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49-618: The Alabama–Coushatta Tribe of Texas ( Alabama : Albaamaha–Kosaatihaha , Coushatta : Albaamoha–Kowassaatiha ) is a federally recognized tribe of Alabama and Koasati in Polk County, Texas , United States. These peoples are descended from members of the historic Muscogee or Creek Confederacy of numerous tribes in the Southeastern U.S. , particularly Georgia and Alabama. They are one of three federally recognized tribes in Texas . As of 2022,

98-678: A Native American language of Muskogean origin. The language is spoken by the Coushatta people, most of whom live in Allen Parish north of the town of Elton, Louisiana , though a smaller number share a reservation near Livingston, Texas , with the Alabama people. In 1991, linguist Geoffrey Kimball estimated the number of speakers of the language at around 400 people, of whom approximately 350 live in Louisiana. The exact number of current speakers

147-668: A First Indian Presbyterian Church. Each June, the reservation hosts a powwow . Alabama language The Alabama first encountered Europeans when Hernando de Soto arrived in 1540. (See here for other de Soto contactees) In the 18th century, the French arrived on the Gulf Coast and built a fort at what became Mobile, Alabama . The Alibamu and Koasati tribes were part of the Creek Confederacy . They had less contact with British settlers than other Creek tribes did. They were

196-540: A federal bill on 28 February 1985 to restore federal jurisdiction for the tribe. Because the initial bill, HR 1344, allowed gambling, amendments were made and the Yselta del Sur Pueblo and Alabama and Coushatta Indian Tribes of Texas Restoration Act was reintroduced as HR 318. Public Law 100–89, 101 STAT. 666 was enacted on 18 August 1987 and restored the federal relationship with the tribe. Section 207 (25 U.S.C. § 737) [1] specifically prohibits all gaming activities prohibited by

245-403: A glottal stop between vowels. Koasati has low [ ` ], high [ ´ ], and high rising–falling [ ˇ ] pitch accents , as well as a fourth unmarked mid-level tone. All noun roots must have one high-pitch accented syllable. The location of the accent depends on the properties of the penultimate syllable. With a few exceptions, the accent falls on the final syllable unless the penultimate syllable contains

294-421: A large grant in 1928 to purchase additional land near the reservation; it was granted to the "Alabama and Coushatta tribes." Since that time, the reservation has officially been known as “Alabama-Coushatta". Origin myths focus on the interconnectedness of the tribes. One myth states that the two tribes sprouted from either side of a cypress tree. Another legend was recorded in 1857 from Se-ko-pe-chi , one of

343-571: A long vowel. These pitch accents can be contrastive, as with sakihpǫ́ 'It is a mink.' and sakíhpǫ 'It is not air-dried.'. Pitch placement on verbs is motivated by morphology. Most indicative verbs take the high accent, though a few take the low accent. Intensive verbs take the high rising–falling accent. Koasati is a polysynthetic language with fairly extensive verbal prefixing and suffixing. Two sets of prefixes mark noun possession in Koasati. The am -set generally identifies alienable possession and

392-404: A relatively small set of kinship terms and body parts, while the ca -set identifies inalienable possession and most kinship terms and body parts. These prefixes mark person and number on possessing nouns as follows: Kimball identifies the following position classes for prefixes and suffixes that can be added to Koasati verb roots: Unlike its frequently used cognates in other Muskogean languages,

441-436: A young population, with 42.3% under the age of 18 in contrast to 4.5% over the age of 65. Economically, 65.9% of the population is employed. The average household earning is $ 49,219, which is over $ 10,000 less than the national average, and 17.2% live in poverty, 8.6% higher than the national average. Additionally, 11.4% of the population has a bachelor's degree or higher, and 36.5% has only a high school degree or equivalent. Of

490-466: Is based on Kimball's work. Kimball describes what is normally the close-mid back vowel /o/ as "high back" vowel, hence its placement in the chart below. He notes that /o/ sometimes has the allophone [u] and is raised to [ʊ] in closed word-final syllables. In 2007, the Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana developed and approved its own orthographic system. In this system, long vowels are written by doubling

