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108-546: After high school, she was given a scholarship to the Cooper Union School of Engineering in Manhattan , where she obtained a bachelor's and master's degree. She went to obtain her Ph.D. in computer science from Columbia University in 1992, studying under professor Calton Pu . In the 1980s she worked for Philon Inc., a New York start up specializing in optimizing compilers. In October 1992, Massalin joined MicroUnity as

216-530: A Nobel Prize in Physics , a Pritzker Prize , 3 National Medal of Arts Awards, 15 Rome Prizes , 26 Guggenheim Fellowships , 3 MacArthur Fellowships , 9 Chrysler Design Awards , 3 Emmy Awards, a Tony, a Grammy, a Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering , and 3 Thomas Jefferson Awards for Public Architecture . The institution has also had 40 Fulbright Scholars since 2001 and 13 National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowships since 2004. Notable faculty of

324-649: A sliding scale . On May 8, 2013, a group of students occupied President Bharucha's office in protest over news reports about ending free tuition. The administration, board of trustees, and those members of the Cooper Union community who had been occupying the Office of the President since early May reached an agreement that ended the occupation on July 12. Throughout 2013, 2014, and 2015, the Committee to Save Cooper Union (CSCU) —

432-480: A "live" girdle around the world; the All Red Line . Additional cables were laid between Foilhommerum and Heart's Content in 1873, 1874, 1880, and 1894. By the end of the 19th century, British-, French-, German-, and American-owned cables linked Europe and North America in a sophisticated web of telegraphic communications. The original cables were not fitted with repeaters , which potentially could completely solve

540-640: A 1996 article in Wired magazine, the author Gary Andrew Poole said she "could be the Einstein of our time." She was well known for offering piggy back rides to people she met, which included notable computer scientists such as Dennis Ritchie , Ken Thompson , and artificial intelligence pioneer Marvin Minsky . This biographical article relating to a computer scientist is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Cooper Union The Cooper Union for

648-552: A Morse "dash" and "dot" respectively (the standard system on submarine cables—as, unlike overland telegraphy, both pulses were of the same length). Thomson believed that he could use the instrument with the low voltages from regular telegraph equipment even over the vast length of the Atlantic cable. He successfully tested it on 2,700 miles (4,300 km) of cable in underwater storage at Plymouth . The mirror galvanometer proved yet another point of contention. Whitehouse wanted to work

756-452: A better method of detecting the telegraph signal was required. While waiting for the next voyage, he developed his mirror galvanometer , an extremely sensitive instrument, much better than any until then. He requested £2,000 from the board to build several, but was given only £500 for a prototype and permission to try it on the next voyage. It was extremely good at detecting the positive and negative edges of telegraph pulses that represented

864-542: A cable to Ireland in 1853, the deepest cable to that date. Further reasons for the trip were that all the commercial manufacturers of submarine cable were in Britain, and Field had failed to raise significant funds for the project in New York. Field pushed the project ahead with tremendous energy and speed. Even before forming a company to carry it out, he ordered 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi) of cable from

972-460: A coalition of former and current students, alumni and faculty — campaigned to reverse this decision, urging the president and the board of trustees to return Cooper Union to "its tuition-free and merit-based mission, ensure the school’s fiscal recovery, and establish better governance structures." On September 1, 2015, the school and the CSCU announced the CSCU's lawsuit against the school's administration

1080-448: A fire-resistant hollow brick tile he used in the building's construction. The building was the first in the world to be built with an elevator shaft, because Cooper, in 1853, was confident an elevator would soon be invented. However, he expected them to be cylindrical, so he designed the shaft in the shape of a circle. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, and a New York City Landmark in 1965, and added to

1188-510: A fortune with a glue factory and iron foundry. He was a principal investor and first president of the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company , which laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable , and once ran for President under the Greenback Party , becoming the oldest person ever nominated for the office by a political party . Cooper's dream was to give talented young people

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1296-542: A free hand to use his equipment without Whitehouse's interference. Although Thomson had the status of a mere advisor to engineer C. W. de Sauty, it was not long before all electrical decisions were deferred to him. Whitehouse, staying behind in Valentia, remained out of contact until the ship reached Ireland and landed the cable. Around this time, the board started having doubts over Whitehouse's generally negative attitude. Not only did he repeatedly clash with Thomson, but

1404-453: A frustrating battle against rough seas. One time, a sailor even was flung across the deck when the grapnel rope snapped and recoiled around him. Great Eastern and another grappling ship, Medway , arrived to join the search on 12 August. It was not until over a fortnight later, in early September 1866, that the cable was finally retrieved so that it could be worked on; it took 26 hours to get it safely on board Great Eastern . The cable

1512-557: A full-height Grand Atrium, prevalent interior windows, a four-story linear central staircase, and upper-level skyways , which reflect the design intention of inspiring, socially interactive space for students and faculty. In addition, the building's design allows for up to 75% natural lighting , further reducing energy costs. In 2010, 41 Cooper Square became the first academic and laboratory structure in New York City to meet Platinum-level LEED standards for energy efficiency. The building

