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164-576: Yule Marble is a marble of metamorphosed Leadville Limestone found only in the Yule Creek Valley, in the West Elk Mountains of Colorado , 2.8 miles (4.5 km) southeast of the town of Marble, Colorado . First discovered in 1873, it is quarried underground at an elevation of 9,300 feet (2,800 m) above sea level—in contrast to most marble, which is quarried from an open pit and at much lower elevations. The localized geology created

328-476: A recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. Dust, debris and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees. For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provide eye protection equipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers on occupational health risks and strengthen preventive measures. As

492-493: A close liquor supply (the town of Redstone was 12 miles (19 km) away). For those purchasing liquor from a bootlegger there were no legal worries for the law only made it illegal to sell or give away liquor; it was not illegal to purchase alcohol. Wages became a source of conflict during this period. In 1909, daily wages ranged from $ 5 to $ 8 but no overtime pay was provided. During the 1930s Great Depression , they earned 40 cents an hour. A strike lasting three months started at

656-452: A combination of these processes. Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact , are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of the early Earth was probably a magma ocean . Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for

820-416: A cut rate of about 2 inches (51 mm) an hour. A modern wire or chain saw can cut more than 50 inches (1,300 mm) in the same time. By July 1907 the initial construction of the quarry and the rest of the system was finished but marble was being shipped out before though only in small amounts and advertising pieces. The first major contract came in late October 1907 to supply $ 500,000 worth of marble for

984-420: A depth of 2,488 m (8,163 ft). The temperature of this magma was estimated at 1,050 °C (1,920 °F). Temperatures of deeper magmas must be inferred from theoretical computations and the geothermal gradient. Most magmas contain some solid crystals suspended in the liquid phase. This indicates that the temperature of the magma lies between the solidus , which is defined as the temperature at which

1148-427: A dissolved water content in excess of 10%. Water is somewhat less soluble in low-silica magma than high-silica magma, so that at 1,100 °C and 0.5 GPa , a basaltic magma can dissolve 8% H 2 O while a granite pegmatite magma can dissolve 11% H 2 O . However, magmas are not necessarily saturated under typical conditions. Carbon dioxide is much less soluble in magmas than water, and frequently separates into

1312-406: A distinct fluid phase even at great depth. This explains the presence of carbon dioxide fluid inclusions in crystals formed in magmas at great depth. Viscosity is a key melt property in understanding the behaviour of magmas. Whereas temperatures in common silicate lavas range from about 800 °C (1,470 °F) for felsic lavas to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) for mafic lavas, the viscosity of

1476-560: A growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile. The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $ 400–$ 450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of

1640-435: A high charge (the high-field-strength elements, or HSFEs), which include such elements as zirconium , niobium , hafnium , tantalum , the rare-earth elements , and the actinides . Potassium can become so enriched in melt produced by a very low degree of partial melting that, when the magma subsequently cools and solidifies, it forms unusual potassic rock such as lamprophyre , lamproite , or kimberlite . When enough rock

1804-546: A hypothetical magma formed entirely from melted silica, NBO/T would be 0, while in a hypothetical magma so low in network formers that no polymerization takes place, NBO/T would be 4. Neither extreme is common in nature, but basalt magmas typically have NBO/T between 0.6 and 0.9, andesitic magmas have NBO/T of 0.3 to 0.5, and rhyolitic magmas have NBO/T of 0.02 to 0.2. Water acts as a network modifier, and dissolved water drastically reduces melt viscosity. Carbon dioxide neutralizes network modifiers, so dissolved carbon dioxide increases

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1968-498: A large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment. The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily stained by colored liquids and scratches easily. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important. Magma Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα ( mágma )  'thick unguent ')

2132-474: A layer that appears to contain silicate melt and that stretches for at least 1,000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Granite and rhyolite are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of the melting of continental crust because of increases in temperature. Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of lithosphere dragged down in

2296-420: A magma. In practice, it is difficult to unambiguously identify primary magmas, though it has been suggested that boninite is a variety of andesite crystallized from a primary magma. The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe has also been interpreted as rock crystallized from a primary magma. The interpretation of leucosomes of migmatites as primary magmas is contradicted by zircon data, which suggests leucosomes are

