99-408: The AMC Amitron was an experimental electric subcompact car built in 1967 by American Motors Corporation (AMC) and Gulton Industries . It included many advanced features, including regenerative braking and advanced battery designs, to provide a 150-mile (240 km) range on a single charge. Development ended because of technology issues and the high cost of batteries. In 1977, the prototype
198-496: A generator or a fuel cell . Compared to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric cars are quieter, more responsive, have superior energy conversion efficiency and no exhaust emissions , as well as a lower overall carbon footprint from manufacturing to end of life (even when a power plant supplying the electricity might add to its emissions). Due to the superior efficiency of electric motors, electric cars also generate less waste heat , thus reducing
297-476: A limit value of one, for large time t . In other words, velocity asymptotically approaches a maximum value called the terminal velocity v t : v t = 2 m g ρ A C D . {\displaystyle v_{t}={\sqrt {\frac {2mg}{\rho AC_{D}}}}.\,} For an object falling and released at relative-velocity v = v i at time t = 0, with v i < v t ,
396-665: A limit value of one, for large time t . Velocity asymptotically tends to the terminal velocity v t , strictly from above v t . For v i = v t , the velocity is constant: v ( t ) = v t . {\displaystyle v(t)=v_{t}.} These functions are defined by the solution of the following differential equation : g − ρ A C D 2 m v 2 = d v d t . {\displaystyle g-{\frac {\rho AC_{D}}{2m}}v^{2}={\frac {dv}{dt}}.\,} Or, more generically (where F ( v ) are
495-448: A motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels; this is rare but claimed to be safer. Electric vehicles that lack an axle , differential , or transmission can have less drivetrain inertia. Some direct current motor -equipped drag racer EVs have simple two-speed manual transmissions to improve top speed. The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph) in 2.5 seconds. Tesla claims
594-426: A 2020 study, balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century will require good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation. Some activists and journalists have raised concerns over the perceived lack of impact of electric cars in solving the climate change crisis compared to other, less popularized methods. These concerns have largely centered around
693-430: A flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and reliability, most electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch. Many electric cars have faster acceleration than average ICE cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses and the more quickly-available torque of an electric motor. However, NEVs may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors. Electric vehicles can also use
792-809: A fluid at relatively slow speeds (assuming there is no turbulence). Purely laminar flow only exists up to Re = 0.1 under this definition. In this case, the force of drag is approximately proportional to velocity. The equation for viscous resistance is: F D = − b v {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{D}=-b\mathbf {v} \,} where: When an object falls from rest, its velocity will be v ( t ) = ( ρ − ρ 0 ) V g b ( 1 − e − b t / m ) {\displaystyle v(t)={\frac {(\rho -\rho _{0})\,V\,g}{b}}\left(1-e^{-b\,t/m}\right)} where: The velocity asymptotically approaches
891-450: A fluid increases as the cube of the velocity increases. For example, a car cruising on a highway at 50 mph (80 km/h) may require only 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) to overcome aerodynamic drag, but that same car at 100 mph (160 km/h) requires 80 hp (60 kW). With a doubling of speeds, the drag/force quadruples per the formula. Exerting 4 times the force over a fixed distance produces 4 times as much work . At twice
990-406: A fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of multiple components including viscous pressure drag ( form drag ), and drag due to surface roughness ( skin friction drag ). Additionally, the presence of multiple bodies in relative proximity may incur so called interference drag , which is sometimes described as a component of parasitic drag. In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because
1089-450: A future mobility vision called Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) Mobility. The term "electric car" typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) or all-electric cars, a type of electric vehicle (EV) that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid , and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for
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#17328516950351188-423: A high angle of attack is required to maintain lift, creating more drag. However, as speed increases the angle of attack can be reduced and the induced drag decreases. Parasitic drag, however, increases because the fluid is flowing more quickly around protruding objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher speeds ( transonic ), wave drag enters the picture. Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion to