1620-471: A larger cable was needed to mitigate the retardation problem. In mid-1857, on his own initiative, he examined samples of copper core of allegedly identical specification and found variations in resistance up to a factor of two. But cable manufacture was already underway, and Whitehouse supported use of a thinner cable, so Field went with the cheaper option. Another point of contention was the itinerary for deployment. Thomson favoured starting mid-Atlantic and

1728-460: A message from England cited these words from the leader in The Times : "It is a great work, a glory to our age and nation, and the men who have achieved it deserve to be honoured among the benefactors of their race." The shore end was landed at Heart's Content Cable Station during the day by Medway . Congratulations poured in, and friendly telegrams were again exchanged between Queen Victoria and

1836-476: A new building called 41 Cooper Square . A new classroom, laboratory, and studio facility designed by Thom Mayne replaced the aging Hewitt Academic Building at 41 Cooper Square . In contrast to the Foundation Building, 41 Cooper Square is of modern, environmentally "green" design , housing nine above-ground floors and two basements. The structure features unconventional architectural features, including

1944-612: A new tuition-based cross-disciplinary graduate program, expand its fee-based continuing education programs, and impose tuition on some students in its existing graduate programs. In December 2012, as a protest against the possibility of undergraduate tuition being charged, 11 students occupied a suite in the Foundation Building for a week. Charging high tuition was complicated by the school's lack of customary amenities offered by other high-tuition schools. The college ended its free tuition policy for undergraduates in 2014, but offers need-based tuition remission to incoming undergraduates on

2052-574: A preservative solution, and on the hemp were helically wound eighteen single strands of high tensile steel wire produced by Webster & Horsfall Ltd of Hay Mills Birmingham , each covered with fine strands of manila yarn steeped in the preservative. The weight of the new cable was 35.75 long hundredweight (4000 lb) per nautical mile (980 kg/km), or nearly twice the weight of the old. The Haymills site successfully manufactured 26,000 nautical miles (48,000 km) of wire (1,600 tons), made by 250 workers over eleven months. The new cable

2160-450: A research scientist, where she became responsible for signal-processing modules and software architecture. Massalin's first breakthrough product came while studying at Columbia. Massalin developed Synthesis , an operating system kernel that allocated resources, ran security and low-level hardware interfaces, and created executable code to improve performance. Synthesis optimized critical operating system code using run-time information, which

2268-501: A route directly to the US was too rugged to be tenable and considerably longer. Field adopted Gisborne's scheme as a preliminary step to the bigger undertaking and promoted the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company to establish a telegraph line between America and Europe. The first step was to finish the line between St. John's and Nova Scotia, which was undertaken by Gisborne and Field's brother, Matthew. In 1855 an attempt

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2376-400: A series of open forums were held with students, faculty, and alumni to address a financial crisis. Current and past students voiced opposition to charging tuition. The then-president of the school, Jamshed Bharucha , indicated depletion of the school's endowment required additional sources of funding. In 2012, the college announced approval from its board of trustees to attempt to establish

2484-631: A severe storm, and the enterprise was nearly brought to a premature end. The ships were top-heavy with cable, which could not all fit in the holds, and the ships struggled to stay upright. Ten sailors were hurt, and Thomson's electrical cabin was flooded. The vessels arrived at the middle of the Atlantic on June 25 and spliced cable from the two ships together. Agamemnon payed out eastwards towards Valentia Island, and Niagara westward towards Newfoundland . The cable broke after less than 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi), again after about 54 nautical miles (100 km; 62 mi), and for

2592-495: A sheath of 18 strands, each of 7 iron wires, was laid in a close helix. It weighed nearly 550 kg/km (1.1 tons per nautical mile), was relatively flexible, and could withstand tension of several tens of kilonewtons (several tons). The cable from the Gutta Percha Company was armoured separately by wire-rope manufacturers, the standard practice at the time. In the rush to proceed, only four months were allowed for

2700-446: A signal distortion; see telegrapher's equations . This has to be solved by iron tape or by load coils . It was not until the 20th century that message transmission speeds over transatlantic cables would reach even 120 words per minute. London became the world centre in telecommunications. Eventually, no fewer than eleven cables radiated from Porthcurno Cable Station near Land's End and formed with their Commonwealth links

2808-535: A smaller, more modern alternative to the Great Hall. A substantial portion of the annual budget, which supports the full-tuition scholarships in addition to the school's costs, is generated through revenues from real estate. Its endowment is over $ 600 million. The land under the Chrysler Building is owned by the endowment, and as of 2009, Cooper Union received $ 7 million per year from this parcel. Further, under

