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131-530: The first African slaves arrived at Paraguay in 1556. The majority of the slaves were of Nigerian and Angolan origin, similar to other black slaves arriving in South American from the slave trade. According to Argentine historian José Ignacio Telesca, the slaves that entered legally came from the slave ports of Buenos Aires , Montevideo and Córdoba , while those that entered illegally came from Brazil . The Spanish explorer Pedro de Mendoza - who reached

262-549: A Bantu ethnic group who predominantly live in Kenya stretching from Nairobi to Tsavo and northwards to Embu , in the southern part of the former Eastern Province . This land is called Ukambani and constitutes Makueni County , Kitui County and Machakos County . They also form the second largest ethnic group in 8 counties including Nairobi and Mombasa counties. The Kamba are of Bantu origin and they are originally believed to have originated from Congo. They are also known as

393-438: A 250-year period, stating: "There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis, it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over

524-589: A great famine. This led to dispersal as the family scattered in search of food. Some became the Kikuyu , others the Meru while some remained as the original people, the Akamba." The Akamba are not specific about the number of children that each couple had initially borne. The Akamba believe in a monotheistic, invisible and transcendental God, Ngai or Mulungu, who lives in the sky ( yayayani or ituni ). Another venerable name for God

655-467: A head band intensively decorated with beads. The various kilumi or dance groups wore similar colours and patterns on their bead work to distinguish themselves from other groups. Traditionally, both men and women wore leather sandals especially when they ventured out of their neighbourhoods to go to the market or on visits. While at home or working in their fields, however, they remained barefoot. Schoolchildren, male and female, shave their heads to maintain

786-461: A number of ways: through wars of conquest and expansion, through gifts to the Oba, who also inherited the slaves of those who died intestate and by tribute paid by dependent territories to the Oba and prominent chiefs. Lastly, hardened criminals or those guilty of serious crimes were either executed or sold into slavery. The possession of a large number of slaves was an index of a man's status. Slaves served in

917-555: A plank, from whence they remove not for months together (commonly half a year), urged on, even beyond human strength, with cruel and repeated blows on their bare flesh.... As late as 1798, the islet near Sardinia was attacked by the Tunisians and over 900 inhabitants were taken away as slaves. Sahrawi - Moorish society in Northwest Africa was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified into several tribal castes, with

1048-490: A predominantly young population: 63% at that time was under 30 years old. All those of African descent speak Guarani, like the rest of the Paraguayans. The illiteracy rate stands at 7.4%, and of that percentage, 58% are women. The number of people who have come to attend the first through to sixth grade accounted for 60% and those who have reached university level only 1%. Note that the results are unofficial and incomplete since

1179-490: A proclamation outlawing slavery. In Somali territories , slaves were purchased in the slave market exclusively to do work on plantations. In terms of legal considerations, the customs regarding the treatment of Bantu slaves were established by the decree of Sultans and local administrative delegates . These plantation slaves often acquired their freedom through eventual emancipation, escape, and ransom. Slaves were transported since antiquity along trade routes crossing

1310-454: A rate that was three to four times their percentage of the overall Kenyan population.' The Kamba people successfully resisted an attempt by the British colonialists to seize their livestock in an obnoxious livestock control legislation in 1938. They peacefully fought the British until the law was repealed.Among the Akamba people, lack of rain is considered an event requiring ritual intervention. As

1441-427: A result of undesirable behaviour such as adultery, were unlikely to attempt to flee. The sale of children was also common in times of famine. Captured slaves were however likely to attempt to escape and had to be moved hundreds of kilometres from their homes as a safeguard against this. The slave trade had a profound impact on this region of Central Africa, completely reshaping various aspects of society. For instance,

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1572-411: A result, they perform a ritual rain making dance called Kilumi. It is a healing rite designed to restore environmental balance through spiritual blessings, movement, offering, and prayers. According to Akamba, Kilumi has been present since the very beginning of Kamba existence. This ritual emphasizes symbolic dance movements as a key force in achieving the goal of the ceremony. The heart of the dance ritual

1703-608: Is Asa, or the Father. He is also known as Ngai Mumbi (God the Creator) na Mwatuangi (God the finger-divider). He is perceived as the omnipotent creator of life on earth and as a merciful, if distant, entity. The traditional Akamba perceive the spirits of their departed ones, the Aimu or Maimu , as the intercessors between themselves and Ngai Mulungu. They are remembered in family rituals and offerings / libations at individual altars. In Akamba culture,

1834-580: Is a show of Afro-Latin American music and dance scene that rises to 25 artists to develop a wide repertoire of songs, chants, and dances with rescued African roots of this continent. The Paraguayan singer Mariví Vargas, the team of musicians and a group of drummers and dancers Kamba Cua led by Lazaro Medina offer a show that aims to bring African culture and make visible the collective African descent. Showing and themes from Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Mexico and Cuba and of course of Paraguay, with

1965-530: Is an important aspect of the Akamba people. In most but not all cases, the first four children, two boys and two girls, are named after the grandparents on both sides of the family. The first boy is named after the paternal grandfather and the second after the maternal grandfather. Girls are similarly named. Because of the respect that the Kamba people observe between the varied relationships, there are people with whom they cannot speak on "first name" terms. The father and

2096-402: Is categorized into indigenous slavery and export slavery, depending on whether or not slaves were traded beyond the continent. Slavery in historical Africa was practised in many different forms: Debt slavery , enslavement of war captives, military slavery, slavery for prostitution, and enslavement of criminals were all practised in various parts of Africa. Slavery for domestic and court purposes

2227-422: Is given a family name (some sort of baptismal name), such as "Syomunyithya/ng'a Mutunga", that is, "she who is to be the mother of Munyithya/Mutunga". Her first son is to be called by this name. This name Munyithya was descriptive of certain qualities of the paternal grandfather or of his career. Thus, when she is calling her son, she would indeed be calling her father in-law, but at the same time strictly observing