1287-693: A human body ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.6 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈70 m/s, for a small animal like a cat ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.2 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈40 m/s, for a small bird ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.05 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈20 m/s, for an insect ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.01 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈9 m/s, and so on. Terminal velocity for very small objects (pollen, etc.) at low Reynolds numbers
1386-506: A hybrid vehicle, while 31% of younger respondents do not consider hybrid vehicles a good option. 35% would rather opt for a petrol or diesel vehicle, and 24% for an electric car instead of a hybrid. In the EU, only 13% of the total population do not plan on owning a vehicle at all. Electric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios . Batteries can be designed to supply the electrical current needed to support these motors. Electric motors have
1485-464: A miniature Cybertruck " that was unveiled in late 2019 by Tesla, Inc. The AMC car "laid down principles that looked to represent the future of urban travel, but it was just too advanced for its own good." "The AMC Amitron had almost 50 years ago all that is still considered indispensable for an electric car if it is supposed to succeed: a decent range, low weight, and a jaunty look." Electric car An electric car or electric vehicle ( EV )
1584-554: A reversible heat pump , such as on the Nissan Leaf. PTC junction cooling is also attractive for its simplicity—this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster. To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and Tesla cars can be pre-heated while
1683-465: A small sphere with radius r {\displaystyle r} = 0.5 micrometre (diameter = 1.0 μm) moving through water at a velocity v {\displaystyle v} of 10 μm/s. Using 10 Pa·s as the dynamic viscosity of water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.09 pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium experiences as it swims through water. The drag coefficient of
1782-623: A sphere can be determined for the general case of a laminar flow with Reynolds numbers less than 2 ⋅ 10 5 {\displaystyle 2\cdot 10^{5}} using the following formula: C D = 24 R e + 4 R e + 0.4 ; R e < 2 ⋅ 10 5 {\displaystyle C_{D}={\frac {24}{Re}}+{\frac {4}{\sqrt {Re}}}+0.4~{\text{;}}~~~~~Re<2\cdot 10^{5}} For Reynolds numbers less than 1, Stokes' law applies and
1881-521: A ton (907 kg). A solid-state power management system controlled the entire system. The first road tests of the batteries and powertrain were in 1968 using a converted conventional Rambler American sedan. At the time, AMC's vice president of design, Dick Teague , was working on a car called "the Voltswagon". The supporters of the Amitron were confident and stated that "We don't see a major obstacle in
1980-502: A total capacity of 22.5 kWh. The designers selected lithium for the Amitron because "it is both highly reactive (easy to oxidize) and has high electromotive potential." The downside to these batteries is that they have relatively low instantaneous power , too little to provide reasonable acceleration, or be able to handle the rapid recharging during regenerative braking. A secondary power source consisting of two 24 lb (11 kg) nickel-cadmium (NiCd, often read ni-cad) batteries
2079-707: A way for the U.S. to reduce its reliance on "expensive, undependable oil imports." American Motors entered into a partnership with Gulton Industries of Metuchen, New Jersey (acquired by Mark IV Industries in 1986) to develop the battery and power handling electronics for the car. Their entry into the electric car market was significantly more advanced than other developments, including two types of batteries for fast and slow power release and charging, as well as regenerative brakes to help extend range.< The primary power source consisted of two 75 lb (34 kg) lithium-nickel-fluoride batteries rated at 150 watt-hours per pound, or 331 watt-hours per kilogram, with
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#17328516950352178-403: Is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid . This can exist between two fluid layers, two solid surfaces, or between a fluid and a solid surface. Drag forces tend to decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid's path. Unlike other resistive forces, drag force depends on velocity. This is because drag force
2277-517: Is a passenger automobile that is propelled by an electric traction motor , using electrical energy as the primary source of propulsion . The term normally refers to a plug-in electric vehicle , typically a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which only uses energy stored in on-board battery packs , but broadly may also include plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), which can convert electric power from other fuels via
