In linguistics , a neologism ( / n i ˈ ɒ l ə ˌ dʒ ɪ z əm / ; also known as a coinage ) is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has achieved popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language. Most definitively, a word can be considered a neologism once it is published in a dictionary.
125-607: AfPak (also spelled Af-Pak ) was a neologism used within United States foreign policy circles to designate Afghanistan and Pakistan as a single theater of operations . Introduced in 2008, the neologism reflected the policy approach that was introduced by the Obama administration , which regarded the region comprising the Asian countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan as having a singular dominant political and military situation that required
250-472: A Democrat from Illinois , took office following his victory over Republican nominee John McCain in the 2008 presidential election . Four years later, in the 2012 presidential election , he defeated Republican nominee Mitt Romney , to win re-election. Obama is the first African American president, the first multiracial president, the first non-white president, and the first president born in Hawaii. Obama
375-663: A neologism has become accepted or recognized by social institutions. Neologisms are often driven by changes in culture and technology. Popular examples of neologisms can be found in science , technology , fiction (notably science fiction ), films and television, commercial branding, literature , jargon , cant , linguistics , the visual arts , and popular culture. Examples of words that were 20th-century neologisms include laser (1960), an acronym of light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation ; robot (1921) from Czech writer Karel Čapek 's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) ; and agitprop (1930;
500-524: A new executive order that would have protected another four million illegal immigrants from deportation, but the order was blocked by the Supreme Court in a 4–4 tie vote that upheld a lower court's ruling. Despite executive actions to protect some individuals, deportations of illegal immigrants continued under Obama. A record high of 400,000 deportations occurred in 2012, though the number of deportations fell during Obama's second term. In continuation of
625-510: A portmanteau of Russian "agitatsiya" (agitation) and "propaganda"). Neologisms are often formed by combining existing words (see compound noun and adjective ) or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes . Neologisms can also be formed by blending words, for example, "brunch" is a blend of the words "breakfast" and "lunch", or through abbreviation or acronym , by intentionally rhyming with existing words or simply through playing with sounds. A relatively rare form of neologism
750-589: A second bailout of US automakers, possibly saving General Motors and Chrysler from bankruptcy at the cost of $ 9.3 billion. For homeowners in danger of defaulting on their mortgage due to the subprime mortgage crisis , Obama launched several programs, including HARP and HAMP . Obama re-appointed Ben Bernanke as Chair of the Federal Reserve Board in 2009, and appointed Janet Yellen to succeed Bernanke in 2013. Short-term interest rates remained near zero for much of Obama's presidency, and
875-529: A 5–4 majority upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act, even though it made state Medicaid expansion voluntary. In King v. Burwell , a 6–3 majority allowed the use of tax credits in state-operated exchanges. The October 2013 launch of HealthCare.gov , a health insurance exchange website created under the provisions of the ACA, was widely criticized, even though many of the problems were fixed by
1000-656: A June 2009 press conference in Islamabad , Holbrooke "said the term 'AfPak' was not meant to demean Pakistan, but was 'bureaucratic shorthand' intended to convey that the situation in the border areas on both sides was linked and one side could not be resolved without the other". In January 2010, Holbrooke said that the Obama administration had stopped using the term: "We can't use it anymore because it does not please people in Pakistan, for understandable reasons". Neologism Neologisms are one facet of lexical innovation , i.e.,
1125-616: A Senate filibuster in a 55–41 vote in favor of the bill. In 2013, the Senate passed an immigration bill with a path to citizenship, but the House did not vote on the bill. In 2012, Obama implemented the DACA policy, which protected roughly 700,000 illegal immigrants from deportation; the policy applies only to those who were brought to the United States before their 16th birthday. In 2014, Obama announced
1250-600: A ban on denying coverage based on pre-existing conditions . However, the House bill included a tax increase on families making more than $ 1 million per year and a public health insurance option , while the Senate plan included an excise tax on high-cost health plans . The 2010 Massachusetts Senate special election victory of Scott Brown seriously imperiled the prospects of a health care reform bill, as Democrats lost their 60-seat Senate super-majority . The White House and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi engaged in an extensive campaign to convince both centrists and liberals in
1375-600: A bipartisan basis by the National Governors Association , and the Council of Chief State School Officers . The criteria were not mandatory, they were incentives to improve opportunities to get a grant. Most states revised their laws accordingly, even though they realized it was unlikely they would when a highly competitive new grant. Race to the Top had strong bipartisan support, with centrist elements from both parties. It
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#17328514746911500-523: A book may become a neologism, for instance, Catch-22 (from the title of Joseph Heller 's novel). Alternatively, the author's name may give rise to the neologism, although the term is sometimes based on only one work of that author. This includes such words as " Orwellian " (from George Orwell , referring to his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four ) and "Kafkaesque" (from Franz Kafka ). Names of famous characters are another source of literary neologisms. Some examples include: Quixotic , referring to
1625-536: A budget. House Republicans passed a budget that would defund Obamacare , but Senate Democrats refused to pass any budget that defunded Obamacare. Meanwhile, the country faced another debt ceiling crisis . Ultimately the two sides agreed to a continuing resolution that re-opened the government and suspended the debt ceiling. Months after passing the continuing resolution, Congress passed the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 and an omnibus spending bill to fund
1750-600: A cut in military spending , a scaling back of tax deductions for mortgages and employer-provided health insurance, a raise of the Social Security retirement age, and reduced spending on Medicare, Medicaid, and federal employees. The proposal never received a vote in Congress, but it served as a template for future plans to reduce the national debt. After taking control of the House in the 2010 elections , Congressional Republicans demanded spending cuts in return for raising