2358-424: Is given upon joining her husband's household. She supplies the bulk of the food consumed by her family. She grows maize, millet, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, beans, pigeon peas, greens, arrow root, cassava, and yam in cooler regions like Kangundo, Kilungu and Mbooni. It is the mother's role to bring up the children. Even children that have grown up into adults are expected to never contradict the mother's wishes. The mother

2489-541: Is ideal for breakfast or a snack or to accompany lunch or dinner. In addition to 1 kilo of cooked and very soft cassava, the recipe includes 300 grams of ground Paraguayan coconut, 300 grams of Paraguayan cheese, 2 eggs and salt to taste. A toothpick measuring about 70 cm is needed for grilling over moderate heat. The United Nations declared 2011 the International Year of People of African Descent in order to strengthen national policies and international cooperation for

2620-399: Is its spiritual essence; in fact, it is the spiritual aspect that distinguishes the dances of Africans and their descendants worldwide. For this reason, it is important to understand the nature of rituals. Dance rituals take participants on a journey; they are designed to foster a transformation moving them to different states, with the ultimate goal of invoking spiritual intervention to resolve

2751-403: Is known as Mwaitu ('our One'). Very little distinction is made between one's children and nieces and nephews. They address their maternal uncle as inaimiwa and maternal aunts as mwendya and for their paternal uncle and aunt as mwendw'au . They address their paternal cousins as wa-asa or wa'ia (for men is mwanaasa or mwanaa'ia , and for women is mwiitu wa'asa or mwiitu wa'ia ), and

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2882-662: Is situated in the Paraguarí Department , and Emboscada , in the Cordillera Department . The three communities are in the eastern region. The origins of these settlements date back to the Spanish colonial period. Kamba Cuá is the place having the most important Afro-Paraguayan community. This place, in the Central Department , is populated by so-called Artiga's Cue -or "black of Kamba Cuá"-, which are descended from

3013-549: Is the best known of African descent in Paraguay for having preserved their identity and culture, promoted through its traditional festivals. Emboscada (in Spanish: "Ambush"), a city that now has about 14,000 inhabitants, was founded in 1740 under the name of "Emboscada de Pardos Libres "(Free Pardo's ambush), because it was a point of frequent ambushes and because early settlers were 500 brown (black and mestizos) freedmen. Kamba Kokue, in

3144-578: Is worse off than a slave; he cannot claim his food from anyone. With the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade, demand for slaves in West Africa increased and a number of states became centered on the slave trade and domestic slavery increased dramatically. Hugh Clapperton in 1824 believed that half the population of Kano were enslaved people. Near the Gold Coast, many of those enslaved came from deep inside

3275-524: The Batutsi of Rwanda-Burundi and the Aembu of Kenya. The earliest, most famous and respected traditional Kamba soloist who can be documented was Mailu Mboo and came from "Kwa Vara" Now mwingi . The following are some of the varieties of traditional dance styles of the Akamba community: Dances are usually accompanied by songs composed for the occasion (marriage, birth, nationally important occasion), and reflect

3406-945: The Benin Empire , in what is now southern Nigeria , and in several small independent states in the same region. In the Ashanti Region , human sacrifice was often combined with capital punishment . Many nations such as the Bono State , Ashanti of present-day Ghana and the Yoruba of present-day Nigeria were involved in slave-trading. Groups such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as intermediaries or roving bands, waging war on African states to capture people for export as slaves. Historians John Thornton and Linda Heywood of Boston University have estimated that of

3537-666: The Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops, eventually revolting in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty . According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for

3668-734: The Edo people (in modified forms, it also existed among the Efik people , the Igbo people , the Ijaw people , and the Fon people ). Military slavery involved the acquisition and training of conscripted military units which would retain the identity of military slaves even after their service. Slave soldier groups would be run by a Patron , who could be the head of a government or an independent warlord, and who would send his troops out for money and his own political interests. This

3799-565: The Hassane warrior tribes ruling and extracting tribute – horma – from the subservient Berber -descended znaga tribes. Below them ranked servile groups known as Haratin , a black population. Enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans were also transported across North Africa into Arabia to do agricultural work because of their resistance to malaria that plagued the Arabia and North Africa at the time of early enslavement. Sub-Saharan Africans were able to endure

3930-639: The Kamba people (a Kenyan ethnic group). They arrived in Paraguay as members of a regiment of 250 spearmen, men and women, who accompanied General Jose Gervasio Artigas , the independence´s leading revolutionary of the Eastern Band (the current Uruguay ) in his exile in Paraguay in 1820. After having arrived in Asunción, they settled in the Campamento Loma area , practicing dairy and secondary agriculture. However, in

4061-534: The Mariakani , Kinango, Kwale , Mombasa West (Changamwe and Chaani) and Mombasa North (Kisauni) areas of the coast of Kenya, creating the beginnings of urban settlement. They are still found in large numbers in these towns, and have been absorbed into the cultural, economic and political life of the modern-day Coast Province . Several notable businessmen and women, politicians, as well as professional men and women are direct descendants of these itinerant pastoralists. In

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4192-673: The Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid Sultans during the Middle Ages . The first Mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th century Baghdad . Over time, they became a powerful military caste , and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250 on Egypt was ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin. White enslaved people from

4323-516: The Muslim World were the destinations, and Central and Eastern Europe an important source of slaves. The slave trade in medieval Europe was carried out in parts of Europe by both Christians and Jews. In the early medieval period, Jews had a near-monopoly on trade between Islamic and Christian countries, but by the thirteenth century this no longer applied to the slave trade. The Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served