539-632: Is in Louisiana, where another band of Muscogee fled European encroachment in two waves in the late 18th century and the early 19th century. Another tribe comprises the Poarch Band of Creeks , which remained in Alabama. The Seminole Indian Nation in Florida also includes many descendants of the Creek Confederacy who relocated there and merged with another tribe. Under pressure from European American settlement,

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588-588: Is most closely related to the Alabama language but, though the Coushatta and Alabama have historically lived near each other, their languages are no longer mutually intelligible without extensive exposure. The language is also related to the Mikasuki language ; some native speakers of Coushatta report they can understand Mikasuki without previous exposure to the language. Koasati has three vowels, all of which occur as short and long and can be nasalized. The following chart

637-430: Is realized as [s] when it occurs as the first member of a consonant cluster and the geminate is realized as [ttʃ] . The only voiced obstruent in Alabama is /b/ , which is realized as [m] when it occurs in coda (syllable final) position. The geminate /bb/ is realized as [mb] . The two nasal phonemes become velar [ŋ] before the velar stop /k/ . In syllable-final position, /h/ is often realized as lengthening of

686-621: Is unclear, but Coushatta Tribe officials claim that most tribe members over 20 speak Koasati. In 2007, the Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana , in collaboration with McNeese State University and the College of William and Mary , began the Koasati (Coushatta) Language Project as a part of broader language revitalization efforts with National Science Foundation grant money under the Documenting Endangered Languages program. Koasati

735-624: The Alabama–Coushatta Tribe of Texas has engaged in a revitalization and documentation effort in partnership with the WOLF (Working on Language in the Field) Lab at Harvard University, with a five-year goal "to document the language, study its grammar and lexicon, and produce educational resources for the Alabama-Coushatta community." Koasati language Koasati (also Coushatta ) is

784-410: The longleaf pine trees that have been used by the tribe and their ancestors for basketry and homebuilding for centuries. According to The Nature Conservancy , 95% of the region's longleaf pine forests have been lost. Longleaf pines are dependent on fire to seed and grow. The Nature Conservancy funded the tribe to buy equipment and participate in training for wildland management. As a result, they manage

833-704: The Alabama Coushatta Tribe was targeted. On 23 August 1954, the United States Congress passed laws to terminate the federal relationship with the tribe. Public Law ch. 831, §1, 68 Stat. 768 provided that the Secretary of the Interior was to transfer to the State of Texas the tribal lands for the benefit of the tribe. In addition, it terminated the federal trust relationship with the tribe and the individual members of

882-579: The Alabama–Coushatta violated the Texas Constitution. He stated that as the federal government's withdrawal of its recognition, the tribe was "merely an unincorporated association under Texas law, with the same legal status as other private associations ... the 3,071-acre tract is entirely free from any legally meaningful designation as an 'Indian Reservation.'" In response to concerns by the tribe, Representative Ronald D. Coleman of Texas introduced

931-581: The Civil War, as few spoke English and they had difficulty finding jobs. Today, the tribe operates two primary economic enterprises: Naskila Casino, a casino , and A.C.T. Holdings, an investment and economic development LLC . The tribe also has a 26-acre campground open to the public located on Lake Tombigbee . The reservation also includes a truck stop , a smoke shop, and a souvenir shop. The casino comprises over 790 bingo games in an over 30,000 square foot facility. The tribe has engaged in two lawsuits against

980-676: The Coushatta arrived in the Big Thicket area of East Texas. In 1805, nearly 1,000 Alabama came to Tyler County 's Peach Tree Village in East Texas. The two tribes developed a strong friendship as they roamed and hunted their new land together. In the early 19th century, the Texas Congress granted each tribe two strips of land along the Trinity River . Their land was soon taken over by European-American settlers, leaving them homeless. Sam Houston ,