1875-534: A greater economic role for India in Afghanistan; the new approach was dubbed "AfPakIndia". British writer Michael Quinion writes that the term began appearing in newspaper articles in February 2009. The term was popularized and possibly coined by Richard Holbrooke , the Obama administration 's Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan . In March 2008 (a year before he assumed the post), Holbrooke explained
2000-464: A joint policy in their Global War on Terrorism . Following sharp criticism from Pakistan, which condemned the hyphenation of the country's geopolitics with Afghanistan, the U.S. government stopped using the term in 2010. In 2017, the Trump administration expanded its Afghanistan policy to a regional South Asia strategy, which sought continued counter-terrorism cooperation with Pakistan, but envisaged
2125-478: A major bill addressing the issue, in part because many Republicans and some Democrats questioned whether global warming is occurring and whether human activity contributes to it. Following his inauguration, Obama asked that Congress pass a bill to put a cap on domestic carbon emissions. After the House passed the American Clean Energy and Security Act in 2009, Obama sought to convince the Senate to pass
2250-583: A misguided romantic quest like that of the title character in Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes ; Scrooge , a pejorative for misers based on the avaricious main character in Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol ; and Pollyanna , referring to people who are unfailingly optimistic like the title character of Eleanor H. Porter's Pollyanna . Neologisms are often introduced in technical writing, so-called Fachtexte or 'technical texts' through
2375-513: A neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. It is unusual for a word to gain popularity if it does not clearly resemble other words. The term neologism is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from French néologisme (1734). The French word derives from Greek νέο- néo (="new") and λόγος / lógos , meaning "speech, utterance". In an academic sense, there
2500-399: A new meaning". Sometimes, the latter process is called semantic shifting , or semantic extension . Neologisms are distinct from a person's idiolect , one's unique patterns of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Neologisms are usually introduced when it is found that a specific notion is lacking a term, or when the existing vocabulary lacks detail, or when a speaker is unaware of
2625-573: A one-year reduction in the FICA payroll tax , and other measures. Obama ultimately persuaded many wary Democrats to support the bill, though many liberals such as Bernie Sanders continued to oppose it. The $ 858 billion Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress and was signed into law by Obama on December 17, 2010. Shortly after Obama's 2012 re-election, Congressional Republicans and Obama again faced off over
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#17328514746912750-447: A peak of 12.2 million in 2007. The nation's immigrant population hit a record 42.2 million in 2014. In November 2015, Obama announced a plan to resettle at least 10,000 Syrian refugees in the United States. Energy production boomed during the Obama administration. An increase in oil production was driven largely by a fracking boom spurred by private investment on private land, and
2875-480: A person may replace a word with a nonsensical one of their own invention (e.g., "I got so angry I picked up a dish and threw it at the gelsinger"). The use of neologisms may also be due to aphasia acquired after brain damage resulting from a stroke or head injury . Presidency of Barack Obama Barack Obama 's tenure as the 44th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 2009, and ended on January 20, 2017. Obama,
3000-572: A portion of a bill to be unconstitutional, and he subsequently issued several signing statements. Obama also signed the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 , which added 2 million acres (8,100 km ) of land to the National Wilderness Preservation System , as well as a law raising the cigarette pack tax by 62 cents (equivalent to $ 0.88 in 2023). On February 17, 2009, Obama signed
3125-442: A quality or attribute of a perceived object, as opposed to its essence. In physics, new terms were introduced sometimes via nonce formation (e.g., Murray Gell-Man 's quark , taken from James Joyce ) or through derivation (e.g. John von Neumann's kiloton , coined by combining the common prefix kilo- 'thousand' with the noun ton ). Neologisms therefore are a vital component of scientific jargon or termini technici . Polari
3250-585: A shift from previous ways of thinking about Afghanistan as an independent problem that required a military solution. The AfPak strategy was an attempt to win the “hearts and minds” of both Afghans and Pakistanis . In 2009, the National Security Advisor under the Barack Obama administration, James L. Jones , proposed reversing the term to "PakAf"; this proposal was met with staunch resistance in Pakistan due to its supposed suggestion that Pakistan
3375-562: A strategy of letting Congress drive the process, with the House and Senate writing their own bills. In the Senate, a bipartisan group of senators on the Finance Committee known as the Gang of Six began meeting with the hope of creating a bipartisan healthcare reform bill, even though the Republican senators involved with the crafting of the bill ultimately came to oppose it. In November 2009,
3500-506: A term still below the threshold of a neologism according to Merriam-Webster , is an example of the latter which has specifically spread primarily through Facebook group and Twitter account use. The suspected origin of this way of referring to dogs stems from a Facebook group founded in 2008 and gaining popularity in 2014 in Australia. In Australian English it is common to use diminutives , often ending in –o, which could be where doggo-lingo
3625-450: A transition away from coal as an energy source, but the falling price of wind, solar, and natural gas energy sources also contributed to coal's decline. Obama encouraged this successful transition away from coal in large part due to the fact that coal emits more carbon than other sources of power, including natural gas. Obama's campaign to fight global warming found more success at the international level than in Congress. Obama attended
3750-459: A trend that began with the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 , the percentage of foreign-born people living in the United States reached 13.7% in 2015, higher than at any point since the early 20th century. After having risen since 1990, the number of illegal immigrants living in the United States stabilized at around 11.5 million individuals during Obama's presidency, down from
3875-623: A universal accounting system for emissions, required each country to monitor its emissions, and required each country to create a plan to reduce its emissions. Several climate negotiators noted that the US-China climate deal and the EPA's emission limits helped make the deal possible. In 2016, the international community agreed to the Kigali accord, an amendment to the Montreal Protocol which sought to reduce