4454-619: The Paraguarí Department , was also founded by black communities, from ranches of slaves of the religious missionaries of the Catholic Society of Jesus, better known as the Jesuit order. Also towns or villages as Aregua, Emboscada, and Guarambaré were established as black communities. Kishima is a traditional food of the Kamba Cua community that has survived over time. Made with cooked cassava and grated or ground coconut, it can be sweet or savory and

4585-561: The Rio de Plata in the 16th century and was appointed its viceroy - brought enslaved Africans to Paraguay. According to the Telesca, more than 4% of the population were slaves in colonial times, keeping the same percentage in the 19th century after independence. However, according to the Kamba Cuá "Afro-Paraguayan Association", in 1782, the black population represented 11.2 percent of the total population of

4716-549: The Roman institution of slavery (and the later Christian views on slavery ), the Islamic institutions of slavery via the Muslim slave trade , and eventually the Atlantic slave trade . Slavery was a part of the economic structure of African societies for many centuries, although the extent varied. Ibn Battuta , who visited the ancient kingdom of Mali in the mid-14th century, recounts that

4847-514: The Roman republic expanded, it enslaved defeated enemies and Roman conquests in Africa were no exception. For example, Orosius records that Rome enslaved 27,000 people from North Africa in 256 BC. Piracy became an important source of slaves for the Roman Empire and in the 5th century AD pirates would raid coastal North African villages and enslave those captured. Chattel slavery persisted after

4978-514: The Senegambia region between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western Sahel, including Ghana (750–1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275–1591), about a third of the population were enslaved. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of enslaved people. Among the Vai people during

5109-456: The South American country of Paraguay form two groups: Kamba Cuá and Kamba Kokue with the former being the most famous. They arrived in Paraguay as members of a regiment of 250 spearmen ('lanceros de Artigas'), men and women, who accompanied General Jose Gervasio Artigas , in his exile in Paraguay in 1820. The Kamba Cuá are famous for their African traditional ballet that is described as

5240-645: The Tuareg peoples and many still hold slaves today. When British rule was first imposed on the Sokoto Caliphate and the surrounding areas in northern Nigeria at the turn of the 20th century, approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were enslaved. Slavery in northern Nigeria was finally outlawed in 1936. Kamba people Modern ethnicities Diaspora Performing arts Government agencies Television Radio Newspapers The Kamba or Akamba (sometimes called Wakamba ) people are

5371-627: The Upper Guinea region and I. A. Akinjogbin contends that European accounts reveal that the slave trade was not a major activity along the coast controlled by the Yoruba people and Aja people before Europeans arrived. In a paper read to the Ethnological Society of London in 1866, the viceroy of Lokoja , Mr T. Valentine Robins, who in 1864 accompanied an expedition up the River Niger aboard HMS  Investigator , described slavery in

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5502-405: The trans-Saharan slave trade , Red Sea slave trade , Indian Ocean slave trade and Atlantic slave trade (which started in the 16th century) began, many of the pre-existing local African slave systems began supplying captives for slave markets outside Africa. Slavery in contemporary Africa is still practised in some parts despite it being illegal. In the relevant literature African slavery

5633-458: The "Golden charrúa". Their original lands at Campamento Loma remained vacant, and Kamba Cuá recently occupied them and planted manioc, but by the government decision of Wasmosy (post Stroessner), were accused of being "terrorists" and were beaten and evicted. Today, according to official estimates, about 300 families (between 1,200 and 2,500 people) live in Kumba Cuá. However, according to censuses of

5764-560: The "central cultural identity of the Afro-Paraguayan community". The Kamba speak the Kamba language (also known as Kikamba) as a mother tongue . It belongs to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Kikamba has no letters c, f, j, r, x, q and p in its alphabet. The Swahili language reveals closer ties to the Akamba mother tongue, this being due to the various interactions of

5895-697: The 'Akamba.' They are closely related in language and culture to the Kikuyu , the Embu , the Mbeere and the Meru of whom together they form the GEMA community, and to some extent relate closely to the Kambe and the Giriama of the Kenyan coast. The Kambas are concentrated in the lowlands of southeast Kenya from the vicinity of Mount Kenya to the coast. The first group of Kamba people settled in

6026-440: The 1820s.. They arrived in a regiment of 250 spearmen, men and women, who accompanied General Jose Gervasio Artigas, the revolutionary leader of the now Uruguay, in his exile in Paraguay. The Kamba Cua were dispossessed of their land by General Higinio Morinigo in the 1940s. Of his 100 hectares, they stayed with 3 hectares. A Free Womb Law was adopted in Paraguay in 1842. Most of the male slaves born before that were drafted into

6157-466: The 1940s, they were dispossessed of their land by General Higinio Morinigo . Of his 100 hectares, they stayed with 3 hectares. However, the community survived, kept his chapel and dances, created a football club ("Jan Six-ro"), and one school of drum and dance for children. His ballet is the only Afro-Paraguayan expression, and premiered at the Folk Festival peach "Uruguay Yi sings in" 1992, where it won

6288-714: The 19th century, three quarters of the people were slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon and other peoples of the lower Niger , the Kongo , and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola . Among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of enslaved people. The population of the Kanem (1600–1800) was about one-third enslaved. It

6419-496: The 19th century. Although archaeological evidence is not clear on the issue prior to European contact, in those societies that practised human sacrifice, slaves became the most prominent victims. The Annual Customs of Dahomey were the most notorious example of human sacrifice of slaves, where 500 prisoners would be sacrificed. Sacrifices were carried out all along the West African coast and further inland. Sacrifices were common in