1029-725: The Coushattas" but never followed through. The Coushatta began to live with the Alabama on their reservation. They acquired more land, so the reservation is 4,593.7 acres (1,859.0 ha), located 17 miles (27 km) east of Livingston, Texas , in the Big Thicket area. As of the 2020 census, the reservation comprises a total population of 679 individuals. Of those individuals, 86.7% (589) are American Indian, 8.2% (56) are Hispanic or Latino, 6.4% (44) identify as two or more races, 5.5% (38) are White, 0.88% identify as some other race, and 0.14% (1) are African American or Black. The reservation has

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1078-407: The State of Texas regarding the casino. In 2001, the tribe filed a complaint against the state for officials obstructing the tribe's legal right to operate a casino on tribal land. That resulted in a ruling in favor of the state, prohibiting the tribe from operating their casino. In 2016, Texas filed a complaint against the tribe to stop the tribe from operating a bingo hall. The judge ruled in favor of

1127-644: The Tribe's official orthography, the [ ɬ ] is represented by ⟨th⟩ and the [ t͡ʃ ] is represented by ⟨ch⟩ , with no distinction for aspiration. Additionally, Kimball notes that /p/, /t/, and /k/ are aspirated in initial and medial positions. However, the website for the Koasati Language Project explicitly states that these consonants are never aspirated. The [ ɦ ] occurs most often before [t͡ʃ] , as in [haɦt͡ʃí] "river", spelled ⟨hahchi⟩ in

1176-564: The ancestors of this tribe were Alabama and Coushatta peoples who migrated from Alabama and the Southeast into Louisiana and finally East Texas when it was under Spanish rule in the late 18th century. They settled in an area known as Big Thicket and adapted their culture to the environment of forests and waters. When the area began to be settled by European Americans from the United States, the tribes established friendly relations and traded with

1225-407: The contrary, I do not believe them." Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) ( help ); In the first word, all units that follow the root - ilá - "arrive" are suffixes filling the various position classes. A sample of suffixes, in this case, Position 5 suffixes of ability, follows: Kimball notes that of these, only - halpi꞉sa - "to be able to" is used frequently. Muskogean languages such as Koasati have

1274-496: The federally recognized Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana. Alabama and Coushatta towns were divided into "red" and "white" towns. The "white" towns were responsible for keeping the peace and for providing refuge, while the "red" towns were responsible for conducting military campaigns. Though they had "red" and "white" towns, the Alabama-Coushatta thought of themselves as a peace-loving people. By 1820, there were three main Alabama towns and three large Coushatta towns in east Texas , in

1323-478: The final syllable was deleted. Vowel clusters occur in Koasati, unlike in other Muskogean languages where such clusters are made impossible by metathesis and vowel deletion. These clusters occur in Koasati due to the use of locative prefixes that end in a vowel and class 1A negative transitive verbs since these do not undergo the processes of metathesis and vowel deletion. Clusters beginning with /a꞉/ and /i꞉/ are most frequent, and all clusters are generally spoken with

1372-429: The final unaccented vowel or the nasalization of the final vowel when deleting it would eliminate phonological information relevant to the phrase's meaning. For example, the final vowel in hopoonilaho̱ "he/she will cook it" is nasalized instead of deleted, and therefore is distinguished from the more emphatic hopoonilaha̱ , where the irrealis future suffix - laha - indicates that the action will certainly occur, whereas

1421-553: The first to leave when British settlers swarmed into the area by the middle of the 18th century, after the land was ceded by the French following the British victory in the French and Indian War . Under pressure as well by Native American enemies, the Alabama and Coushatta tribes wanted to avoid the powerful Choctaw in present-day Mississippi . They moved into territories of future states, first into Louisiana and then into Texas . In 1795,

1470-460: The general locative prefix a - (Position 2) is falling out of use. Positions 4 and 5 relate to the am - and ca - sets discussed above with nouns. They contain the direct and indirect object prefixes respectively and are used to cross-reference the direct and indirect objects of verbs, as well as mark possession on nominalized verbs. For example, the Position 5 prefix ac - is used to mark possession on