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4000-497: Is a cant used by some actors, circus performers, and the gay subculture to communicate without outsiders understanding. Some Polari terms have crossed over into mainstream slang, in part through their usage in pop song lyrics and other works. Example include: acdc , barney , blag , butch , camp , khazi , cottaging , hoofer , mince , ogle , scarper , slap , strides , tod , [rough] trade ( rough trade ). Verlan ( French pronunciation: [vɛʁlɑ̃] ), ( verlan
4125-428: Is a key reason why Pakistan is seeking a nuclear deal with the U.S. as "parity" with India. In June 2009, former Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf criticized the term: I am totally against the term AfPak. I do not support the word itself for two reasons: First, the strategy puts Pakistan on the same level as Afghanistan. We are not. Afghanistan has no government and the country is completely destabilized. Pakistan
4250-505: Is crucial in various industries and legal systems. Inaccurate translations can lead to 'translation asymmetry' or misunderstandings and miscommunication. Many technical glossaries of English translations exist to combat this issue in the medical, judicial, and technological fields. In psychiatry and neuroscience , the term neologism is used to describe words that have meaning only to the person who uses them, independent of their common meaning. This can be seen in schizophrenia , where
4375-411: Is disliked by Afghans as well. Pakistani journalist Saeed Shah mentioned that the international community has always had Pakistan and India bracketed together, and that Pakistan has always historically compared itself with India . He mentions that the United States has lumped Pakistan with Afghanistan under "Af-Pak", a supposed diplomatic relegation, while India is lauded as a growing power . This
4500-454: Is no professional neologist, because the study of such things (cultural or ethnic vernacular, for example) is interdisciplinary . Anyone such as a lexicographer or an etymologist might study neologisms, how their uses span the scope of human expression, and how, due to science and technology, they spread more rapidly than ever before in the present times. The term neologism has a broader meaning which also includes "a word which has gained
4625-521: Is not. Second, and this is much more important, is that there is an Indian element in the whole game. We have the Kashmir struggle , without which extremist elements like Lashkar-e-Taiba would not exist. As seen by Pakistan, India "should have been" part of a wide regional strategy including Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kashmir . However, the Indian government argued against the proposition. Answering questions at
4750-442: Is the predominant language for published research and studies, like-sounding translations (referred to as 'naturalization') are sometimes used. Alternatively, the English word is used along with a brief explanation of meaning. The four translation methods are emphasized in order to translate neologisms: transliteration , transcription , the use of analogues, and loan translation . When translating from English to other languages,
4875-481: Is the reverse of the expression "l'envers") is a type of argot in the French language , featuring inversion of syllables in a word, and is common in slang and youth language. It rests on a long French tradition of transposing syllables of individual words to create slang words. Some verlan words, such as meuf ("femme", which means "woman" roughly backwards), have become so commonplace that they have been included in
5000-516: Is when proper names are used as words (e.g., boycott , from Charles Boycott ), including guy , dick , Chad , and Karen . Neologisms can become popular through memetics , through mass media , the Internet , and word of mouth , including academic discourse in many fields renowned for their use of distinctive jargon , and often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. Whether
5125-486: The Petit Larousse . Like any slang, the purpose of verlan is to create a somewhat secret language that only its speakers can understand. Words becoming mainstream is counterproductive. As a result, such newly common words are re-verlanised: reversed a second time. The common meuf became feumeu . Neologism development may be spurred, or at least spread, by popular culture. Examples of pop-culture neologisms include
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5250-533: The 2008 Democratic National Convention , Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel , and Defense Secretary Robert Gates , whom Obama chose to retain from the previous administration. An early list of suggestions came from Michael Froman , then an executive at Citigroup . Obama described his Cabinet choices as a " team of rivals ", and Obama chose several prominent public officials for Cabinet positions, including defeated rival Hillary Clinton as Secretary of State. Obama nominated several former Clinton administration officials to
5375-515: The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference , which drafted the non-binding Copenhagen Accord as a successor to the Kyoto Protocol . The deal provided for the monitoring of carbon emissions among developing countries , but it did not include Obama's proposal to commit to cutting greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2050. In 2014, Obama reached an agreement with China in which China pledged to reach peak carbon emission levels by 2030, while
5500-638: The Affordable Care Act , sometimes referred to as "the ACA" or "Obamacare", the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 . The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act served as economic stimuli amidst the Great Recession . After a lengthy debate over
5625-464: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) to address the Great Recession . The ARRA had been passed, after much debate, by both the House and Senate four days earlier. While it was originally intended to be a bipartisan bill, Congressional passage of the bill relied largely on Democratic votes, though three Republican senators voted for it. The lack of Republican support for the bill, and
5750-481: The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau , which was charged with protecting consumers against abusive financial practices. On signing the bill, Obama stated that the bill would "empower consumers and investors," "bring the shadowy deals that caused the crisis to the light of day," and "put a stop to taxpayer bailouts once and for all." Some liberals were disappointed that the law did not break up
5875-402: The D.C. Circuit to fill Scalia's seat. However, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell , Judiciary Committee Chair Chuck Grassley , and other Senate Republicans argued that Supreme Court nominations should not be made during a presidential election year, and that the winner of the 2016 presidential election should instead appoint Scalia's replacement. Garland's nomination remained before
6000-647: The Gulf of Mexico . Because the pipeline crossed international boundaries, its construction required the approval of the US federal government, and the US State Department engaged in a lengthy review process. President Obama vetoed a bill to construct the Keystone Pipeline in February 2015, arguing that the decision of approval should rest with the executive branch. It was the first major veto of his presidency, and Congress