6550-701: The 6.1 million inhabitants of Paraguay. This census indicates specifically that there are 422 people in Kamba Cua, 385 people in Kamba Kokué, and more than 7,000 people in Emboscada: 2,686 in urban areas and 4,524 in rural areas and 58% of the total population are of African descent. So, of the total of African descent, 5.6 percent live in Kamba Cuá, 4.9 percent in Kamba Kokue and 89.5 percent in Emboscada. The census also shows that they are virtually matched for sex and they have

6681-658: The Africans captured and then sold as slaves to the New World in the Atlantic slave trade, around 90% were enslaved by fellow Africans who sold them to European traders. Henry Louis Gates , the Harvard Chair of African and African American Studies, has stated that "without complex business partnerships between African elites and European traders and commercial agents, the slave trade to the New World would have been impossible, at least on

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6812-405: The Afro-Paraguayan Association Kamba Cuá, this community consists of only 422 people. Religion is an integral part of daily life. Currently they are Catholic. His saint is San Benito of Palermo and King San Baltazar, who came from Uruguay. Their main festival is celebrated on 6 January each year at the community's social club named after the patron saint. The important ballet artistic expressions of

6943-402: The Akamba people with Arab traders for centuries. Like many Bantus, the Akamba were originally hunters and gatherers but later became long distance traders because of their knowledge of the expansive area they inhabited. They also had good relations with neighbouring communities as well as excellent communication skills. They would go on to later adopt subsistence farming and pastoralism due to

7074-455: The British colonial government during one of their raiding expeditions on the local populations. Muindi Mbingu was arrested for leading another protest march to recover stolen land and cattle around the Mua Hills in Masaku district, which the British settlers eventually appropriated for themselves. JD Kali, along with Paul Ngei, joined the Mau Mau movement to recover Kenya for the Kenyan people. This movement took place between 1952 and 1960. He

7205-490: The Congo River slave trade only went to a small number of traders, this aspect of the trade provided some benefit to local producers and consumers. In parts of the Congo Basin , it was not rare for slaves to be killed and eaten , especially (but not only) at festive occasions. Eyewitness accounts describe the purchase, butchering, and consumption of slaves as a "daily-life activity, free from strong emotions", seen by those who practised it as not essentially different from

7336-449: The European fashion, taking their pick from dresses, skirts, trousers, jeans and shorts, made from the wide range of fabrics available in Kenya. Primarily, however, skirts are the customary and respectable mode of dress. In the past, the women were attired in knee-length leather or bark skirts, embellished with bead work. They wore necklaces made of beads, these obtained from the Swahili and Arab traders. They shaved their heads clean, and wore

7467-434: The Interior of Africa v. II, Chapter XXII – War and Slavery . The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related to kinship structures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections. This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage, and the children of slaves could become closely connected with

7598-418: The Kamba Kua and culinary arts of this community have been maintained for nearly 180 years. Their oral tradition recalls that many of them participated and died in the defensive war against the Triple Alliance (1865–69), which destroyed Paraguay. They keep memories of their history, passed down from generation to generation, hold dances like "candombe", dedicated to San Baltasar, and drumming. So, this community

7729-440: The Kamba live in Mbeere South region and in Taita–Taveta County they are mainly concentrated in the Taveta region. They share a border with the Maasai people and are literally separated by the Kenya-Uganda railway from Athi-River to Kibwezi . Up until late 20th Century the Maasai and the Akamba communities were involved in persistent cattle-rustling and pasture conflicts especially on the pasture-rich Konza plains. This attracted

7860-399: The Kikuyu, the Embu, the Mbeere and the Meru, moved into Kenya from points further south. Most of the Akamba people live in Kenya, and are concentrated in the lower eastern counties of Machakos , Kitui , and Makueni . According to the national census of 2019, there were 4,663,910 Akamba people in Kenya, being the fifth-most populous tribe in the country. Machakos is the most populous of

7991-433: The Queen" during the Mau Mau Emergency , a press release by the East Africa Command went on to characterize the Kamba as a "fighting race." These sentiments were echoed by other colonial observers in the early 1950s who deemed the Kamba a hardy, virile, courageous, and "mechanically-minded tribe." Considered by many officers to be the "best [soldierly] material in Africa," the Kamba supplied the KAR with askaris (soldiers) at

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8122-424: The Sahara. Oral tradition recounts slavery existing in the Kingdom of Kongo from the time of its formation with Lukeni lua Nimi enslaving the Mwene Kabunga whom he conquered to establish the kingdom. Early Portuguese writings show that the Kingdom did have slavery before contact, but that they were primarily war captives from the Kingdom of Ndongo . Slavery was common along the Upper Congo River , and in

8253-426: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. The prerequisites for slave societies to exist weren't present in West Africa prior to the Atlantic slave trade considering the small market sizes and the lack of a division of labour . Most West African societies were formed in kinship units which would make slavery a rather marginal part of the production process within them. Slaves within Kinship-based societies would have had almost

8384-590: The West), Kemal Reis , Salih Reis , and Koca Murat Reis . In 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Ischia , taking 4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slavery some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari , almost the entire population. In 1551, Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo , between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya . When pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy in 1554 they took an estimated 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to Corsica and ransacked Bastia , taking 6,000 prisoners. In 1558 Barbary corsairs captured

8515-422: The advantages to the aristocracy of slavery and what would best suit the region. This sort of governing used the "political tool" of discerning the different labours and methods of assimilative slavery . Domestic and agricultural labour became more evidently primary in Western Africa due to slaves being regarded as "political tools" of access and status. Slaves often had more wives than their owners, and this boosted

8646-466: The army during the Paraguayan War and then killed in it. The slavery was finally abolished for all ages in 1869. Although according to official estimates, the Afro-Paraguayan population accounts for 2% of the total population, the Afro Paraguayan Association Kamba Cuá, supported by the Department of Statistics, Surveys and Censuses (Dgeec) and the U.S. and state IAF, estimated the number of Afro-Paraguayan people at only 8,013, equivalent to 0.13 percent of