2376-483: Is a streamlined body, and a cylinder, which is a bluff body. Also shown is a flat plate illustrating the effect that orientation has on the relative proportions of skin friction, and pressure difference between front and back. A body is known as bluff or blunt when the source of drag is dominated by pressure forces, and streamlined if the drag is dominated by viscous forces. For example, road vehicles are bluff bodies. For aircraft, pressure and friction drag are included in
2475-558: Is about v t = g d ρ o b j ρ . {\displaystyle v_{t}={\sqrt {gd{\frac {\rho _{obj}}{\rho }}}}.\,} For objects of water-like density (raindrops, hail, live objects—mammals, birds, insects, etc.) falling in air near Earth's surface at sea level, the terminal velocity is roughly equal to with d in metre and v t in m/s. v t = 90 d , {\displaystyle v_{t}=90{\sqrt {d}},\,} For example, for
2574-448: Is also defined in terms of the hyperbolic tangent function: v ( t ) = v t tanh ( t g v t + arctanh ( v i v t ) ) . {\displaystyle v(t)=v_{t}\tanh \left(t{\frac {g}{v_{t}}}+\operatorname {arctanh} \left({\frac {v_{i}}{v_{t}}}\right)\right).\,} For v i > v t ,
2673-619: Is asymptotically proportional to R e − 1 {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} ^{-1}} , which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed, i.e. the drag force on a small sphere moving through a viscous fluid is given by the Stokes Law : F d = 3 π μ D v {\displaystyle F_{\rm {d}}=3\pi \mu Dv} At high R e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} } , C D {\displaystyle C_{\rm {D}}}
2772-399: Is determined by Stokes law. In short, terminal velocity is higher for larger creatures, and thus potentially more deadly. A creature such as a mouse falling at its terminal velocity is much more likely to survive impact with the ground than a human falling at its terminal velocity. The equation for viscous resistance or linear drag is appropriate for objects or particles moving through
2871-401: Is drag which occurs as the result of the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body , such as the wing or propeller of an airplane. Induced drag consists primarily of two components: drag due to the creation of trailing vortices ( vortex drag ); and the presence of additional viscous drag ( lift-induced viscous drag ) that is not present when lift is zero. The trailing vortices in
2970-407: Is lower; however, for higher production, a dedicated platform may be preferred to optimize design, and cost. In the EU and US, but not yet China, the total cost of ownership of recent electric cars is cheaper than that of equivalent gasoline cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs. A 2024 Consumer Reports analysis of 29 car brands found Tesla was the least expensive to maintain; Tesla
3069-428: Is more or less constant, but drag will vary as the square of the speed varies. The graph to the right shows how C D {\displaystyle C_{\rm {D}}} varies with R e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} } for the case of a sphere. Since the power needed to overcome the drag force is the product of the force times speed, the power needed to overcome drag will vary as
AMC Amitron - Misplaced Pages Continue
3168-409: Is needed on non-exhaust particulates. The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to gasoline tank) causes further damage as well as use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes. Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to charge the vehicle, emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the plants that generate electricity and produce the car as well as to
3267-472: Is presented at Drag equation § Derivation . The reference area A is often the orthographic projection of the object, or the frontal area, on a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. For objects with a simple shape, such as a sphere, this is the cross sectional area. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference area (drag coefficient corresponding to each of those different areas must be determined). In
3366-479: Is proportional to the velocity for low-speed flow and the velocity squared for high-speed flow. This distinction between low and high-speed flow is measured by the Reynolds number . Examples of drag include: Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories: The effect of streamlining on the relative proportions of skin friction and form drag is shown for two different body sections: An airfoil, which
3465-578: Is the Reynolds number related to fluid path length L. As mentioned, the drag equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force moving through fluid a relatively large velocity, i.e. high Reynolds number , Re > ~1000. This is also called quadratic drag . F D = 1 2 ρ v 2 C D A , {\displaystyle F_{D}\,=\,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\rho \,v^{2}\,C_{D}\,A,} The derivation of this equation
3564-755: Is the wind speed and v o {\displaystyle v_{o}} is the object speed (both relative to ground). Velocity as a function of time for an object falling through a non-dense medium, and released at zero relative-velocity v = 0 at time t = 0, is roughly given by a function involving a hyperbolic tangent (tanh): v ( t ) = 2 m g ρ A C D tanh ( t g ρ C D A 2 m ) . {\displaystyle v(t)={\sqrt {\frac {2mg}{\rho AC_{D}}}}\tanh \left(t{\sqrt {\frac {g\rho C_{D}A}{2m}}}\right).\,} The hyperbolic tangent has
