. On April 9, 1609, the edict was signed to expel the Moriscos. The government knew that exiling so many would be problematic. It was decided to start with Valencia, where the Morisco population was greatest. Preparations were taken in the strictest secrecy. Starting in September, tercio battalions arrived from Italy. They took up positions in the main ports of Valencia: Alfaques , Dénia , and Alicante . On September 22,

21608-470: Was reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The term savant , in a general sense, may refer to any individual with a natural or innate talent for a particular field; however, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are specifically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate certain profound and prodigious capacities or certain abilities far in excess of what would usually be considered normal, occasionally including

21756-579: Was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision-making skills. A study published

21904-755: Was the last population who self-identified and traced its roots to the various waves of Muslim conquerors from North Africa. Modern population genetics generally assume Moriscos to have had both significant Iberian and North African ancestry, even if, after centuries of presence and intermarriage in the Iberian peninsula they were unlikely to differ significantly in ethnic terms from the wider Spanish population. For this reason studies in population genetics, which aim to ascertain Morisco ancestry in modern populations, search for Iberian or European genetic markers among contemporary Morisco descendants in North Africa, and for North African genetic markers among modern day Spaniards. A number of recent genetic studies demonstrated that

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