8777-470: The availability of the new lands that they came to occupy. Today, the Akamba are often found engaged in different professions: some are agriculturalists, others are traders, while others have taken up formal jobs. The Kamba also practiced Barter trade with the Kikuyu, Maasai, Meru and Embu people in the interior and the Mijikenda and Arab people of the coast. Over time, the Akamba extended their commercial activity and wielded economic control across

8908-439: The benefit of this group to achieve, in theory, the satisfaction of all their rights, their participation, and integration in all political, economic, social and cultural aspects of society, and promote greater understanding and respect for the diverse heritage and culture of these people. In this context in Paraguay has been developing the tour of a show called "Negritud de colores" (Negritude Colors) that runs different cities. It

9039-521: The census did not reach all residents, especially in Emboscada; additionally, some residents surveyed did not self-identify as being of African descent, separate from other groupings of Afro-Paraguayans and individuals of African descent throughout the country that were not included in the census. As already mentioned, there are three communities of Afro-Paraguayan: the Kamba Cuá, in the Central Department (outside Asuncion ), Kamba Kokue, meaning "chacra de negros" (farm of blacks) in Guarani language , and

9170-720: The central part of the land that was later to be known as Kenya (from the Kikamba, 'Ki'nyaa', meaning 'the Ostrich Country.' This was derived from the reference they made to Mount Kenya and its snow cap similar to the male Ostrich), from the Indian Ocean in the east to Lake Victoria in the west, and all the way up to Lake Turkana on the northern frontier. The Akamba traded in locally produced goods such as sugar cane wine, ivory , brass amulets, tools and weapons, millet, and cattle. The food obtained from trading helped offset shortages caused by droughts and famines experienced in their Kamba land. They also traded in medicinal products known as 'Miti' (literally: plants), made from various parts of

9301-417: The century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000." Davis' numbers have been disputed by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that the true picture of European slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe and black people from West Africa. In addition,

9432-596: The cultural law of never addressing her in-laws by their first names. After these four children are named, whose names were more or less predetermined, other children could be given any other names, sometimes after other relatives and / or family friends on both sides of the family. Occasionally, children were given names that were descriptive of the circumstances under which they were born: Children were also given affectionate names as expressions of what their parents wished them to be in life. Such names would be like Of course, some of these names could be simply expressive of

9563-594: The early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million. Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the Italian invasion in October 1935, when the institution was abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces. In response to pressure by Western Allies of World War II , Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude after it regained its independence in 1942. On 26 August 1942, Haile Selassie issued

9694-471: The eating of goats and other animals. Various forms of slavery were practised in diverse ways in different communities of West Africa prior to European trade. According to Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi , indigenous slavery in locations like Ghana had been established by the 1st century AD, with origins sometime in the ancient period. Even though slavery did exist, it was not nearly as prevalent within most West African societies that were not Islamic before

9825-786: The fall of the Roman Empire in the largely Christian communities of the region. After the Islamic trade expansion across the Sahara , the practices continued and eventually, the assimilative form of slavery spread to major societies on the southern end of the Sahara (such as Mali , Songhai , and Ghana). The medieval slave trade in Europe was mainly to the East and South: the Christian Byzantine Empire and

9956-410: The family known as (Musyi) plays a central role in the community. The Akamba extended family or clan is called mbai . The man, who is the head of the family, is usually engaged in an economic activity popular among the community like trading, hunting, cattle-herding or farming. He is known as Nau , Tata , or Asa . The woman, regardless of her husband's occupation, works on her plot of land, which she

10087-554: The household, and participated in a network of face-to-face links." With the development of the trans- Saharan slave trade and the economies of gold in the western Sahel , a number of the major states became organized around the slave trade, including the Ghana Empire , the Mali Empire , the Bono State and Songhai Empire . However, other communities in West Africa largely resisted the slave trade. The Jola refused to participate in

10218-514: The houses of their masters or mistresses, and were not employed to any significant extent for productive purpose. The enslaved were regarded as second-class members of their owners' family. The first attempt to abolish slavery in Ethiopia was made by Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–68), although the slave trade was not legally abolished until 1923 when Ethiopia ascended to the League of Nations . Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in

10349-550: The interest of colonial government who created Cooperative Society and the later the establishment of Konza , Potha and Malili Ranches where the proposed Konza Technology City sits. Apart from Kenya, Kamba people can also be found in Uganda, Tanzania and in Paraguay . The population of Akamba in Uganda is about 8,280, 110,000 in Tanzania and about 10,000 in Paraguay. The Kamba people in

10480-511: The interior of the continent as defeated people from numerous wars and were sold off as part of a practice called "eating the country" that aimed to disperse fallen enemies and prevent regrouping. According to Ghanaian historian Akosua Perbi, from the 15th to 19th centuries in Ghana, major sources of slaves were warfare, slave markets, pawning, raids, kidnapping and tributes, while minor sources were from gifts, convictions, communal or private deals. In

10611-560: The land and neutral standing with many of the other societies they traded with. During the colonial era, British colonial officials considered the Kamba to be the premier martial race and sharp-shooters of Africa. The Kamba themselves appeared to embrace this label by enlisting in the colonial army in large numbers. After confidently describing the Kamba serving in the King's African Rifles (the KAR, Britain's East African colonial army) as loyal "soldiers of

10742-496: The land on to their children in many cases. Pawnship , or debt bondage slavery, involves the use of people as collateral to secure the repayment of debt . Slave labour is performed by the debtor , or a relative of the debtor (usually a child). Pawnship was a common form of collateral in West Africa . It involved the pledge of a person or a member of that person's family, to serve another person providing credit . Pawnship

10873-426: The larger family ties. Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances. However, stigma often remained attached, and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master. Chattel slavery is a specific servitude relationship where