3663-535: The 89th United States Congress , described collectively as the "Electric Vehicle Development Act of 1966", as well as a fourth bill that amended the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The legislation provided funding for electric car research in response to the rapidly decreasing air quality caused by automobile emissions. Development of electric vehicles was undertaken by the domestic big three automobile manufacturers , as well as AMC. Electrically powered cars were also seen as
3762-552: The Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia . During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the United States included Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric , and Detroit Electric . Their electric vehicles were quieter than gasoline-powered ones, and did not require gear changes. Six electric cars held the land speed record in
3861-720: The European Union , as of 2020, the total cost of ownership of recent electric vehicles is cheaper than that of equivalent ICE cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs. In 2023, the Tesla Model Y became the world's best selling car. The Tesla Model 3 became the world's all-time best-selling electric car in early 2020, and in June 2021 became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales. Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving, connected vehicles and shared mobility, electric cars form
3960-621: The Ford Model T , led to a decline. ICE cars' much quicker refueling times and cheaper production costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking . In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with
4059-581: The International Energy Agency (IEA). China currently has the largest stock of electric vehicles in the world , with cumulative sales of 5.5 million units through December 2020, although these figures also include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such as buses , garbage trucks and sanitation vehicles , and only accounts for vehicles manufactured in China. In the United States and
AMC Amitron - Misplaced Pages Continue
4158-605: The canopy of the vehicle was hinged up and backward ("clamshell-type" on rear-mounted pivots) for entry and egress. American Motors put more effort into making its prototype electric car more attractive than its competitors. "The modern looking Amitron was one of the most promising electrics developed in the Sixties." During the December 1967 public introduction of the car, Roy D. Chapin Jr. , chairman and chief executive officer of AMC, stated that
4257-413: The order 10 ). For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a circular disk with its plane normal to the flow direction, the drag coefficient is constant for Re > 3,500. The further the drag coefficient C d is, in general, a function of the orientation of the flow with respect to the object (apart from symmetrical objects like a sphere). Under the assumption that
4356-742: The recharging infrastructures (especially those with fast chargers ) are still in its relative infancy, range anxiety and time cost are frequent psychological obstacles against electric cars during consumer purchasing decisions . Worldwide, 10 million plug-in electric cars were sold in 2022, a total of 14% of new car sales, up from 9% in 2021. Many countries have established government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles , tax credits, subsidies, and other non-monetary incentives while several countries have legislated to phase-out sales of fossil fuel cars , to reduce air pollution and limit climate change . EVs are expected to account for nearly one-fifth of global car sales in 2023, according to
4455-412: The 19th century. The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente , driven by Camille Jenatzy , which broke the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph) in 1899. Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline- and diesel -powered vehicles, especially
4554-413: The Amitron "could eliminate many problems that up to this point have made electric-type cars impractical". American Motors' original plans were to offer the Amitron for sale to commuters and urban shoppers in five years. Chapin said AMC had discussed the venture with its bankers and creditors, and "they are about as enthusiastic about it". The Amitron was also well received by the public. The new technology
4653-556: The EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles. Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy . The most expensive part of an electric car is its battery. The price decreased from €605 per kWh in 2010, to €170 in 2017, to €100 in 2019. When designing an electric vehicle, manufacturers may find that for low production, converting existing platforms may be cheaper, as development cost
4752-413: The airflow and forces the flow to move downward. This results in an equal and opposite force acting upward on the wing which is the lift force. The change of momentum of the airflow downward results in a reduction of the rearward momentum of the flow which is the result of a force acting forward on the airflow and applied by the wing to the air flow; an equal but opposite force acts on the wing rearward which