2916-599: A third time on April 23, 2007, along with Senator Edward Kennedy , Henry Kissinger , Norman Mailer , and others, at the memorial service for historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Most recently, Barack Obama delivered an economic policy speech at Cooper Union's Great Hall on April 22, 2010. On September 22, 2014, President of the Palestinian National Authority Mahmoud Abbas delivered his first formal speech in English. Other historic speakers in

3024-534: A third time when about 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) had been run out of each vessel. The expedition returned to Queenstown, County Cork , Ireland. Some directors were in favour of abandoning the project and selling off the cable, but Field persuaded them to keep going. The ships set out again on 17 July, and the middle splice was finished on 29 July 1858. The cable ran easily this time. Niagara arrived in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland on 4 August, and

3132-522: A tuition-free basis. In September 2024 the school announced that for the next four years, all students (including current students) would not pay tuition for their senior year. The Cooper Union was founded in 1859 by American industrialist Peter Cooper , one of the richest businessmen in the United States. Cooper was a workingman's son who had less than a year of formal schooling. Cooper designed and built America's first steam railroad engine and made

3240-497: A very unusual arrangement, New York City real-estate taxes assessed against the Chrysler lease, held by Aby Rosen , are paid to Cooper Union, not the city. This arrangement would be voided if Cooper Union sold the real estate. In 2006, Tishman Speyer signed a deal with the school to pay rent that has escalated to $ 32.5 million in 2018. Around October 29, 2011, rumors circulated the school was in serious financial trouble. On October 31,

3348-553: Is dedicated completely to School of Art studio and classroom space in addition to the art studio spaces located throughout the building. The lowest basement level consists almost completely of the school's large machine shops and design laboratories, as well as much of the HVAC and supply infrastructure . The building's first basement level houses primarily the Frederick P. Rose Auditorium, a 198-capacity lecture hall and event space designed as

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3456-532: Is the largest of the three schools by a significant margin. The school offers ABET -accredited Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree programs in core engineering fields and an interdisciplinary Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE) degree. Opportunities are also available for engineering students to pursue minors in bioengineering, chemistry, computer science, humanities and social sciences, and mathematics. Specialized facilities for teaching and research include

3564-450: The Gutta Percha Company . The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in October 1856, with Brett as president and Field as vice president. Charles Tilston Bright , who already worked for Brett, was made chief engineer, and Wildman Whitehouse , a medical doctor self-educated in electrical engineering, was appointed chief electrician. Field provided a quarter of the capital himself. After

3672-576: The Historic American Engineering Record in 1971. On February 27, 1860, the school's Great Hall, located in the basement level of the Foundation Building, became the site of a historic address by Abraham Lincoln . "Lincoln made his address on a snowy night before about 1,500 persons." Widely reported in the press and reprinted throughout the North in pamphlet form, the speech galvanized support for Lincoln and contributed to his gaining

3780-563: The Maurice Kanbar Center for Biomedical Engineering established in 2002 and the interdisciplinary Maker Space Lab, established in 2020 for the use of engineering, art, and architecture students. The School of Engineering offers master's degrees in chemical, civil, electrical, or mechanical engineering. Cooper Union undergraduate engineering students may earn a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in as little as five years. Consisting of roughly 200 students and 70 faculty members,

3888-426: The 1858 cable, and it took two minutes to transmit just one character (a single letter or a single number), a rate of about 0.1  words per minute . This was despite the use of the highly sensitive mirror galvanometer. The inaugural message from Queen Victoria took 67 minutes to transmit to Newfoundland, but it took 16 hours for the confirmation copy to be transmitted back to Whitehouse in Valentia. For

3996-428: The 1866 cable, the methods of cable manufacture, as well as sending messages, had been vastly improved. The 1866 cable could transmit 8 words a minute —80 times faster than the 1858 cable. Oliver Heaviside and Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin in later decades understood that the bandwidth of a cable is hindered by an imbalance between capacitive and inductive reactance , which causes a severe dispersion and hence

4104-416: The 2024-2025 academic year and that they were proceeding as planned towards their goal of 100% coverage in the 2029 fiscal year. Admission to Cooper Union is highly competitive, with an acceptance rate of 12% across the three schools. The Cooper Union's School of Engineering is named in honor of Albert Nerken, a chemical engineering alumnus of the school. Its enrollment includes about 550 students, and

4212-566: The Advancement of Science and Art , commonly known as Cooper Union , is a private college on Cooper Square in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Peter Cooper founded the institution in 1859 after learning about the government-supported École Polytechnique in France. The school was built on a radical new model of American higher education based on Cooper's belief that an education "equal to

4320-624: The Cooper Union School of Art offers a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) degree and a Certificate of Fine Arts. As a member school of AICAD , School of Art students may participate in exchange programs with the other colleges in the association, including California Institute of the Arts and Otis College of Art and Design . The Cooper Union Art program is often referred to as " generalist " or "versatile" when compared to other Fine Arts colleges; incoming students do not choose an academic major within