1519-557: The governor of Texas, recommended that the state purchase 1,280 acres (5.2 km ) for the Alabamas. Although money was appropriated to buy 640 acres (2.6 km ) for the Coushatta, the land was never bought. Either through marriage or special permission, many Coushatta went to live on the land given to the Alabama. Other Coushatta had stayed in an area in southern Louisiana near the Red River. Many of their descendants are enrolled members of

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1568-428: The irrealis future suffix - laho - does not provide such certainty. Koasati has the consonants given in the table below, based on Geoffrey Kimball's work. IPA transcriptions occur in brackets when different from the orthography provided by Kimball. Not included in this chart is a glottal glide (marked ꞉ ) that Kimball uses in his own consonant chart, presumably to represent the lengthened vowel sounds of Koasati. In

1617-484: The laws of the state of Texas. Both the Alabama and Koasati languages are Muskogean languages . The Alabama–Coushatta Reservation was established in 1854, when the state bought 1,110.7 acres (449.5 ha) of land for the Alabama Indian reservation. About 500 tribe members settled on this land during the winter of 1854–55. In 1855, the Texas legislature appropriated funds to purchase 640 acres (260 ha) for

1666-501: The new settlers. Sam Houston helped protect them during years of conflicts with other Native Americans in the area. After the annexation of Texas by the United States, settlements increased and the tribes were under pressure again. They appealed to the state to set aside land for their exclusive use. As part of the Indian termination policy followed by the US government between the 1940s and 1960s,

1715-430: The official orthography, thereby distinguished from ⟨hachi⟩ "tail". Koasati has both light (CV, VC, V) and heavy (CVC) syllables . Consonant clusters occur across syllables but not within. All monomorphemic Koasati words end in light syllables, while the penultimate syllable can be light but is usually heavy, and it is usually preceded by one or more light syllables, as with the construction CV.CVC.CV as in

1764-721: The oldest Creeks in Indian Territory . He said that the tribes “sprang out of the ground between the Cohawba and Alabama Rivers .” The symbol of the Alabama-Coushatta tribe comes from pre-contact Mississippian culture : two intertwined woodpeckers, now symbolic of the connection between the two tribes. There are fourteen consonant phonemes in Alabama. /s/ is apico-alveolar , [s̺] . The voiceless stops /p t k/ are typically fortis and unlike in many other Southeastern languages they are not voiced between vowels. All consonants can occur geminated . The post-alveolar affricate /tʃ/

1813-527: The over 200 acres (81 ha) of pine trees they planted in 2012 and the additional 200 acres (81 ha) of older growth trees. The Alabama–Coushatta Tribe of Texas is headquartered in Livingston, Texas. They operate as a tribal council , with a Principal Chief and Chief serving as advisors to an elected tribal council comprising a chair, vice-chair, and five additional members. The tribe's constitution and by-laws were adopted on June 16, 1971. As of May 2024,

1862-543: The preceding vowel. There are three vowel qualities, /i o a/ . Vowel length is distinctive. Vowels can be nasalized in certain morphological contexts. In Alabama, the final syllable generally carries the primary stress, except in the case of certain grammatical operations which move the stress. There is also a pitch accent system with two contrastive tones: high-level and high-falling. The two phonemic tones have several different allophonic realizations depending on vowel length and neighboring consonants. Since January 2024,

1911-453: The region known as the Big Thicket. In 1854, the Alabama were given 1,280 acres (5.2 km ) in Polk County . The following year, 640 acres (2.6 km ), also in Polk County, were given to the Coushattas. The Coushatta claim was disputed by white settlers in 1859. When the Coushatta lost the land claim, the Alabama invited them to live on their land claim. The federal government approved

1960-518: The root of the nominalized verb meaning "to photograph" in the following way: st- INSTR - ac- 1SG . POSS - ahó꞉ba photograph st- ac- ahó꞉ba INSTR- 1SG.POSS- photograph "my photograph" ("a photograph of me") A sampling of verbal prefixes, in this case, specific locative prefixes of Position 3, follows: Kimball recorded over seventy suffixes to fill the fifteen suffix positions. All but eleven of these suffixes can technically co-occur with all other suffixes that do not occupy