4851-407: The airplane produces lift, another drag component results. Induced drag , symbolized D i {\displaystyle D_{i}} , is due to a modification of the pressure distribution due to the trailing vortex system that accompanies the lift production. An alternative perspective on lift and drag is gained from considering the change of momentum of the airflow. The wing intercepts
4950-432: The best selling all-electric car at that time. Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality . During the 2010s, the electric vehicle industry in China expanded rapidly with government support. Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of
5049-587: The car is charged. Cost savings are also affected by the price of gasoline which can vary by location. Electric cars have several benefits when replacing ICE cars, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, as they do not emit exhaust pollutants such as volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Similar to ICE vehicles, electric cars emit particulates from tyre and brake wear which may damage health, although regenerative braking in electric cars means less brake dust. More research
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#17328516950355148-543: The car when parked; two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option. The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided into three parts dealing with specific issues: Research published in the British Medical Journal in 2024 indicates that between 2013 and 2017 in the United Kingdom, electric cars killed pedestrians at twice
5247-453: The case of a wing , the reference areas are the same, and the drag force is in the same ratio as the lift force . Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the lifting area, sometimes referred to as "wing area" rather than the frontal area. For an object with a smooth surface, and non-fixed separation points (like a sphere or circular cylinder), the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re , up to extremely high values ( Re of
5346-408: The center of gravity, increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control. Additionally, a lower center of gravity provides a greater resistance to roll-over crashes. If there is a separate motor near or in each wheel, this is claimed to be safer due to better handling. Drag (physics) In fluid dynamics , drag , sometimes referred to as fluid resistance ,
5445-669: The definition of parasitic drag . Parasite drag is often expressed in terms of a hypothetical. This is the area of a flat plate perpendicular to the flow. It is used when comparing the drag of different aircraft For example, the Douglas DC-3 has an equivalent parasite area of 2.20 m (23.7 sq ft) and the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 , with 30 years of advancement in aircraft design, an area of 1.91 m (20.6 sq ft) although it carried five times as many passengers. Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag )
5544-678: The drag coefficient C D {\displaystyle C_{\rm {D}}} as a function of Bejan number and the ratio between wet area A w {\displaystyle A_{\rm {w}}} and front area A f {\displaystyle A_{\rm {f}}} : C D = 2 A w A f B e R e L 2 {\displaystyle C_{\rm {D}}=2{\frac {A_{\rm {w}}}{A_{\rm {f}}}}{\frac {\mathrm {Be} }{\mathrm {Re} _{L}^{2}}}} where R e L {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} _{L}}
5643-487: The drag coefficient approaches 24 R e {\displaystyle {\frac {24}{Re}}} ! In aerodynamics , aerodynamic drag , also known as air resistance , is the fluid drag force that acts on any moving solid body in the direction of the air's freestream flow. Alternatively, calculated from the flow field perspective (far-field approach), the drag force results from three natural phenomena: shock waves , vortex sheet, and viscosity . When
5742-616: The drag constant: b = 6 π η r {\displaystyle b=6\pi \eta r\,} where r {\displaystyle r} is the Stokes radius of the particle, and η {\displaystyle \eta } is the fluid viscosity. The resulting expression for the drag is known as Stokes' drag : F D = − 6 π η r v . {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{D}=-6\pi \eta r\,\mathbf {v} .} For example, consider
5841-451: The electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels. Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics select
5940-546: The existence of less carbon-intensive and more efficient forms of transportation such as active mobility , mass transit and e-scooters and the continuation of a system designed for cars first. A 2022 survey found that 33% of car buyers in Europe will opt for a petrol or diesel car when purchasing a new vehicle. 67% of the respondents mentioned opting for the hybrid or electric version. More specifically, it found that electric cars are only preferred by 28% of Europeans, making them
6039-434: The first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839. The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s: Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline-driven cars of the time. The electric vehicle fleet peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at