4428-455: The Cooper Union include: Film Literature Television 40°43′45″N 73°59′26″W  /  40.72927°N 73.99058°W  / 40.72927; -73.99058 Transatlantic telegraph cable Transatlantic telegraph cables were undersea cables running under the Atlantic Ocean for telegraph communications. Telegraphy is an obsolete form of communication, and

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4536-573: The Fine Arts field, but instead are permitted and encouraged to select courses from any of the School of Art's departments. The curriculum place heavy emphasis on each student's creative and imaginative abilities, rather than technical precision in a specific medium. Located in both public spaces and specialized rooms, Cooper Union's galleries provide space for installations and showcases by students, faculty, and guest artists. Popular gallery locations include

4644-400: The Foundation Building are used primarily for interdisciplinary exhibitions with the School of Architecture. For presentations of video and digital media, the Great Hall and 41 Cooper Square's Rose Auditorium are used. The Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture at The Cooper Union offers a five-year NAAB accredited program established by John Hejduk . The philosophical foundation of the school

4752-518: The Great Hall have included Frederick Douglass , Susan B. Anthony , Elizabeth Cady Stanton , and Mark Twain . The Great Hall continues to serve as an important metropolitan art space and has hosted lectures and performances by such key figures as Joseph Campbell , Steve Reich , Salman Rushdie , Ralph Nader , Hamza Yusuf , Richard Stallman , Rudolph Giuliani , Pema Chodron , Michael Bloomberg , Evo Morales , and Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez . When not occupied by external or hosted events,

4860-535: The Great Hall is made accessible to students and faculty for large lectures and recreational activities, including the school's annual Culture Show. In 1994, the Cooper Union Forum of Public Programs was honored with a Village Award from the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation . In late 2008, the Great Hall was closed to students and outside events for the first major renovation of

4968-411: The Great Hall lobby in the Foundation Building and newly opened 41 Cooper Gallery in 41 Cooper Square, which provides a two-story high space for large, three-dimensional exhibitions and works visible from both the building lobby and 7th street through large plate-glass windows. In addition, numerous smaller exhibition spaces exist throughout both buildings on campus. Larger spaces on the upper floors of

5076-670: The Party's nomination for the presidency . It is now referred to as the Cooper Union Address . Since then, the Great Hall has served as a platform for historic addresses by American Presidents Grant , Cleveland , Taft , Theodore Roosevelt , Woodrow Wilson , and Bill Clinton . Clinton spoke on May 12, 1993, about reducing the federal deficit and again on May 23, 2006, as the Keynote Speaker at The Cooper Union's 147th Commencement, along with Anna Deavere Smith . He appeared

5184-518: The School of Art, the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture, and the Albert Nerken School of Engineering. Since 1859, the Cooper Union has educated thousands of artists, architects, and engineers, many of them leaders in their fields. After 1864 there were a few attempts to merge Cooper Union and Columbia University , but these were never realized. The Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum ,

5292-762: The U.S. government, and a bill authorizing a subsidy was submitted in Congress . It passed the Senate by only a single vote, due to opposition from protectionist senators. It passed in the House of Representatives despite similar resistance and was signed by President Franklin Pierce . The first attempt, in 1857, was a failure. The cable-laying vessels were the converted warships HMS Agamemnon and USS Niagara , borrowed from their respective governments. Both were needed as neither could hold 2,500 nautical miles of cable alone. The cable

5400-455: The United States. In August 1866, several ships, including Great Eastern , put to sea again in order to grapple the lost cable of 1865. Their goal was to find the end of the lost cable, splice it to new cable, and complete the run to Newfoundland. They were determined to find it, and their search was based solely upon positions recorded "principally by Captain Moriarty, R. N.", who placed

5508-500: The architects Michael Webb , Peter Eisenman , Raimund Abraham , Lebbeus Woods , Diane Lewis and John Hejduk . The post-professional degree program in architecture was launched in 2009. Concentrations in one or a combination of three areas are offered: theory, history and criticism of architecture, urban studies and technologies. Cooper Union has developed an athletic program which fields teams in basketball, volleyball, and soccer. Awards received by Cooper Union alumni include

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5616-415: The best technology schools established" should be accessible to those who qualify, independent of their race, religion, sex, wealth or social status, and should be "open and free to all". The college is divided into three schools: the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture, the School of Art, and the Albert Nerken School of Engineering. It offers undergraduate and master's degree programs exclusively in

5724-406: The break was determined by measuring the resistance of the broken cable. The repair ship navigated to the location. The cable was hooked with a grapple and brought on board to test for electrical continuity. Buoys were deployed to mark the ends of good cable, and a splice was made between the two ends. Initially messages were sent by an operator using Morse code . The reception was very bad on

