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64-540: The Anabasis of Alexander ( Ancient Greek : Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἀνάβασις , Alexándrou Anábasis ; Latin : Anabasis Alexandri ) was composed by Arrian of Nicomedia in the second century AD , most probably during the reign of Hadrian . The Anabasis (which survives complete in seven books) is a history of the campaigns of Alexander the Great , specifically his conquest of the Persian Empire between 336 and 323 BC. Both

128-528: A History of Thrace , and treatise on the subject of hunting. There has also been a collection of letters, written in Greek originally attributed to Callisthenes, yet later disputed as the dates of the letters range far beyond the time period that Callisthenes was alive. Many of these were originally attributed to Callisthenes due to their assumed time period aligning with Callisthenes’s active years as an author, as well as their subject matter being on topics Callisthenes

192-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

256-692: A book on witty sayings, a Diakosmos Battle Order which covers ships in Homers Iliad, and a Periplus covering the Black Sea . Additionally, many works have been ascribed to Callisthenes mistakenly, resulting in their authorship commonly known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. One of the more well-known examples is the Alexander Romance , the basis of all the Alexander legends of the Middle Ages . It originated during

320-407: A broadly chronological account of the reign of Alexander the Great of Macedon (336–323 BC), with a particular focus on military matters. After a short Preface concerning Arrian's sources, the seven books describe the reign of Alexander the Great. Book 1 This book covers the early years of Alexander's reign (336–334 BC), including notable descriptions of Alexander's sack of Thebes in 335 and

384-641: A handful of Persian aristocrats to join his entourage, a choice that deeply upset the Macedonians who were close to Alexander. That same year a confrontation occurred between Alexander and Cleitus the Black an officer in Alexander’s army. During a banquet Cleitus expressed his displeasure at the current state of Alexander’s contingent. An argument broke out between the two, ending in a physical confrontation and Cleitus’ demise at Alexander’s hand. After this conflict Alexander

448-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

512-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

576-740: A new introduction and appendices by P.A. Brunt in 1976. An English translation by Aubrey de Sélincourt appeared in Penguin Classics in 1958. This edition was revised and annotated by J.R. Hamilton in 1971. The Landmark Ancient Histories , edited by Robert B. Strassler , includes The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander, edited by James Romm (Professor of Classics at Bard College , 2010), and translated by Pamela Mensch. The Landmark edition includes extensive margin notes and maps on every other page. A new translation by Martin Hammond with introduction and notes by John Atkinson appeared in

640-495: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

704-402: A speech arguing against the adoption of proskynesis. Callisthenes argued that Alexander was not entitled to receive divine honors, such as the proskynesis from his followers. Alexander witnessed this speech and knowing Callisthenes was correct chose not to continue with the practice. Another account by Plutarch claims that during this banquet Alexander offers a cup to a colleague who performs

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768-443: A visit to Athens . In this eulogy Theophrastus condemns Alexander for the torture and execution of Callisthenes. He also references the acts of mourning and grief enacted by those who were close to Callisthenes and advises the bereaved on how to cope with the loss. Theophrastus also upholds Callisthenes as a figure of traditional piety and civic freedom. Callisthenes' most well-known work was an account of Alexander's expedition up to

832-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

896-487: A wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

960-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

1024-476: Is a rather antiquated translation by E.J. Chinnock, published in 1884. The original Greek text used by the Perseus Digital Library is the standard A.G. Roos Teubner edition published at Leipzig in 1907. Probably the most widely used scholarly English translation is Loeb Classical Library edition (with facing Greek text), in two volumes. The work first appeared in 1929 and was later revised with

1088-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

1152-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

1216-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

1280-527: The Oxford World's Classics series in 2013. Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ),

1344-451: The Anabasis were the lost contemporary histories of the campaign by Ptolemy and Aristobulus and, for his later books, Nearchus . One of Arrian's main aims in writing his history seems to have been to correct the standard "Vulgate" narrative of Alexander's reign that was current in his own day, primarily associated with the lost writings of the historian Cleitarchus . The Anabasis gives

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1408-658: The Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about

1472-537: The Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as a separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in

1536-698: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

1600-607: The Iliad that Alexander had visited. It applauded Alexander as a standard for Greek masculinity; and condemned the Persians as weak and effeminate. It is said to have been used as justification for the Panhellenic crusade and as a means of recruiting potential supporters for Alexander’s crusade. In addition to his work on Alexander the Great, he also authored another major work, a 10 book long historical anthology of Greece. Hellenica covered

1664-676: The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great of 326 BC, including Alexander's arrival at Nysa, the battle with Porus at the Hydaspes river, and the decision at the Hyphasis not to push on further into India . Book 6 The journey down the Indus to the Indian Ocean (326–325 BC) is described, including the increasingly brutal violence inflicted on the local inhabitants by the Macedonians en route (notably at