2009-630: The same position class. Kimball provides the following example as a possibility: o-st-oh-im-ilá-꞉ci-halpí꞉sa-laho-꞉li-má꞉mi-mpa-y-on go:&- INSTR - DISTR - 3 . DAT -arrive- PL - ABIL - IRR - DEDUC - HSY - CNSQ - SW : FOC im-ca-yím-ko-˛ 3 . STAT . OBJ - 1SG . STAT -believe- 3 . NEG ( 1A )- PHR : TERM o-st-oh-im-ilá-꞉ci-halpí꞉sa-laho-꞉li-má꞉mi-mpa-y-on im-ca-yím-ko-˛ go:&-INSTR-DISTR-3.DAT-arrive-PL- ABIL -IRR-DEDUC-HSY-CNSQ-SW:FOC 3.STAT.OBJ-1SG.STAT-believe-3.NEG(1A)-PHR:TERM "They say that they all might be able to go and bring it to him, but on

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2058-422: The total population, 38.5% do not have at-home internet, which is 11.5% higher than the national average of 14.5%. The homeownership rate on the reservation is 76.3%, which is 10.9% higher than the national average of 65.4%. The tribe has its own wildland fire department and land management program that uses fire suppression tactics to manage the woodlands on their tribal land. This is particularly important for

2107-488: The tribal chiefs and council members are as follows: Principal Chief Donnis B. Batisse was inaugurated as Mikko Choba or Principal Chief on January 1, 2023. Millie Thompson Williams was inaugurated as Mikko Istimatokla, or Second Chief/Vice Chief, on January 1, 2023. She is the first female to serve as Second Chief for the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe. The Alabama and Coushatta people of Polk County struggled after

2156-480: The tribe and canceled any federal debts. In 1965, under House Bill 1096, 59th Texas Legislature, Regular Session, the newly formed Texas Indian Commission took over state administration and supervision for the Alabama–Coushatta Indian Reservation . On 22 March 1983, Texas Attorney General Jim Mattox released an opinion (JM-17) stating that the state's assumption of power over the property of

2205-521: The tribe because bingo is not prohibited in the state of Texas. In December 2021, the tribe joined Ysleta del Sur Pueblo to file an amicus brief with the United States Supreme Court to ensure their rights to operate bingo halls on their reservations. The Supreme Court agreed to review the case on its docket in 2022. On June 15, 2022, the Court sided with both tribes in a 5-4 ruling. The judgment

2254-709: The tribe has over 1,200 members with 589 residing on the Texas reservation. They are one of eight federally recognized tribes whose members are descended from the Muscogee Confederacy of the Southeast. Four tribes are located in Oklahoma, where most of the Muscogee were forcibly removed from the Indigenous Muscogee homeland in Alabama and western Georgia in the 1830s during the Trail of Tears under Indian Removal . One tribe

2303-432: The vowel (e.g., [aː] as aa ), and nasalized vowels are underlined (e.g., [õ] or [ǫ] as o̱ ). Vowel length in Koasati can be contrastive. For example, vowel length distinguishes meaning for palana "bean" and palaana "plate", as well as choba "big" and chooba "horse". Vowel nasalization most often occurs word-finally as a phrase-terminal marker. In Koasati, the end of a phrase is basically marked by either deletion of

2352-403: The word holihtá "fence". Other shapes, in which one or more heavy syllables precede a heavy penultimate syllable (e.g. CV.CVC.CVC.CV as in hacokpalpá "butterfly"), or alternate heavy and light syllables (e.g. CVC.CV.CVC.CV. as in pa꞉piyá꞉ka "bridge"), are usually the result of the compounding of two words or a once-productive rule of syncope in which the vowel of every second syllable except

2401-416: Was vacated, and the case was remanded to the lower court. In 1994, ground was broken for the now open Alabama–Coushatta Cultural Center. In April 2022, the tribe broke ground on the 49,000 square-foot Aati Imaabachi Imiisa Education Center to house the education department, library, a gym, play areas, and youth education programs. The reservation has two churches: a Christian First Assembly of God church and

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