5832-508: The cable broke, and after many rescue attempts, it was abandoned. In July 1866 a third cable was laid from The Anglo-American Cable house on the Telegraph Field, Foilhommerum. On July 13, Great Eastern steamed westward to Heart's Content, Newfoundland , and on July 27 the successful connection was put into service. The 1865 cable was also retrieved and spliced, so two cables were in service. These cables proved more durable. Line speed

5940-481: The cable snapped near the stern of the ship, and the end was lost. Great Eastern steamed back to England, where Field issued another prospectus and formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company , to lay a new cable and complete the broken one. On 13 July 1866, Great Eastern started paying out once more. Despite problems with the weather on the evening of Friday, 27 July, the expedition reached

6048-524: The cable to Newfoundland might be extended across the Atlantic Ocean. Field was ignorant of submarine cables and the deep sea. He consulted Morse and Lieutenant Matthew Maury , an authority on oceanography . The charts Maury constructed from soundings in the logs of multiple ships indicated that there was a feasible route across the Atlantic. It seemed so ideal for cable laying that Maury named it Telegraph Plateau . Maury's charts also indicated that

6156-496: The cable to countermand an order for two regiments in Canada to embark for England, saving £50,000. A total of 732 messages were passed before the cable failed. Field was undaunted by the failure. He was eager to renew the work, but the public had lost confidence in the scheme, and his efforts to revive the company were futile. It was not until 1864 that, with the assistance of Thomas Brassey and John Pender , he succeeded in raising

6264-588: The cable with a very different scheme, driving it with a massive high-voltage induction coil producing several thousand volts, so enough current would be available to drive standard electromechanical printing telegraphs used on inland telegraphs. Thomson's instrument had to be read by eye and was not capable of printing. Nine years later, he invented the syphon recorder for the second transatlantic attempt in 1866. The decision to start mid-Atlantic, combined with Whitehouse dropping out of another voyage, left Thomson on board Agamemnon sailing towards Ireland, with

6372-613: The cable would be very slow due to an effect called retardation. To test the theory, Bright gave Whitehouse overnight access to the Magnetic Telegraph Company's long underground lines. Whitehouse joined several lines together to a distance similar to the transatlantic route and declared that there would be no problem. Morse was also present at this test and supported Whitehouse. Thomson believed that Whitehouse's measurements were flawed and that underground and underwater cables were not fully comparable. Thomson believed that

6480-407: The cable would prove "an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded on their common interest and reciprocal esteem". The President responded: "It is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle. May the Atlantic telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between

6588-433: The cable's completion. As no wire-rope maker had the capacity to make so much cable in such a short period, the task was shared by two English firms: Glass, Elliot & Co. of Greenwich and R.S. Newall and Company of Birkenhead . Late in manufacturing, it was discovered that the two batches had been made with strands twisted in opposite directions. This meant that they could not be directly spliced wire-to-wire, as

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6696-444: The cable's faulty manufacture, storage and handling would have caused its premature failure in any case. Its short life undermined public and investor confidence and delayed efforts to restore a connection. The second cable was laid in 1865 with improved material. It was laid from the ship SS Great Eastern , built by John Scott Russell and Isambard Kingdom Brunel and skippered by Sir James Anderson . More than halfway across,

6804-554: The cable. Before the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe and the Americas had occurred only by ship and could be delayed for weeks by severe winter storms. By contrast, the transatlantic cable made possible a message and response on the same day. In the 1840s and 1850s several people proposed or advocated construction of a telegraph cable across the Atlantic, including Edward Thornton and Alonzo Jackman . As early as 1840 Samuel F. B. Morse proclaimed his faith in

6912-474: The cables have long since been decommissioned, but telephone and data are still carried on other transatlantic telecommunications cables . The Atlantic Telegraph Company led by Cyrus West Field constructed the first transatlantic telegraph cable. The project began in 1854 with the first cable laid from Valentia Island off the west coast of Ireland to Bay of Bulls , Trinity Bay , Newfoundland . The first communications occurred on August 16, 1858, but

7020-497: The churches were rung, and at night the city was illuminated. On 1 September there was a parade, followed by an evening torchlight procession and a fireworks display that caused a fire in the Town Hall. Bright was knighted for his part, the first such honour to the telegraph industry. Operation of the 1858 cable was plagued by conflict between two of the project's senior members – Thomson and Whitehouse. Whitehouse

7128-424: The end of the lost cable at longitude 38° 50' W. There were some who thought it hopeless to try, declaring that to locate a cable 2.5 mi (4.0 km) down would be like looking for a small needle in a large haystack. However, Robert Halpin , first officer of Great Eastern , navigated HMS Terrible and grappling ship Albany to the correct location. Albany moved slowly here and there, "fishing" for

7236-479: The fields of architecture , fine arts (undergraduate only), and engineering as well as a shared core curriculum in the humanities and social sciences. The Cooper Union was one of very few American institutions of higher learning to offer a full-tuition scholarship to every admitted student, a practice it discontinued in 2014, instead offering a half-tuition scholarship to each admitted student. As of 2024 , nearly half of its undergraduate students were attending on