11004-628: The late 1500s and early 1600s observers, estimate that around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast , across Tripoli , Tunis , but mostly in Algiers . The majority were sailors taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers, and overall most of the captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy. The coastal villages and towns of Italy , Portugal , Spain , and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by

11135-653: The latter part of the 19th century the Arabs took over the coastal trade from the Akamba, who then acted as middlemen between the Arab and Swahili traders and the tribes further upcountry. Their trade and travel made them ideal guides for the caravans gathering elephant tusks, precious stones and some slaves for the Middle Eastern, Indian , and Chinese markets. Early European explorers also used them as guides in their expeditions to explore Southeast Africa, due to their wide knowledge of

11266-401: The less strenuous chores around the home, such as rope-making, tanning leather, carving of beehives, three-legged wooden stools, cleaning and decorating calabashes, making bows and arrows, etc. Older women continue to work the land, as this is seen as a source of independence and economic security. They also carry out trade in the local markets, though not exclusively. In the modern Akamba family,

11397-576: The local inhabitants vied with each other in the number of slaves and servants they had, and was himself given a slave boy as a "hospitality gift." In sub-Saharan Africa , the slave relationships were often complex, with rights and freedoms given to individuals held in slavery and restrictions on sale and treatment by their masters. Many communities had hierarchies between different types of slaves: for example, differentiating between those who had been born into slavery and those who had been captured through war. "The slaves in Africa, I suppose, are nearly in

11528-467: The major kingdoms, particularly along the coast, and there is little evidence of widespread slavery practices in stateless societies. Slave trading was mostly secondary to other trade relationships; however, there is evidence of a trans- Saharan slave trade route from Roman times which persisted in the area after the fall of the Roman Empire . However, kinship structures and rights provided to slaves (except those captured in war) appears to have limited

11659-627: The malaria-infested lands they were transported to, which is why North Africans were not transported despite their close proximity to Arabia and its surrounding lands. In the Horn of Africa , the Christian kings of the Ethiopian Empire captured slaves primarily from the pagan Nilotic Shanqella and Oromo peoples from their western borderlands, or from newly conquered or reconquered lowland territories. The Somali and Afar Muslim sultanates, such as

11790-517: The many anthills around, a man and a woman came out. These were the initiators of the 'spirits clan'- the Aimo. It so happened that the couple from heaven had only sons while the couple from the anthill had only daughters. Naturally, the couple from heaven paid dowry for the daughters of the couple from the anthill. The family and their cattle greatly increased in numbers. With this prosperity, they forgot to give thanks to their creator. Mulungu punished them with

11921-400: The maternal cousins (mother's side) as wa mwendya (for men mwanaa mwendya ; for women mwiitu wa mwendya ). Children often move from one household to another with ease, and are made to feel at home by their aunts and uncles who, while in charge of their nephews/nieces, are their de facto parents. Grandparents known as ( Susu or Usua (grandmother), Umau or Umaa (grandfather)) help with

12052-625: The medieval Adal Sultanate , through their ports also traded Zanj ( Bantu ) slaves captured from the hinterland. Slavery, as practised in Ethiopia , was essentially domestic and was geared more towards women; this was the trend for most of Africa as well. Women were transported across the Sahara, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean trade more than men. Enslaved people served in

12183-524: The militia and were also the main labour force for the chiefs, as well as serving the local need for human sacrifices. The eventual abolition of slavery created a host of problems which had economic, political and social ramifications. Martin Klein has said that before the Atlantic trade, slaves in Western Sudan "made up a small part of the population, lived within the household, worked alongside free members of

12314-535: The modern times, like most people in Kenya, dress rather conventionally in western / European clothing. The men wear trousers and shirts. Young boys will, as a rule, wear shorts and short-sleeved shirts, usually in cotton, or tee-shirts. Traditionally, Akamba men wore leather short kilts made from animal skins or tree bark. They wore copious jewellery, mainly of copper and brass. It consisted of neck-chains, bracelets, and anklets. The women in modern Akamba society also dress in

12445-402: The mother in-law on the husband's side, for instance, can never address their daughter in-law by her first name. Neither can she address them by their first names. Yet she has to name her children after them. To solve this problem, a system of naming is adopted that gave names which were descriptive of the quality or career of the grandparents. Therefore, when a woman is married into a family, she

12576-499: The number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert John Wright cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation. Such observations, across

12707-513: The numerous medicinal plants found on the Southeast African plains. Maingi Ndonye Mbithi, commonly referred by his peers and locals as Kanyi, from Kimutwa village in Machakos was known for his concoction of herbs mixed with locally fermented brew (kaluvu) with the ability to heal cancerous boils (Mi'imu). The Akamba are still known for their fine work in wood carving, basketry and pottery and

12838-512: The pirates, and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland . The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman Barbarossa ("Redbeard"), and his older brother Oruç , Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in

12969-464: The power of the master extend not to the care of prisoners taken in war, nor to that of slaves purchased with money. All these unfortunate beings are considered as strangers and foreigners, who have no right to the protection of the law, and may be treated with severity, or sold to a stranger, according to the pleasure of their owners." Travels in the Interior of Africa , Mungo Park , Travels in

13100-412: The present day county of Kitui) who will bear this name. A girl could be called "Mumbe" meaning beautiful one or "Mwende" (beloved); Wild animal names like Nzoka (snake), Mbiti (hyena), Mbuku (hare), Munyambu (lion), or Mbiwa (fox); or domesticated animal names like Ngiti (dog), Ng'ombe (cow), or Nguku (chicken), were given to children born of mothers who started by giving stillbirths. This