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#17328516950356138-411: The flow-field, present in the wake of a lifting body, derive from the turbulent mixing of air from above and below the body which flows in slightly different directions as a consequence of creation of lift . With other parameters remaining the same, as the lift generated by a body increases, so does the lift-induced drag. This means that as the wing's angle of attack increases (up to a maximum called
6237-441: The fluid is not moving relative to the currently used reference system, the power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by: P D = F D ⋅ v = 1 2 ρ v 3 A C D {\displaystyle P_{D}=\mathbf {F} _{D}\cdot \mathbf {v} ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\rho v^{3}AC_{D}} The power needed to push an object through
6336-448: The forces acting on the object beyond drag): 1 m ∑ F ( v ) − ρ A C D 2 m v 2 = d v d t . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{m}}\sum F(v)-{\frac {\rho AC_{D}}{2m}}v^{2}={\frac {dv}{dt}}.\,} For a potato-shaped object of average diameter d and of density ρ obj , terminal velocity
6435-513: The high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted. The Mitsubishi i-MiEV , launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway-legal series production electric car, and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf , launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as
6534-656: The infrastructure on a country-by-country basis. In January 2008, Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault-Nissan to build the world's first Electric Recharge Grid Operator (ERGO) model for Israel. Under the agreement, Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault-Nissan would provide the electric vehicles . Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement, wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries,
6633-489: The least preferred type of vehicle. 39% of Europeans tend to prefer hybrid vehicles , while 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles . 44% Chinese car buyers, on the other hand, are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car. Specifically for the EU , 47% of car buyers over 65 years old are likely to purchase
6732-489: The milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021. In the third quarter of 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light-duty automotive sales, the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187,000 vehicles. This was an 11% sales increase, as opposed to a 1.3% increase in gasoline and diesel-powered units. The report indicated that California
6831-495: The motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration. Regenerative braking , which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking. Combustion powered cars harness waste heat from the engine to provide cabin heating, but this option is not available in an electric vehicle. While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with
6930-577: The need for engine cooling systems that are often large, complicated and maintenance-prone in ICE vehicles. The electric vehicle battery typically needs to be plugged into a mains electricity power supply for recharging in order to maximize the cruising range . Recharging an electric car can be done at different kinds of charging stations ; these charging stations can be installed in private homes , parking garages and public areas . There are also research and development in other technologies such as battery swapping and inductive charging . As
7029-749: The object. One way to express this is by means of the drag equation : F D = 1 2 ρ v 2 C D A {\displaystyle F_{\mathrm {D} }\,=\,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\rho \,v^{2}\,C_{\mathrm {D} }\,A} where The drag coefficient depends on the shape of the object and on the Reynolds number R e = v D ν = ρ v D μ , {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} ={\frac {vD}{\nu }}={\frac {\rho vD}{\mu }},} where At low R e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} } , C D {\displaystyle C_{\rm {D}}}
7128-470: The occupants of a lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits to the occupant, while increasing harm to others. On average, an accident will cause about 50% more injuries to the occupants of a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle than those in a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) vehicle. Heavier cars are more dangerous to people outside the car if they hit a pedestrian or another vehicle. The battery in skateboard configuration lowers
7227-408: The others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or maximize gliding range in the event of an engine failure. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, and speed of
7326-465: The purchase price of electric cars and other plug-ins. As of 2020 , the electric vehicle battery is more than a quarter of the total cost of the car. Purchase prices are expected to drop below those of new ICE cars when battery costs fall below US$ 100 per kWh, which is forecast to be in the mid-2020s. Leasing or subscriptions are popular in some countries, depending somewhat on national taxes and subsidies, and end of lease cars are expanding