6125-623: The House of Representatives and the Senate , and Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi and Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid both remained in their posts. Republicans John Boehner and Mitch McConnell continued to serve as House Minority Leader and Senate Minority Leader, respectively. The presidential transition period began following Obama's victory in the 2008 U.S. presidential election , though Obama had chosen Chris Lu to begin planning for
6250-669: The New Deal . The act increased regulation and reporting requirements on derivatives (particularly credit default swaps ), and took steps to limit systemic risks to the US economy with policies such as higher capital requirements , the creation of the Orderly Liquidation Authority to help wind down large, failing financial institutions, and the creation of the Financial Stability Oversight Council to monitor systemic risks. Dodd-Frank also established
6375-540: The Supreme Court of the United States during Obama's tenure, but Obama made only two successful appointments. During the 111th Congress , when Democrats held a majority in the Senate, Obama successfully nominated two Supreme Court Justices: Justice Antonin Scalia died in February 2016, during the 114th Congress , which had a Republican majority in the Senate. In March 2016, Obama nominated Chief Judge Merrick Garland of
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#17328514746916500-570: The UN declaration on sexual orientation and gender identity ; and lifting the 7½-year ban on federal funding for embryonic stem cell research . Obama also ordered the closure of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , in Cuba , though it remains open. He lifted some travel and money restrictions to the island. Obama signed many landmark bills into law during his first two years in office. The main reforms include:
6625-610: The United States debt ceiling , the statutory limit on the total amount of debt that the Treasury Department can issue. The 2011 debt-ceiling crisis developed as Obama and Congressional Democrats demanded a "clean" debt-ceiling increase that did not include spending cuts. Though some Democrats argued that Obama could unilaterally raise the debt ceiling under the terms of the Fourteenth Amendment , Obama chose to negotiate with Congressional Republicans. Obama and Speaker of
6750-407: The electricity grid , repair public housing, and weatherize modest-income homes. Obama also promoted the use of plug-in electric vehicles , and 400,000 electric cars had been sold by the end of 2015. According to a report by The American Lung Association, there was a "major improvement" in air quality under Obama. Upon entering office, Obama focused on handling the global financial crisis and
6875-555: The expanded Children's Health Insurance Program (S-CHIP); winning approval of a congressional budget resolution that put Congress on record as dedicated to dealing with major health care reform legislation in 2009; implementing new ethics guidelines designed to significantly curtail the influence of lobbyists on the executive branch; breaking from the Bush administration on a number of policy fronts, except for Iraq, in which he followed through on Bush's Iraq withdrawal of US troops; supporting
7000-783: The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , which was the worst oil spill in US history. In December 2016, President Obama invoked the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to ban offshore oil and gas exploration in large parts of the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. During Obama's tenure, the battle over the Keystone XL Pipeline became a major issue, with advocates arguing that it would contribute to economic growth and environmentalists arguing that its approval would contribute to global warming. The proposed 1,000-mile (1,600 km) pipeline would have connected Canada's oil sands with
7125-509: The 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, promoted discussions that led to the 2015 Paris Agreement on global climate change, drew down US troops in Afghanistan in 2016, initiated sanctions against Russia following its annexation of Crimea and again after interference in the 2016 US elections , brokered the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action nuclear deal with Iran, and normalized US relations with Cuba . Obama nominated three justices to
7250-746: The American alt-Right (2010s), the Canadian portmanteau " Snowmageddon " (2009), the Russian parody " Monstration " ( c. 2004 ), Santorum ( c. 2003 ). Neologisms spread mainly through their exposure in mass media . The genericizing of brand names , such as "coke" for Coca-Cola , "kleenex" for Kleenex facial tissue, and "xerox" for Xerox photocopying , all spread through their popular use being enhanced by mass media. However, in some limited cases, words break out of their original communities and spread through social media . " DoggoLingo ",
7375-679: The Cabinet and to other positions. On April 28, 2009, the Senate confirmed former Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius as Secretary of Health and Human Services, completing Obama's initial Cabinet. During Obama's presidency, four Republicans served in Obama's Cabinet: Ray LaHood as Secretary of Transportation, Robert McDonald as Secretary of Veterans Affairs, and Gates and Chuck Hagel as Secretaries of Defense. Security and international affairs Economic affairs †Appointed by President Bush ‡Originally appointed by President Bush, reappointed by President Obama There were three vacancies on
7500-544: The Democratic primary. Several other candidates, including Senator Joe Biden of Delaware and former senator John Edwards of North Carolina , also ran for the nomination, but these candidates dropped out after the initial primaries. In June, on the day of the final primaries, Obama clinched the nomination by winning a majority of the delegates, including both pledged delegates and superdelegates . Obama selected Biden as his running mate, and they were officially nominated as
7625-513: The Democratic ticket at the 2008 Democratic National Convention . With Republican president George W. Bush term-limited, the Republicans nominated Senator John McCain of Arizona for president and Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska for vice president. Obama won the presidential election with 365 of the total 538 electoral votes and 52.9% of the popular vote. In the concurrent congressional elections , Democrats added to their majorities in both
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#17328514746917750-549: The Federal Reserve did not raise interest rates during Obama's presidency until December 2015. There was a sustained increase of the US unemployment rate during the early months of the administration, as multi-year economic stimulus efforts continued. The unemployment rate reached a peak in October 2009 at 10.0%. However, the economy added non-farm jobs for a record 75 straight months between October 2010 and December 2016, and