13231-548: The present-day Mbooni Hills in the Machakos District of Kenya. This was in the second half of the 17th century, before spreading to Machakos, Makueni and Kitui Districts. Some authorities suggest that they arrived in their present lowlands east of the Mount Kenya area of habitation from earlier settlements further to the north and east. Others argue that the Kamba, along with their closely related Eastern Bantu neighbours

13362-485: The presentation of the galloping "San Baltasar" and "Kamba la Merce," a rich description of the dances related popular culture, plus rhythms Kamba Cua group like-Pitiki Guarimba pitiki and gallops. African slaves Slavery has historically been widespread in Africa . Systems of servitude and slavery were once commonplace in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the rest of the ancient and medieval world . When

13493-439: The problem at hand. Akamba resistance to colonial "pacification" was mostly non-violent in nature. Some of the best known Akamba resistance leaders to colonialism were: Syokimau , Syotune wa Kathukye, Muindi Mbingu, and later Paul Ngei , JD Kali, and Malu of Kilungu. Ngei and Kali were imprisoned by the colonial government for their anti-colonial protests. Syotune wa Kathukye led a peaceful protest to recover cattle confiscated by

13624-459: The products . Their artistic inclination is evidenced in the sculpture work that is on display in many craft shops and galleries in the major cities and towns of Kenya. In the mid-eighteenth century, a large number of Akamba pastoral groups moved eastwards from the Tsavo and Kibwezi areas to the coast. This migration was the result of extensive drought and lack of pasture for their cattle. They settled in

13755-517: The proportion of three to one to the freemen. They claim no reward for their services except food and clothing, and are treated with kindness or severity, according to the good or bad disposition of their masters. Custom, however, has established certain rules with regard to the treatment of slaves, which it is thought dishonourable to violate. Thus the domestic slaves, or such as are born in a man's own house, are treated with more lenity than those which are purchased with money. ... But these restrictions on

13886-417: The qualities displayed by the man or woman after whom they were named. Very rarely, a boy may be given the name "Musumbi" (meaning "king"). I say very rarely because the Kamba people did not speak much in terms of royalty; they did not have a definite monarchical system. They were ruled by a council of elders called king'ole . There is a prophecy of a man, who traces his ancestry to where the sun sets (west) (in

14017-531: The region: Upon slavery Mr Robins remarked that it was not what people in England thought it to be. It means, as continually found in this part of Africa, belonging to a family group-there is no compulsory labour, the owner and the slave work together, eat like food, wear like clothing and sleep in the same huts. Some slaves have more wives than their masters. It gives protection to the slaves and everything necessary for their subsistence – food and clothing. A free man

14148-472: The rest of the continent prior to written records by Arab or European traders. Many slave relationships in Africa revolved around domestic slavery, where slaves would work primarily in the house of the master, but retain some freedoms. Domestic slaves could be considered part of the master's household and would not be sold to others without extreme cause. The slaves could own the profits from their labour (whether in land or in products), and could marry and pass

14279-563: The same roles that free members had. However, Nigerian historian Professor Philip Igbafe says that until the late 19th Century, slavery in the Kingdom of Benin, as well as in other West African kingdoms had its own place in the structure of the state, having its roots in the "economic, military, social and political necessities of the Benin kingdom". Slaves were owned by the Oba (king) and by ordinary citizens. In pre-colonial Benin, they were acquired in

14410-530: The scale it occurred." The entire Bubi ethnic group descends from escaped intertribal slaves owned by various ancient West-central African ethnic groups. Like most other regions of the world, slavery and forced labour existed in many kingdoms and societies of Africa for hundreds of years. Ugo Kwokeji has called early European reports of slavery throughout Africa in the 1600s unreliable, saying they conflated various forms of servitude with chattel slavery. The best evidence of slave practices in Africa come from

14541-499: The scope of slave trading before the start of the trans-Saharan slave trade, Indian Ocean slave trade and the Atlantic slave trade. Slavery in northern Africa dates back to ancient Egypt . The New Kingdom (1558–1080 BC) brought large numbers of slaves as prisoners of war up the Nile valley and used them for domestic and supervised labour. Ptolemaic Egypt (305 BC–30 BC) used both land and sea routes to bring in slaves. Chattel slavery

14672-513: The second half of the 18th century the region became a major source of slaves for the Atlantic slave trade , when high slave prices on the coast made long-distance slave trading profitable. When the Atlantic trade came to an end, the price of slaves dropped dramatically, and the regional slave trade grew, dominated by Bobangi traders. The Bobangi also purchased many slaves with profits from selling ivory, whom they used to populate their villages. Slaves who had been sold by their kin group, typically as

14803-546: The slave is treated as the property of the owner. As such, the owner is free to sell, trade, or treat the slave as he would other pieces of property, and the children of the slave often are retained as the property of the master. There is evidence of long histories of chattel slavery in the Nile River valley, much of the Sahel and North Africa . Evidence is incomplete about the extent and practices of chattel slavery throughout much of

14934-409: The slave trade helped to create a robust regional trade network for the foodstuffs and crafted goods of small producers along the river. As only a few slaves in a canoe were sufficient to cover the cost of a trip and still make a profit, traders could fill any unused space on their canoes with other goods and transport them long distances without a significant markup on price. While the large profits from

15065-509: The slave trade in the 1800s, mainly in the Atlantic slave trade. Senegal was a catalyst for the slave trade, and from the Homann Heirs map figure shown, shows a starting point for migration and a firm port of trade. The culture of the Gold Coast was based largely on the power that individuals held, rather than the land cultivated by a family. Western Africa , developed slavery by analysing

15196-428: The slave trade up into the end of the seventeenth century, and did not use slave labour within their own communities until the nineteenth century. The Kru and Baga also fought against the slave trade. The Mossi Kingdoms tried to take over key sites in the trans-Saharan trade and, when these efforts failed, became defenders against slave raiding by the powerful states of the western Sahel. The Mossi eventually entered