7425-420: The rate of petrol or diesel vehicles because "they are less audible to pedestrians in urban areas". Jurisdictions have passed laws requiring electric vehicles to be manufactured with sound generators. The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle. In a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle will, on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than
7524-450: The second hand market. In a June 2022 report by AlixPartners, the cost for raw materials on an average EV rose from $ 3,381 in March 2020 to $ 8,255 in May 2022. The cost increase voice is attributed mainly to lithium, nickel, and cobalt. Electricity almost always costs less than gasoline per kilometer travelled, but the price of electricity often varies depending on where and what time of day
7623-808: The speed, the work (resulting in displacement over a fixed distance) is done twice as fast. Since power is the rate of doing work, 4 times the work done in half the time requires 8 times the power. When the fluid is moving relative to the reference system, for example, a car driving into headwind, the power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by the following formula: P D = F D ⋅ v o = 1 2 C D A ρ ( v w + v o ) 2 v o {\displaystyle P_{D}=\mathbf {F} _{D}\cdot \mathbf {v_{o}} ={\tfrac {1}{2}}C_{D}A\rho (v_{w}+v_{o})^{2}v_{o}} Where v w {\displaystyle v_{w}}
7722-880: The square of the speed at low Reynolds numbers, and as the cube of the speed at high numbers. It can be demonstrated that drag force can be expressed as a function of a dimensionless number, which is dimensionally identical to the Bejan number . Consequently, drag force and drag coefficient can be a function of Bejan number. In fact, from the expression of drag force it has been obtained: F d = Δ p A w = 1 2 C D A f ν μ l 2 R e L 2 {\displaystyle F_{\rm {d}}=\Delta _{\rm {p}}A_{\rm {w}}={\frac {1}{2}}C_{\rm {D}}A_{\rm {f}}{\frac {\nu \mu }{l^{2}}}\mathrm {Re} _{L}^{2}} and consequently allows expressing
7821-407: The stalling angle), the lift coefficient also increases, and so too does the lift-induced drag. At the onset of stall , lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but viscous pressure drag, a component of parasite drag, increases due to the formation of turbulent unattached flow in the wake behind the body. Parasitic drag , or profile drag, is drag caused by moving a solid object through
7920-457: The subsidy adjustments, including Tesla, Volkswagen and Guangzhou-based GAC Group, which counts Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota as foreign partners. In July 2019 US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully-electric Tesla Model S the title "ultimate car of the year". In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world's all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered; it reached
8019-512: The technology. It's just a matter of time." The Amitron was designed to minimize power loss by keeping down rolling resistance , wind drag resistance, and vehicle weight. The prototype was a snub-snouted three-passenger urban area vehicle or city car with an overall length of only 85 inches (2,159 mm). Among its unique design features were passenger seats that had air-filled cushions, rather than conventional polyurethane (foam rubber). The car did not feature conventional bodyside doors, but
8118-482: The terminal velocity v t = ( ρ − ρ 0 ) V g b {\displaystyle v_{t}={\frac {(\rho -\rho _{0})Vg}{b}}} . For a given b {\displaystyle b} , denser objects fall more quickly. For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid (and thus at small Reynolds number), George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for
8217-451: The transportation of material. The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source and the efficiency of the vehicle. For electricity from the grid , the life-cycle emissions vary depending on the proportion of coal-fired power , but are always less than ICE cars. The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than three years. According to
8316-524: The turn of the 20th century. In 1897, electric cars first found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States. In London, Walter Bersey 's electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn. In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham , based on the design of the Electrobat II , formed part of a project funded in part by
8415-564: The ultimate goal of a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles. In response, automakers developed electric models. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market, because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars. California electric-auto maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster , first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster
8514-473: The upcoming Tesla Roadster will go 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 1.9 seconds. Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as a fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles convert over 77% of
8613-486: The vehicle is plugged in. Some electric cars (for example, the Citroën Berlingo Electrique ) use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline -fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice "green" and "Zero emissions" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through