7875-542: The House John Boehner attempted to negotiate a "grand bargain" to cut the deficit, reform entitlement programs , and re-write the tax code, but the negotiations eventually collapsed due to ideological differences between the Democratic and Republican leaders. Congress instead passed the Budget Control Act of 2011 , which raised the debt ceiling, provided for domestic and military spending cuts, and established
8000-563: The House passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act on a 220–215 vote, with only one Republican voting for the bill. In December 2009, the Senate passed its own health care reform bill, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA or ACA), on a party-line, 60–39 vote. Both bills expanded Medicaid and provided health care subsidies; they also established an individual mandate , health insurance exchanges , and
8125-572: The House to pass the Senate's health care bill, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. In March 2010, after Obama announced an executive order reinforcing the current law against spending federal funds for elective abortion services, the House passed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. The bill, which had passed the Senate in December 2009, did not receive a single Republican vote in either house. On March 23, 2010, Obama signed
8250-404: The Obama administration highlighted as a major problem. The federal minimum wage increased during Obama's presidency to $ 7.25 per hour; in his second term, Obama advocated for another increase to $ 12 per hour. GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a 1.6% pace, followed by a 5.0% increase in the fourth quarter. Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7% in
8375-408: The Obama administration played only a small role in this development. The Obama administration promoted the growth of renewable energy , and solar power generation tripled during Obama's presidency. Obama also issued numerous energy efficiency standards, contributing to a flattening of growth of the total US energy demand. In May 2010, Obama extended a moratorium on offshore drilling permits after
8500-526: The PPACA into law. The New York Times described the PPACA as "the most expansive social legislation enacted in decades," while the Washington Post noted that it was the biggest expansion of health insurance coverage since the creation of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. Both houses of Congress also passed a reconciliation measure to make significant changes and corrections to the PPACA; this second bill
8625-622: The Senate for longer than any other Supreme Court nomination in history, and the nomination expired with the end of the 114th Congress. President Donald Trump later nominated Neil Gorsuch to Scalia's former seat on the Supreme Court, and Gorsuch was confirmed by the Senate in April 2017. Obama's presidency saw the continuation of battles between both parties over the confirmation of judicial nominees. Democrats continually accused Republicans of stalling nominees throughout Obama's tenure. After several nomination battles, Senate Democrats in 2013 reformed
8750-630: The Supreme Court : Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan were confirmed as justices, while Merrick Garland was denied hearings or a vote from the Republican-majority Senate . Economic policy actions Other domestic policy actions Foreign policy actions Supreme Court nominations Barack Obama announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination in the 2008 presidential election on February 10, 2007. Obama faced senator and former first lady Hillary Clinton in
8875-572: The Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution guarantees same-sex couples the right to marry in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges . The Obama Administration filed an amicus brief in support of gay marriage and Obama personally congratulated the plaintiff. Obama also issued dozens of executive orders intended to help LGBT Americans, including a 2010 order that extended full benefits to same-sex partners of federal employees. A 2014 order prohibited discrimination against employees of federal contractors on
9000-524: The US pledged to cut its emissions by 26–28 percent compared to its 2005 levels. The deal provided momentum for a potential multilateral global warming agreement among the world's largest carbon emitters. Many Republicans criticized Obama's climate goals as a potential drain on the economy. At the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , nearly every country in the world agreed to a landmark climate deal in which each nation committed lowering their greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement created
9125-948: The White House, and rescinded the Mexico City Policy , which banned federal grants to international groups that provide abortion services or counseling. On January 29, Obama signed a bill for the first time in his presidency; the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 revised the statute of limitations for filing pay discrimination lawsuits. On February 3, he signed the Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act (CHIP), expanding CHIP's health care coverage from 7 million children to 11 million children. On March 9, 2009, Obama lifted restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research . Obama stated that, like Bush, he would employ signing statements if he deems
9250-475: The basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. In 2015, Secretary of Defense Ash Carter ended the ban on women in combat roles, and in 2016, he ended the ban on transgender individuals openly serving in the military. On the international stage, Obama advocated for gay rights, particularly in Africa. The Great Recession of 2008–09 caused a sharp decline in tax revenues in all cities and states. The response
9375-477: The beginning of his presidency, Obama supported comprehensive immigration reform, including a pathway to citizenship for many immigrants illegally residing in the United States. However, Congress did not pass a comprehensive immigration bill during Obama's tenure, and Obama turned to executive actions. In the 2010 lame-duck session, Obama supported passage of the DREAM Act , which passed the House but failed to overcome
9500-682: The bill as well. The legislation would have required the US to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 17 percent by 2020 and by 83 percent by the middle of the 21st century. However, the bill was strongly opposed by Republicans and neither it nor a separate proposed bipartisan compromise ever came up for a vote in the Senate. In 2013, Obama announced that he would bypass Congress by ordering the EPA to implement new carbon emissions limits. The Clean Power Plan , unveiled in 2015, seeks to reduce US greenhouse gas emissions by 26 to 28 percent by 2025. Obama also imposed regulations on soot, sulfur, and mercury that encouraged
9625-464: The bipartisan Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to propose further spending cuts. As the Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction failed to reach an agreement on further cuts, domestic and military spending cuts known as the "sequester" took effect starting in 2013. In October 2013, the government shut down for two weeks as Republicans and Democrats were unable to agree on