1728-666: The battle of the Granicus in summer 334 BC. Book 2 The majority of this book is dominated by three large set-piece military operations: the campaign and battle of Issus (333 BC) and the sieges of Tyre and Gaza (332 BC). This book also recounts the defeat of King Darius of Persia and how Alexander treated Darius's family after his death. The trial of the Gordian Knot is also included in this book. Book 3 Book three begins with an account of Alexander in Egypt , including his visit to

1792-468: The oracle of Zeus-Ammon at Siwah (winter 332/331 BC), before turning to the battle of Gaugamela and defeat of Darius III (331 BC). The latter half of the book describes Alexander's pursuit of Darius through northern Iran, the revolt of the pretender Bessus , and the deaths of Philotas and Parmenion (331–329 BC). Book 4 This book begins with describing the long Sogdian campaign of 329–327 BC against Bessus , Spitamenes , and Oxyartes , and

1856-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

1920-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

1984-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

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2048-603: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs,   Callisthenes Callisthenes was born in Olynthus sometime during 360 BCE. Little is known of his early childhood except that his mother Hero

2112-627: The Malli town), and the crossing of the Gedrosian Desert (325–324 BC). Book 7 The last of the books recounts the events of Alexander's final year, including the Susa marriages, the Opis mutiny, the multiple predictions and omens of Alexander's own death, the death of Hephaestion , and Alexander's own death (324–323 BC). The very end of this book concludes with speculation about how Alexander died, and whether it

2176-478: The Middle Ages (see Krumbacher , Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur , 1897, p. 849). Valerius 's translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, archpriest of Naples in the 10th century, the so-called Historia de Preliis . In addition to the Alexander Romance , Pseudo-Callisthenes is also credited with several other works. Including; a work titled Metamorphoses , a work on Macedonian history,

2240-558: The Persian empire. It is primarily a military history, reflecting the content of Arrian's model, Xenophon's Anabasis ; the work begins with Alexander's accession to the Macedonian throne in 336 BC, and has nothing to say about Alexander's early life (in contrast, say, to Plutarch 's Life of Alexander ). Nor does Arrian aim to provide a complete history of the Greek-speaking world during Alexander's reign. Arrian's chief sources in writing

2304-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

2368-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

2432-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

2496-563: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

2560-460: The early stages of the campaigns in the Punjab (327–326 BC), with a notable departure from chronological sequence at 4.7–14, where Arrian collects many of the most notorious stories tending to Alexander's discredit in a single apologetic digression (the killing of Cleitus , the proskynesis affair, the pages' conspiracy and the death of Callisthenes ). Book 5 This book continues the narrative of

2624-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

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2688-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

2752-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

2816-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

2880-681: The periods from the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BCE) to the start of the Phocian war (357 BCE). His other works include; the list of winners from the Pythian games that he co-authored with Aristotle, writings on astronomy including a description of the Great Comet of 371 BC , a work covering the first Sacred war of 600 BCE titled On the Sacred War , a tribute Hermias to Atarneaus and Assos who were killed by Persians,

2944-522: The proskynesis ceremony, kisses Alexander, and then drinks from the cup. While all of the other members of the court performed the ceremony Callisthenes blatantly refused to act out the proskynesis. This direct opposition to Alexander won Callisthenes favor by the Macedonians but severely destroyed the relationship between Callisthenes and Alexander. Callisthenes eventually left the king’s court as he had lost favor with Alexander. After Callisthenes fall from grace, he became increasingly politically isolated from

3008-443: The remaining members of Alexander’s court. Alexander continued to introduce more Persian recruits, further displeasing the remaining Macedonians in his court. During an incident during a royal boar hunt in which Hermolaus of Macedon , one of Alexander’s royal pages and Callisthenes former pupil, Hermolaus, broke royal protocol and assisted Alexander in killing the boar. For this Hermolaus was publicly humiliated by flogging as well as

3072-531: The removing of his horse. This led Hermolaus and several other royal pages to create a conspiracy to assassinate Alexander. Yet, the conspiracy was discovered, and the young nobles faced arrest, torture and interrogation. While under torture, Hermolaus implicated Callisthenes as a part of the plot against Alexander. Because of Callisthenes’ previous opposition to Alexander, as well as his previous role as Hermolaus’s instructor, Alexander found Callisthenes guilty of treason and ordered his subsequent arrest. Callisthenes

3136-412: The son of Zeus . According to Polybius, much of Callisthenes' military accounts were over-glorified to the point of impossibility. Polybius claims that Callisthenes’ descriptions of Alexander’s military are impossible and would not fit in the locations, such as the country outside of Cilicia , that Callisthenes describes. It contained many references to Homer’s Iliad and also described locations in