7344-622: The first official message was sent via the cable: Directors of Atlantic Telegraph Company, Great Britain, to Directors in America:—Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest ; on earth peace, good will towards men. Next was the text of a congratulatory telegram from Queen Victoria to President James Buchanan at his summer residence in the Bedford Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania , expressing hope that

7452-444: The hall since 1978. The Cooper Union has schools in architecture, fine art , and engineering. At present, these three fields represent Cooper Union's degree programs. The Faculty of Humanities and Social Studies provides classes and faculty to all three programs. In 2002, the school decided to generate revenue by razing its engineering building and having it replaced with a commercial building, and replacing its Hewitt Building with

7560-612: The idea of a submarine line across the Atlantic Ocean . By 1850 a cable was run between England and France. That year, Bishop John T. Mullock , head of the Catholic Church in Newfoundland , proposed a telegraph line through the forest from St. John's to Cape Ray and cables across the Gulf of St. Lawrence from Cape Ray to Nova Scotia across the Cabot Strait . Around

7668-408: The iron wire on both cables would unwind when it was put under tension during laying. The problem was solved by splicing through an improvised wooden bracket to hold the wires in place, but the mistake created negative publicity for the project. The British government gave Field a subsidy of £1,400 a year (£170,000 today) and loaned ships for cable laying and support. Field also solicited aid from

7776-475: The kindred nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world." The messages were hard to decipher; Queen Victoria's message of 98 words took 16 hours to send. Nonetheless, they engendered an outburst of enthusiasm. The next morning a grand salute of 100 guns resounded in New York City , streets were hung with flags, bells of

7884-602: The line speed was poor. The first official telegram to pass between two continents that day was a letter of congratulations from Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom to President of the United States James Buchanan . Signal quality declined rapidly, slowing transmission to an almost unusable speed. The cable was destroyed after three weeks when Wildman Whitehouse applied excessive voltage to it while trying to achieve faster operation. It has been argued that

7992-416: The line was a mere hoax; others pronounced it a stock-exchange speculation. Whitehouse was recalled for the board's investigation, and Thomson took over in Valentia, tasked with reconstructing the events that Whitehouse had obfuscated. Whitehouse was held responsible for the failure and dismissed. The cable might have failed eventually anyway, but Whitehouse certainly brought it about much sooner. The cable

8100-421: The lost cable with a five-pronged grappling hook at the end of a stout rope. Suddenly, on 10 August, Albany "caught" the cable and brought it to the surface. It seemed to be an unrealistically easy success. During the night, the cable slipped from the buoy to which it had been secured, and the process had to start all over again. This happened several more times, with the cable slipping after being secured in

8208-429: The mirror galvanometer when he finally gave up trying with his own equipment. Whitehouse had the message reentered into his printing telegraph locally so he could send on the printed tape and pretend that it had been received that way. In September 1858, after several days of progressive deterioration of the insulation, the cable failed altogether. The reaction to the news was tremendous. Some writers even hinted that

8316-592: The necessary capital. The Glass, Elliot, and Gutta-Percha Companies were united to form the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company (Telcon, later part of BICC ), which undertook to manufacture and lay the new cable. C. F. Varley replaced Whitehouse as chief electrician. In the meantime, long cables had been submerged in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea . With this experience, an improved cable

8424-548: The next full-term president. On January 15, 2018, the Free Education Committee (FEC) of the school's Board of Trustees released their recommended plan to return to full-tuition scholarships for undergraduates only by the academic year starting in the fall of 2028. In March 2018, the board released its approved, updated version with the same milestone. In 2024, the school announced that approximately 83% of undergraduate tuition costs would be covered by scholarships in

8532-461: The next morning the shore end was landed. Agamemnon arrived at Valentia Island on 5 August; the shore end was landed at Knightstown and laid to the nearby cable house. Test messages were sent from Newfoundland beginning 10 August 1858. The first was successfully read at Valentia on 12 August and in Newfoundland on 13 August. Further test and configuration messages followed until 16 August, when

8640-414: The one privilege he lacked: a good education from an institution which was "open and free to all". To achieve these goals, Cooper designated the bulk of his wealth to The Cooper Union. According to The New York Times in 1863, "It was rare that those of limited means, however eager they might be to acquire a knowledge of some of the higher branches of education, could obtain tuition in studies not named in

8748-610: The port of Heart's Content , Newfoundland in a thick fog. Daniel Gooch , chief engineer of the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company , who had been aboard the Great Eastern , sent a message to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs , Lord Stanley , saying "Perfect communication established between England and America; God grant it will be a lasting source of benefit to our country." The next morning at 9 a.m.