9750-502: The country's largest banks or reinstate the Glass-Steagall Act , while many conservatives criticized the bill as a government overreach that could make the country less competitive. Under the bill, the Federal Reserve and other regulatory agencies were required to propose and implement several new regulatory rules , and battles over these rules continued throughout Obama's presidency. Obama called for further Wall Street reform after
9875-674: The cross-border phenomenon that inspired the AfPak label, the Pakistani government authorized the construction of a border barrier with Afghanistan in March 2017. The term has been widely criticized in Pakistan . Iranian author Amir Taheri writes that Holbrooke 's use of the term has been resented by many Pakistanis , who see Pakistan as "in a different league than the much smaller and devastated Afghanistan ." American journalist Clifford May writes that it
10000-522: The deal, the bill passed the Republican House in large part due to the fact that the failure to pass any bill would have resulted in the total expiration of the Bush tax cuts. US government debt grew substantially during the Great Recession , as government revenues fell. Obama largely rejected the austerity policies followed by many European countries. US government debt grew from 52% of GDP when Obama took office in 2009 to 74% in 2014, with most of
10125-453: The eastern side, it's the sovereign territory of Pakistan. But it is on the eastern side of this ill-defined border that the international terrorist movement is located . According to the U.S. government , the common policy objective was to disrupt, dismantle, and prevent al-Qaeda and its affiliates from having a safe haven from which it can continue to operate and plot attacks against the U.S. and its allies. This policy decision represented
10250-453: The end of the year. The number of uninsured Americans dropped from 20.2% of the population in 2010 to 13.3% of the population in 2015, though Republicans continued to oppose Obamacare as an unwelcome expansion of government. Many liberals continued to push for a single-payer healthcare system or a public option, and Obama endorsed the latter proposal, as well as an expansion of health insurance tax credits, in 2016. Risky practices among
10375-425: The existing vocabulary. The law, governmental bodies, and technology have a relatively high frequency of acquiring neologisms. Another trigger that motivates the coining of a neologism is to disambiguate a term which may be unclear due to having many meanings. Neologisms may come from a word used in the narrative of fiction such as novels and short stories. Examples include " grok " (to intuitively understand) from
10500-502: The final fate of the Bush tax cuts. Republicans sought to make all tax cuts permanent, while Obama sought to extend the tax cuts only for those making under $ 250,000. Obama and Congressional Republicans came to an agreement on the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 , which made permanent the tax cuts for individuals making less than $ 400,000 a year (or less than $ 450,000 for couples). For earnings greater than that amount,
10625-713: The first actions of Obama's presidency focused on reversing measures taken by the Bush administration following the September 11 attacks . In his first week in office, Obama signed Executive Order 13492 suspending all ongoing proceedings of the Guantanamo military commissions and ordering the Guantanamo detention facility to be shut down within the year. Another order, Executive Order 13491 , banned torture and other coercive techniques, such as waterboarding . Obama also issued an executive order placing tighter restrictions on lobbying in
10750-427: The first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year. The country's real GDP grew by about 2% in 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014, peaking at 2.9% in 2015. In the aftermath of the recession, median household income (adjusted for inflation) declined during Obama's first term, before recovering to a new record high in his final year. The poverty rate peaked at 15.1% in 2010 but declined to 12.7% in 2016, which
10875-575: The government through 2014. In 2015, after John Boehner announced that he would resign as Speaker of the House, Congress passed a bill that set government spending targets and suspended the debt limit until after Obama left office. During his presidency, Obama, Congress, and the Supreme Court all contributed to a major expansion of LGBT rights. In 2009, Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act , which expanded hate crime laws to cover crimes committed because of
11000-461: The growth in debt coming between 2009 and 2012. In 2010, Obama ordered the creation of the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform (also known as the "Simpson-Bowles Commission") in order to find ways to reduce the country's debt. The commission ultimately released a report that called for a mix of spending cuts and tax increases. Notable recommendations of the report include
11125-582: The inability of Democrats to win that support, foreshadowed the gridlock and partisanship that continued throughout Obama's presidency. The $ 787 billion bill combined tax breaks with spending on infrastructure projects, extension of welfare benefits, and education. Following his inauguration, Obama and the Senate worked to confirm his nominees to the United States Cabinet . Three Cabinet-level officers did not require confirmation: Vice President Joe Biden , whom Obama had chosen as his running mate at
11250-451: The income tax increased from 35% to 39.6%, which was the top rate before the passage of the Bush tax cuts. The deal also permanently indexed the alternative minimum tax for inflation, limited deductions for individuals making more than $ 250,000 ($ 300,000 for couples), permanently set the estate tax exemption at $ 5.12 million (indexed to inflation), and increased the top estate tax rate from 35% to 40%. Though many Republicans did not like
11375-405: The law, including a $ 116 billion income tax cut, temporarily reduced taxes for 98% of taxpayers, bringing tax rates to their lowest levels in 60 years. The Obama administration would later argue that the stimulus saved the United States from a "double-dip" recession. Obama asked for a second major stimulus package in December 2009, but no major second stimulus bill passed. Obama also launched
11500-443: The linguistic process of new terms and meanings entering a language's lexicon . The most precise studies into language change and word formation , in fact, identify the process of a "neological continuum": a nonce word is any single-use term that may or may not grow in popularity; a protologism is such a term used exclusively within a small group; a prelogism is such a term that is gaining usage but still not mainstream; and
11625-400: The major financial institutions on Wall Street were widely seen as contributing to the subprime mortgage crisis , the financial crisis of 2007–08 , and the subsequent Great Recession , so Obama made Wall Street reform a priority in his first term. On July 21, 2010, Obama signed the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , the largest financial regulatory overhaul since