3200-485: The source of the Nile River . Although these theories later received pushback from Alexander the Great. The dramatic conflict between Alexander the Great and Callisthenes was a result of years of tensions between many of Alexander’s court members, including Callisthenes that came to a head. Throughout Alexander’s campaign, he acquired an interest in taking on Persian customs and aristocrats. By 328 BCE, Alexander had allowed

3264-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

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3328-472: The time of Callisthenes’ own execution. Deeds of Alexander or Praxeis Alexandrou (330 BCE) was biographical-style series of works detailing the campaign of Alexander the Great. Although copies of the work do not survive today, some knowledge of it can be inferred from references by other authors. The book was intended as propaganda and glorified Alexander the Great’s military achievements and claims to divinity as

3392-547: The time of the Ptolemies , but in its present form belongs to the 3rd century CE. The Latin translation for the text is usually attributed to Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius (early 4th century). The work has also been said to be authored by several other people beyond Callisthenes, including; Aesopus , Aristotle , Antisthenes , Onesicritus , and Arrian . There are also Syrian, Armenian, and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in

3456-461: The unusual title "Anabasis" (literally "a journey up-country from the sea") and the work's seven-book structure reflect Arrian's emulation (in structure, style, and content) of the Greek historian Xenophon , whose own Anabasis in seven books concerned the earlier campaign "up-country" of Cyrus the Younger in 401 BC. The Anabasis is by far the fullest surviving account of Alexander's conquest of

3520-484: The work is dedicated to praising Alexander and upholding his authority as the king and his army penetrated further into Asia. While much of his time during the campaign was spent working on his account of the expedition. But, Callisthenes was also sent on scientific expeditions, to places such as Kush or Babylon . Callisthenes had an affinity for the natural sciences and is known to have written several scientific works, including astronomical diaries and his own theories for

3584-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

3648-521: Was a historian of some repute before he began working with Alexander the Great. Callisthenes first met Alexander the Great, when Alexander began being tutored by Aristotle around the age of thirteen. Aristotle had been tasked by Philip II of Macedon to tutor the young Alexander in Mytilene. While both studying under Aristotle, Callisthenes and Alexander would have come to know each other as fellow students and pupils of Aristotle. Around 334 BCE, Callisthenes

3712-463: Was an encomium to Hermias of Atarneus , but by 334 BC, he had written a few works including a series on Greek history and antiquarian writings, such as a registry of competitors for the Pythian Games for which Aristotle and Callisthenes are thanked. Based on the fact that a reference by Diodorus Siculus mentions Callisthenes’ historical accounts of Greek history, it can be assumed that Callisthenes

3776-569: Was by poisoning or something else. Arrian's Anabasis has traditionally been regarded as the most reliable extant narrative source for Alexander's campaigns. Since the 1970s, however, a more critical view of Arrian has become widespread, due largely to the work of A. B. Bosworth, who has drawn scholars' attention to Arrian's tendency to hagiography and apologia , not to mention several passages where Arrian can be shown (by comparison with other ancient sources) to be downright misleading. The only complete English translation of Arrian available online

3840-400: Was destroyed by Phillip II of Macedon, and such might have been looking to better himself in the eyes of Alexander and thus Phillip II’s court, in order to aid in its reconstruction. During this expedition, Callisthenes was tasked with being the official historian for the campaign. While he occupied this role, he compiled his narrative on the events that transpired during the campaign. Much of

3904-473: Was distraught and brought on his trusted friends, one of which being Callisthenes to provide counsel to the king after he killed Cleitus. By the next year Alexander’s fascination with Persian culture had only grown and in 327 BCE, he attempted to introduce the Persian servile ceremony of proskynesis . Callisthenes was sharply critical of Alexander’s new Persian practices. During a banquet held shortly before Alexander’s expedition left for India, Callisthenes gave

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3968-417: Was invited to accompany Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. There were many factors as to why Callisthenes chose to accompany Alexander. First, being that he had already established a relationship with Alexander during their time as students of Aristotle and as a historian and antiquarian might have appreciated a chance at traveling. Another potential reason is that Callisthenes’ birthplace of Olynthus

4032-484: Was subsequently thrown into prison where he died seven months later. There are several different accounts of how he died or was executed. Crucifixion is the method suggested by Ptolemy , but Chares of Mytilene and Aristobulus of Cassandreia both claim that Callisthenes died of natural causes while in prison. Callisthenes's death was commemorated in a special treatise ( Callisthenes or a Treatise on Grief ) by his friend Theophrastus , whose acquaintance he made during

4096-407: Was the niece of Aristotle, and daughter of Proxenus of Atarneus and Arimneste ; which made Callisthenes the great-nephew of Aristotle by his sister Arimneste, Callisthenes's grandmother. It is also known that Callisthenes was in the care of Aristotle by 347 BCE and studied under him as his student. Callisthenes spent much of his early life writing and traveling with Aristotle. His first literary work

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