8856-493: The regular course taught in our public schools." Discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, or sex was expressly prohibited. Originally intended to be named simply "the Union", the Cooper Union began with adult education in night classes on the subjects of applied sciences and architectural drawing , as well as day classes primarily intended for women on the subjects of photography, telegraphy, typewriting and shorthand in what

8964-762: The remaining shares were sold, largely to existing investors in Brett's company, an unpaid board of directors was formed, which included William Thomson (the future Lord Kelvin), a respected scientist. Thomson also acted as a scientific advisor. Morse, a shareholder in the Nova Scotia project and acting as the electrical advisor, was also on the board. The cable consisted of 7 copper wires, each weighing 26 kg/km (107  pounds per nautical mile ), covered with three coats of gutta-percha (as suggested by Jonathan Nash Hearder ), weighing 64 kg/km (261 pounds per nautical mile), and wound with tarred hemp , over which

9072-507: The retardation problem and consequently speed up operation. Repeaters amplify the signal periodically along the line. On telegraph lines this is done with relays , but there was no practical way to power them in a submarine cable. The first transatlantic cable with repeaters was TAT-1 in 1956. This was a telephone cable and used a different technology for its repeaters. A 2018 study in the American Economic Review found that

9180-402: The same time, a similar plan occurred to Frederic Newton Gisborne , a telegraph engineer in Nova Scotia. In the spring of 1851 he procured a grant from the Newfoundland legislature and, having formed a company, began building the landline. In 1854, businessman and financier Cyrus West Field invited Gisborne to his house to discuss the project. From his visitor, Field considered the idea that

9288-567: The task. During this period, Morse clashed with Field, was removed from the board, and took no further part in the enterprise. The problems with breakage were due largely to difficulty controlling the cable tensions with the braking mechanism as the cable was payed out. A new mechanism was designed and successfully tested in the Bay of Biscay with Agamemnon in May 1858. On 10 June, Agamemnon and Niagara set sail to try again. Ten days out they encountered

9396-463: The transatlantic segment would cost much more. In 1855, Field crossed the Atlantic, the first of 56 crossings in the course of the project, to consult with John Watkins Brett , the greatest authority on submarine cables at the time. Brett's Submarine Telegraph Company laid the first ocean cable in 1850 across the English Channel , and his English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company had laid

9504-422: The two ships heading in opposite directions, which would halve the time required. Whitehouse wanted both ships to travel together from Ireland so that progress could be reported back to the base in Valentia through the cable. Whitehouse overruled Thomson's suggestion on the 1857 voyage, but Bright convinced the directors to approve a mid-ocean start on the subsequent 1858 voyage. Whitehouse, as chief electrician,

9612-453: The voyage using the mirror galvanometer, but Whitehouse immediately connected his own equipment. The effects of the cable's poor handling and design, and Whitehouse's repeated attempts to drive up to 2,000 volts through the cable, compromised the cable's insulation. Whitehouse attempted to hide the poor performance and was vague in his communications. The expected inaugural message from Queen Victoria had been widely publicised, and when it

9720-486: Was a medical doctor by training, but had taken an enthusiastic interest in the new electrical technology and given up his medical practice to follow a new career. He had no formal training in physics; all his knowledge was gained through practical experience. The two clashed even before the project began, when Whitehouse disputed Thomson's law of squares when the latter presented it to a British Association meeting in 1855. Thomson's law predicted that transmission speed on

9828-406: Was a new insight previously thought impractical. To support Synthesis , Massalin invented object-like data structures called Quajects , which contain both data and code information. Massalin is still working on broadband microprocessors. Her parents were Croatian refugees from Trieste . In the 1940s, they moved to Astoria, Queens , New York, where her father became a construction worker. In

9936-420: Was added in 1902, thanks to funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie . Initial board members included Daniel F. Tiemann , John E. Parsons , Horace Greeley and William Cullen Bryant , and those who availed themselves of the institute's courses in its early days included Augustus Saint-Gaudens , Thomas Alva Edison and William Francis Deegan . The Cooper Union's free classes have evolved into three schools:

10044-441: Was also critical of Field, and his repeated refusals to carry out his primary duty as chief electrician onboard ship made a very bad impression. With the removal of Morse, Whitehouse had lost his only ally on the board, but at this time no action was taken. When Agamemnon reached Valentia on 5 August, Thomson handed over to Whitehouse, and the project was declared a success to the press. Thomson received clear signals throughout

10152-493: Was called the college's Female School of Design. The early institution also had a free reading room open day and night, the first in New York City (predating the New York Public Library system), and a new four-year nighttime engineering college for men and a few women. In 1883, a five-year curriculum in chemistry was added as an alternative to the applied science (engineering) program. A daytime engineering college

10260-472: Was carried to the electrician's room, where it was determined that the cable was connected. All on the ship cheered or wept as rockets were sent up into the sky to light the sea. The recovered cable was then spliced to a fresh cable in her hold and payed out to Heart's Content, Newfoundland , where she arrived on Saturday, 7 September. There were now two working telegraph lines. Broken cables required an elaborate repair procedure. The approximate distance to