15327-452: The spirit of uniformity and equality. Currently the most popular Kamba artist include; Ken Wamaria, Kativui, Kitunguu, Katombi, Maima, Vuusya Ungu etc. Ken Wamaria is rated as the top artist in Ukambani and the richest Kenyan artist (Kioko, 2012). Vernacular radio stations in Kenya where Kamba is the primary language spoken are as follows: Kyeni TV is a TV channel which broadcasts primarily in

15458-512: The status of their owners. Slaves were not all used for the same purpose. European colonizing countries participated in the trade to suit the economic needs of their individual countries. The parallel of "Moorish" traders in the desert compared to Portuguese traders who were not as established pointed out the differences in uses of slaves at this point, and where they were headed in the trade. Historian Walter Rodney identified no slavery or significant domestic servitude in early European accounts on

15589-562: The then Province of Paraguay. This population continued to increase according to Telesca, and by 1811 half of the Paraguayan population was of African descent, whether slave or free. So, several towns like Aregua, Emboscada (in English: "Ambush"), and Guarambare were established as black communities. With the arrival of Artigas ' also arrived, curiously, people of Kamba ethnicity, a Kenyan ethnic group, from Uruguay , who settled in Paraguay in

15720-461: The three Ukambani counties, with 1,421,932 residents. This is followed by Kitui (1,136,187 residents) then Makueni (987,653 residents). They make up the second largest ethnic demographics in each of the urban city - counties of Nairobi and Mombasa as well as Taita–Taveta , Kiambu , Muranga , Kirinyaga , Kwale and Kilifi counties. They also form the third largest ethnic group in Embu , Garissa , Meru and Kajiado counties. In Embu county

15851-497: The town of Ciutadella , destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants, and carried off 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves. In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the province of Granada , Spain, and captured the coastal settlements in the area like Almuñécar , along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates frequently attacked the Balearic islands , resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being erected. The threat

15982-604: The traditional structure of the Kikamba song, sung on a pentatonic scale. The singing is lively and tuneful. Songs are composed satirising deviant behaviour, anti-social activity, etc. The Akamba have famous work songs, such as Ngulu Mwelela , sung while work, such as digging, is going on. Herdsmen and boys have different songs, as do young people and old. During the Mbalya dances the dance leader will compose love songs and satirical numbers, to tease and entertain his/her dancers. The Akamba of

16113-403: The women, especially in the urban regions, practice professions such as teaching, law, medicine, nursing, secretarial work, management, tailoring and other duties in accordance with Kenya's socioeconomic evolution.The Kamba clans are: Anzauni, Aombe, Akitondo, Amwei (Angwina), Atwii, Amumui, Aethanga, Atangwa, Amutei, Aewani, Akitutu, Ambua, Aiini, Asii, Akiimi, Amũũti, Amũũnda. Naming of children

16244-592: Was done to wish away the bad omen and allow the new child to survive. Sometimes the names were used to preserve the good names for later children. There was a belief that a woman's later children had a better chance of surviving than her first ones. The Akamba people's love of music and dance is evidenced in their spectacular performances at many events in their daily lives or on occasions of regional and national importance. In their dances they display agility and athletic skills as they perform acrobatics and body movements. The Akamba dance techniques and style resemble those of

16375-455: Was imprisoned in Kapenguria during the fighting between the then government and the freedom fighters. Their origin myth is as follows: "In the beginning, Mulungu created a man and a woman. This was the couple from heaven and he proceeded to place them on a rock at Nzaui where their foot prints, including those of their livestock can be seen to this day. Mulungu then caused a great rainfall. From

16506-597: Was legal and widespread throughout North Africa , be it under Ancient Carthage (ca. 814 BC – 146 BC), or later when the region was controlled by the Roman Empire (145 BC – ca. 430 AD) and the Eastern Romans (533 to 695 AD). A slave trade bringing Saharans through the desert to North Africa, which existed in Roman times, continued and documentary evidence in the Nile Valley shows it to have been regulated there by treaty. As

16637-566: Was most significant in the Nile valley (primarily in Sudan and Uganda ), with slave military units organized by various Islamic authorities, and with the war chiefs of Western Africa. The military units in Sudan were formed in the 1800s through large-scale military raiding in the area which is currently the countries of Sudan and South Sudan . Human sacrifice was common in West African states up to and during

16768-596: Was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of enslaved people. The population of the largest Fulani state, Sokoto , was at least half-enslaved in the 19th century. Among the Adrar 15 per cent of people were enslaved, and 75 per cent of the Gurma were enslaved. Slavery was extremely common among

16899-550: Was related to, yet distinct from, slavery in most conceptualizations, because the arrangement could include limited, specific terms of service to be provided, and because kinship ties would protect the person from being sold into slavery. Pawnship was a common practice throughout West Africa prior to European contact, including among the Akan people , the Ewe people , the Ga people , the Yoruba people , and

17030-517: Was so severe that Formentera became uninhabited. Early modern sources are full of descriptions of the sufferings of Christian galley slaves of the Barbary corsairs : Those who have not seen a galley at sea, especially in chasing or being chased, cannot well conceive the shock such a spectacle must give to a heart capable of the least tincture of commiseration. To behold ranks and files of half-naked, half-starved, half-tanned meagre wretches, chained to

17161-560: Was widespread throughout Africa. Plantation slavery also occurred, primarily on the eastern coast of Africa and in parts of West Africa. The importance of domestic plantation slavery increased during the 19th century, due to the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade. Many African states dependent on the international slave trade reoriented their economies towards legitimate commerce worked by slave labour. Multiple forms of slavery and servitude have existed throughout African history, and were shaped by indigenous practices of slavery as well as

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