8712-489: The velocity function is defined in terms of the hyperbolic cotangent function: v ( t ) = v t coth ( t g v t + coth − 1 ( v i v t ) ) . {\displaystyle v(t)=v_{t}\coth \left(t{\frac {g}{v_{t}}}+\coth ^{-1}\left({\frac {v_{i}}{v_{t}}}\right)\right).\,} The hyperbolic cotangent also has
8811-471: The wheels. The term generally refers to highway-capable automobiles, but there are also low-speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight, power and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on public roads. The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in the United States , and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe . Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing
8910-428: The windows, and gave it a fresh paint job. The show car was not driveable because it did not have a power train. The design has been characterized by some observers as "hot, sexy, cute and practical." The exterior's angular design was also ahead of its time because it was not until the 1970s that wedge-shaped bodies were finally adopted for production cars. The Amitron featured a polygonal exterior design that "looks like
9009-550: Was also known as the Electruck . Regenerative braking was effective at speeds above 22.5 mph (36.2 km/h) and the system included current-limiting to prevent overcharging the lead-acid batteries. In 1977, AMC introduced their "Concept 80" line of experimental vehicles, which included the AM Van, Grand Touring, Concept I, Concept II, and Jeep II. Along with this lineup, AMC renamed the Amitron to Electron , added side-view mirrors to
9108-444: Was designed "to provide the same brake pedal "feel" as a conventional car. This was the first use of regenerative braking technology in the U.S. automobile industry. Altogether, the system provided the car with a range of 150-mile (241 km) when traveling at 50 mph (80 km/h). Its total battery weight of only 200 lb (91 kg) was also light for electric vehicles. The equivalent in lead-acid cells would weigh nearly
9207-561: Was influenced by the Amitron's short, wide dimensions, along with optionally including three front seats. The abruptly terminating rear end of the concept car influenced the AMC Gremlin . American Motors' battery-powered vehicle development continued under a partnership with Gould ( Gould Electronics after selling its battery operations) that led to the mass production of the Jeep DJ-5E starting in 1974. This rear-wheel-drive mini-delivery van
9306-493: Was still in the infant stage and it was not expected to be popular "until the end of the decade." Competitors were also skeptical of AMC's rapid deployment, stating it would take ten years to have a practical battery. Moreover, research programs to develop clean transportation in the U.S. ceased. The Amitron did not go beyond the prototype stage. The expensive batteries forced AMC to halt further experiments with advanced technology electric vehicles for several years. The AMC Pacer
9405-547: Was the US leader in EV with nearly 40% of US purchases, followed by Florida – 6%, Texas – 5% and New York 4.4%. Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars. Oman's Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023. Built from carbon fibre, it has a range of about 560 km (350 miles) and can accelerate from 0–130 km/h (0–80 mph) in about 4 secs. In Turkey,
9504-664: Was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge. Better Place , a venture-backed company based in Palo Alto, California , but steered from Israel , developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars. The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel , Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009. The company planned to deploy
9603-647: Was the only all-electric brand included. The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car. The break-even distance varies by country depending on the taxes, subsidies, and different costs of energy. In some countries the comparison may vary by city, as a type of car may have different charges to enter different cities; for example, in England , London charges ICE cars more than Birmingham does. Several national and local governments have established EV incentives to reduce
9702-400: Was updated and renamed Electron to become one of the automaker's "Concept 80" show cars . American Motors' small concept car was "meant to be a prediction of future subcompact commuter cars." It introduced technologies that included a revolutionary braking system that took 50 years to become common in the automotive industry. Development of the Amitron was prompted by three bills passed by
9801-436: Was used to handle higher power peaks. These batteries could accelerate the car to 50 mph (80 km/h) in 20 seconds. During driving, the lithium batteries recharged the ni-cads, which continued to power the motor. The regenerative system would automatically switch the drive motors to generators as the car slowed so that the ni-cads could recharge, thus increasing the range of the car. The regenerative braking control
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