11750-513: The motivation behind the term: First of all, we often call the problem AfPak, as in Afghanistan – Pakistan . This is not just an effort to save eight syllables. It is an attempt to indicate and imprint in our DNA the fact that there is one theatre of war, straddling an ill-defined border, the Durand Line , and that on the western side of that border, NATO and other forces are able to operate. On
11875-646: The move, as the plan raised national emission standards but provided the single national efficiency standard that auto industry officials group had long desired. In 2012, Obama set even higher standards, mandating an average fuel efficiency of 54.5 miles per US gallon (4.32 L/100 km). Obama also signed the "cash-for-clunkers" bill, which provided incentives to consumers to trade in older, less fuel-efficient cars for more efficient cars. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided $ 54 billion in funds to encourage domestic renewable energy production, make federal buildings more energy-efficient, improve
12000-591: The national debt limit , he signed the Budget Control Act of 2011 and the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 . In foreign policy, he increased US troop levels in Afghanistan , reduced nuclear weapons with the United States–Russia New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War . He gained widespread praise for ordering Operation Neptune Spear , the raid that killed Osama bin Laden , who
12125-494: The naturalization method is most often used. The most common way that professional translators translate neologisms is through the Think aloud protocol (TAP), wherein translators find the most appropriate and natural sounding word through speech. As such, translators can use potential translations in sentences and test them with different structures and syntax. Correct translations from English for specific purposes into other languages
12250-472: The passage of Dodd-Frank, saying that banks should have a smaller role in the economy and less incentive to make risky trades. Obama also signed the Credit CARD Act of 2009 , which created new rules for credit card companies. During his presidency, Obama described global warming as the greatest long-term threat facing the world. Obama took several steps to combat global warming, but was unable to pass
12375-465: The permanent extension of most of the Bush tax cuts , which had been enacted between 2001 and 2003. Those tax cuts were set to expire during Obama's presidency since they were originally passed using a Congressional maneuver known as reconciliation , and had to fulfill the long-term deficit requirements of the "Byrd rule". During the lame duck session of the 111th Congress , Obama and Republicans wrangled over
12500-744: The presidency at 12:00 pm, EST , and completed the oath of office at 12:05 pm, EST. He delivered his inaugural address immediately following his oath. Obama's transition team was highly complimentary of the Bush administration's outgoing transition team, particularly with regards to national security, and some elements of the Bush-Obama transition were later codified into law. [REDACTED] The full text of Barack Obama's First Inaugural Address at Wikisource. Within minutes of Obama's taking office, his chief of staff, Rahm Emanuel , issued an order suspending last-minute regulations and executive orders signed by his predecessor George W. Bush . Some of
12625-569: The process of lexical innovation . Technical subjects such as philosophy, sociology, physics, etc. are especially rich in neologisms. In philosophy, as an example, many terms became introduced into languages through processes of translation, e.g., from Ancient Greek to Latin , or from Latin to German or English , and so on. So Plato introduced the Greek term ποιότης ( poiotēs ), which Cicero rendered with Latin qualitas , which subsequently became our notion of ' quality ' in relation to epistemology, e.g.,
12750-517: The proposals of advanced educational reformers. In the competition points were awarded for allowing charter schools to multiply, for compensating teachers on a merit basis including student test scores, and for adopting higher educational standards. There were incentives for states to establish college and career-ready standards, which in practice meant adopting the Common Core State Standards Initiative that had been developed on
12875-605: The resulting infrastructure of fear and disarray in the two countries are intertwined. Official use of the term within the Obama administration has been echoed by the media, as in The Washington Post series The AfPak War and The Af-Pak Channel , a joint project of the New America Foundation and Foreign Policy magazine that was launched in August 2009. In order to better enforce border security and to halt
13000-427: The role of private banks in lending out federally insured student loans , created a new income-based loan repayment plan known as Pay as You Earn , and increased the amount of Pell Grant awards given each year. He also instituted new regulations on for-profit colleges , including a "gainful employment" rule that restricted federal funding from colleges that failed to adequately prepare graduates for careers. From
13125-474: The science fiction novel about a Martian entitled Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein ; " McJob " (precarious, poorly-paid employment) from Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture by Douglas Coupland ; " cyberspace " (widespread, interconnected digital technology) from Neuromancer by William Gibson and " quark " (Slavic slang for "rubbish"; German for a type of dairy product ) from James Joyce 's Finnegans Wake . The title of
13250-540: The similar but more comprehensive Equality Act . Neither bill passed Congress. In May 2012, Obama became the first sitting president to support same-sex marriage , shortly after Vice President Joe Biden had also expressed support for the institution. The following year, Obama appointed Todd M. Hughes to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit , making Hughes the first openly gay federal judge in US history. In 2015,
13375-512: The stimulus bill was enacted in February 2009, health care reform became Obama's top domestic priority, and the 111th Congress passed a major bill that eventually became widely known as " Obamacare ". Health care reform had long been a top priority of the Democratic Party, and Democrats were eager to implement a new plan that would lower costs and increase coverage. In contrast to Bill Clinton 's 1993 plan to reform health care, Obama adopted
13500-472: The subsequent Great Recession that had begun before his election, which was generally regarded as the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression . On February 17, 2009, Obama signed into law a $ 787 billion economic stimulus bill that included spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives , and direct assistance to individuals. The tax provisions of
13625-557: The transition in May 2008. John Podesta , Valerie Jarrett , and Pete Rouse co-chaired the Obama-Biden Transition Project. During the transition period, Obama announced nominations for his cabinet and administration . In November 2008, Congressman Rahm Emanuel accepted Obama's offer to serve as White House Chief of Staff . Obama was inaugurated on January 20, 2009, succeeding George W. Bush . Obama officially assumed