10368-420: Was designed. The core consisted of seven twisted strands of very pure copper weighing 300 pounds per nautical mile (73 kg/km), coated with Chatterton's compound , then covered with four layers of gutta-percha , alternating with four thin layers of the compound cementing the whole, and bringing the weight of the insulator to 400 lb/nmi (98 kg/km). This core was covered with hemp saturated in

10476-638: Was directly committed to the "Social Contract" and dedicated to education as "one of the last places that protects freedom, and teaching as a sociopolitical act, among other things." Among those other things were principles of free debate and theoretical discourse which drew source from deep wellsprings of lost histories such as the Bauhaus school of Architecture founded by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe . The faculty includes architects, design and construction managers such as Peter Eisenman , Samuel Anderson , Nader Tehrani , and Diana Agrest . Former faculty members include

10584-527: Was founded in 1897 as part of Cooper Union by Sarah, Eleanor, and Amy Hewitt, granddaughters of Peter Cooper. Cooper Union's Foundation Building is an Italianate brownstone building designed by architect Fred A. Petersen , one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects . It was the first structure in New York City to feature rolled-iron I-beams for structural support; Peter Cooper himself invented and produced these beams. Petersen patented

10692-399: Was funded in part by alumni donations, materialized in nameplates and other textual recognition throughout the building. Primarily designed to house the Cooper Union's School of Engineering and School of Art, the new building's first eight above-ground floors are populated by classrooms, small engineering laboratories, study lounges, art studio space, and faculty offices. The ninth, top floor

10800-536: Was laid by the ship SS Great Eastern captained by Sir James Anderson . Her immense hull was fitted with three iron tanks for the reception of 2,300 nautical miles (4,300 km) of cable, and her decks furnished with the paying-out gear. At noon on 15 July 1865, Great Eastern left the Nore for Foilhommerum Bay, Valentia Island, where the shore end was laid by Caroline . This attempt failed on 2 August when, after 1,062 nautical miles (1,967 km) had been payed out,

10908-490: Was made to lay a cable across the Cabot Strait in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . It was laid out from a barque in tow of a steamer. When half the cable was laid, a gale rose, and the line was cut to keep the barque from sinking. In 1856 a steamboat was fitted out for the purpose, and the link from Cape Ray, Newfoundland to Aspy Bay, Nova Scotia was successfully laid. The project's final cost exceeded $ 1 million, and

11016-503: Was no problem applying thousands of volts. However, a sample with a pinprick hole "lit up like a lantern" when tested, and a large hole was burned in the insulation. Although the cable was never put in service for public use and never worked well, there was time for a few messages to be passed that went beyond testing. The collision between the Cunard Line ships Europa and Arabia was reported on 17 August. The British Government used

11124-400: Was not forthcoming, the press speculated that there were problems. Whitehouse announced that five or six weeks would be required for "adjustments". The Queen's message had been received in Newfoundland, but Whitehouse was unable to read the confirmation copy sent back the other way. Finally, on 17 August, he announced receipt. What he did not announce was that the message had been received on

11232-423: Was particularly vulnerable in the first hundred miles from Ireland, consisting of the old 1857 cable that was spliced into the new lay and known to be poorly manufactured. Samples showed that in places the conductor was badly off-centre and could easily break through the insulation due to mechanical strains during laying. Tests were conducted on samples of cable submerged in seawater. When perfectly insulated, there

11340-471: Was resolved in the form of a consent decree signed by Cooper Union, then-New York State's Attorney General Eric Schneiderman , and the CSCU. The decree includes provisions for returning to a sustainable, tuition-free policy, increased board transparency, additional student, faculty and alumni trustees, an independent financial monitor appointed by the Attorney General, and a search committee to identify

11448-511: Was started at the white strand near Ballycarbery Castle in County Kerry , on the southwest coast of Ireland , on August 5, 1857. It broke on the first day, but was grappled and repaired. It broke again over Telegraph Plateau, nearly 3,200 m (10,500 ft) deep, and the operation was abandoned for the year. Three hundred miles (480 km) of cable were lost, but the remaining 1,800 miles (2,900 km) were sufficient to complete

11556-434: Was supposed to be on board the cable-laying vessel, but repeatedly found excuses for the 1857 attempt, the trials in the Bay of Biscay , and the two attempts in 1858. In 1857, Thomson was sent in his place, and in 1858 Field diplomatically assigned the two to different ships to avoid conflict—but as Whitehouse continued to evade the voyage, Thomson went alone. After his experience on the 1857 voyage, Thomson realised that

11664-443: Was very good, and the slogan "Two weeks to two minutes" was coined to emphasize the great improvement over ship-borne dispatches. The cables altered the personal, commercial and political relations between people across the Atlantic. Since 1866, there has been a permanent cable connection between the continents. In the 1870s, duplex and quadruplex transmission and receiving systems were set up that could relay multiple messages over

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