13750-506: The ultimate fate of the cuts. Obama wanted to extend the tax cuts for taxpayers making less than $ 250,000 a year, while Congressional Republicans wanted a total extension of the tax cuts, and refused to support any bill that did not extend tax cuts for top earners. Obama and the Republican Congressional leadership reached a deal that included a two-year extension of all the tax cuts, a 13-month extension of unemployment insurance ,
13875-473: The unemployment rate fell to 4.7% in December 2016. The recovery from the Great Recession was marked by a lower labor force participation rate, some economists attributing the lower participation rate partially to an aging population and people staying in school longer, as well as long-term structural demographic changes. The recovery also laid bare the growing income inequality in the United States , which
14000-511: The use of HFCs , organic compounds that contribute to global warming. From the beginning of his presidency, Obama took several actions to raise vehicle fuel efficiency in the United States. In 2009, Obama announced a plan to increase the Corporate Average Fuel Economy to 35 miles per US gallon (6.7 L/100 km)], a 40 percent increase from 2009 levels. Both environmentalists and auto industry officials largely welcomed
14125-585: The use of the filibuster so that it could no longer be used on executive or judicial nominations (excluding the Supreme Court). Republicans took over the Senate after the 2014 elections , giving them the power to block any judicial nominee, and the 114th Congress confirmed just 20 judicial nominees, the lowest number of confirmations since the 82nd Congress . Obama's judicial nominees were significantly more diverse than those of previous administrations, with more appointments going to women and minorities. Once
14250-504: The victim's sexual orientation. In December 2010, Obama signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 , which ended the military's policy of disallowing openly gay and lesbian people from openly serving in the United States Armed Forces . Obama also supported the passage of ENDA , which would ban discrimination against employees on the basis of gender or sexual identity for all companies with 15 or more employees, and
14375-639: Was legalized nationwide in 2015 after the Court ruled so in Obergefell . He advocated for gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting , indicating support for a ban on assault weapons , and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning global warming and immigration. In foreign policy, he ordered military interventions in Iraq and Syria in response to gains made by ISIL after
14500-545: Was sworn in for a second term on January 20, 2013. During this term, he condemned the 2013 Snowden leaks as unpatriotic, but called for more restrictions on the National Security Agency (NSA) to address privacy issues. Obama also promoted inclusion for LGBT Americans . His administration filed briefs that urged the Supreme Court to strike down same-sex marriage bans as unconstitutional ( United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges ); same-sex marriage
14625-400: Was first used. The term has grown so that Merriam-Webster has acknowledged its use but notes the term needs to be found in published, edited work for a longer period of time before it can be deemed a new word, making it the perfect example of a neologism. Because neologisms originate in one language, translations between languages can be difficult. In the scientific community, where English
14750-758: Was opposed by the left wing of the Democratic Party, and by the right wing of the Republican Party, and criticized for centralizing too much power in Washington. Complaints also came from middle-class families, who were annoyed at the increasing emphasis on teaching to the test, rather than encouraging teachers to show creativity and stimulating students' imagination. Obama also advocated for universal pre-kindergarten programs, and two free years of community college for everyone. Through her Let's Move program and advocacy of healthier school lunches, First Lady Michelle Obama focused attention on childhood obesity , which
14875-508: Was responsible for the September 11 attacks . In 2011, Obama ordered the drone-strike killing in Yemen of al-Qaeda operative Anwar al-Awlaki , who was an American citizen. He ordered military involvement in Libya in order to implement UN Security Council Resolution 1973 , contributing to the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi . After winning re-election by defeating Republican opponent Mitt Romney, Obama
15000-443: Was signed into law on March 30, 2010. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act became widely known as the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or "Obamacare". The Affordable Care Act faced considerable challenges and opposition after its passage, and Republicans continually attempted to repeal the law. The law also survived two major challenges that went to the Supreme Court. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius ,
15125-408: Was still higher than the 12.5% pre-recession figure of 2007. The relatively small GDP growth rates in the United States and other developed countries following the Great Recession left economists and others wondering whether US growth rates would ever return to the levels seen in the second half of the twentieth century. Obama's presidency saw an extended battle over taxes that ultimately led to
15250-412: Was succeeded by Republican Donald Trump , who won the 2016 presidential election . Historians and political scientists rank him among the upper tier in historical rankings of American presidents . Obama's accomplishments during the first 100 days of his presidency included signing the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 relaxing the statute of limitations for equal-pay lawsuits; signing into law
15375-513: Was the primary source of difficulty in the War on Terror , according to Bob Woodward in his 2010 non-fiction book Obama's Wars . The term "AfPak" has entered the lexicon of geopolitics , and its usage implies that the primary fronts for the global war on terrorism were in Afghanistan and Pakistan at the time. It has reinforced the message that the threat to United States from pro-terrorist activities masquerading as Islamic religious policy and
15500-649: Was three times higher in 2008 than it had been in 1974. In December 2015, Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act , a bipartisan bill that reauthorized federally mandated testing but shrank the federal government's role in education, especially with regard to troubled schools. The law also ended the use of waivers by the Education Secretary. In post-secondary education, Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 , which ended
15625-485: Was to cut education budgets. Obama's $ 800 billion stimulus package included $ 100 billion for public schools, which every state used to protect its educational budget. However, in terms of sponsoring innovation, Obama and his Education Secretary Arne Duncan pursued K-12 education reform through the Race to the Top grant program. With over $ 15 billion of grants at stake, 34 states quickly revised their education laws according to
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