2460-484: A major contract in 1895 to supply 140,000 square feet (13,000 m) of marble for the new state capitol in Denver, Colorado. After this initial success, little production has accomplished by Osgood or the other two companies. The Osgood operation was well financed but even he was afflicted by the problems associated with developing and operating a quarry in the Yule Creek Valley. Also the lack of transportation to move enough of

2624-530: A marble that is 99.5% pure calcite , with a grain structure that gives a smooth texture, a homogeneous look, and a luminous surface. It is these qualities for which it was selected to clad the exterior of the Lincoln Memorial and a variety of other buildings throughout the United States , in spite of being more expensive than other marbles. The size of the deposits enables large blocks to be quarried, which

2788-683: A movie was premiered in Marble, Bear Hunt in the Rockies by Edwin Stanton Porter , director of the 1903 landmark movie The Great Train Robbery . Selecting the marble for the exterior was a competitive process with five samples submitted to the Lincoln Memorial Commission for consideration; three from Georgia (Cherokee, Southern and Amicalola), one from Vermont (Dorset White) and Yule marble. Of

2952-468: A positive report on the use of Yule marble. He also sent a 17 January 1914 letter to United States Commission of Fine Arts about the use of Yule marble, and a reply was sent five days later that compared to the other marbles submitted for consideration Yule "fit pre-eminently for a structure of the character of the Lincoln Memorial". The contract for Yule marble was awarded 14 March 1914. The contract

3116-630: A potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set

3280-425: A rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements. Bowen's reaction series is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma. Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization. For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them. Assimilation near

3444-530: A side note, of the 481 town residents who were employed in 1910, 326 (66%) worked in the marble operation. Residence location showed only a few of the workers lived in Marble; the 1910 census recorded 14 quarry employees there, and the rest lived in Quarry Town. Built by the CYMC, Quarry Town came into existence shortly after November 1908 as a settlement of bunkhouses and shacks just to the west and north of Quarry 1. It

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3608-567: A solidified crust. Most basalt lavas are of ʻAʻā or pāhoehoe types, rather than block lavas. Underwater, they can form pillow lavas , which are rather similar to entrail-type pahoehoe lavas on land. Ultramafic magmas, such as picritic basalt, komatiite , and highly magnesian magmas that form boninite , take the composition and temperatures to the extreme. All have a silica content under 45%. Komatiites contain over 18% magnesium oxide, and are thought to have erupted at temperatures of 1,600 °C (2,910 °F). At this temperature there

3772-407: A subduction zone. When rocks melt, they do so over a range of temperature, because most rocks are made of several minerals , which all have different melting points. The temperature at which the first melt appears (the solidus) is lower than the melting temperature of any one of the pure minerals. This is similar to the lowering of the melting point of ice when it is mixed with salt. The first melt

3936-439: A tetrahedral arrangement around the much smaller silicon ion. This is called a silica tetrahedron . In a magma that is low in silicon, these silica tetrahedra are isolated, but as the silicon content increases, silica tetrahedra begin to partially polymerize, forming chains, sheets, and clumps of silica tetrahedra linked by bridging oxygen ions. These greatly increase the viscosity of the magma. The tendency towards polymerization

4100-425: A typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF 6 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place. The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF 6 ) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface. The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H 2 C 2 O 4 ), an organic acid. The resulting reaction

4264-638: A typical viscosity of 3.5 × 10 cP (3,500 Pa⋅s) at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). This is slightly greater than the viscosity of smooth peanut butter . Intermediate magmas show a greater tendency to form phenocrysts . Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker groundmass , including amphibole or pyroxene phenocrysts. Mafic or basaltic magmas have a silica content of 52% to 45%. They are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures of 1,100 to 1,200 °C (2,010 to 2,190 °F). Viscosities can be relatively low, around 10 to 10 cP (10 to 100 Pa⋅s), although this

4428-493: A variety of objects for shipment throughout the country. Shipment of the finished marble was done by the Crystal River and San Juan Railway (created by CYMC and completed November 1906). Railroad tracks were parallel with the mill site and the marble was rolled on a cart out a mill site building and into the railroad car. In some shops the railroad cars were brought into the shop for loading. The company railroad then transported

4592-633: A viscosity of about 1 cP (0.001 Pa⋅s). Because of this very high viscosity, felsic lavas usually erupt explosively to produce pyroclastic (fragmental) deposits. However, rhyolite lavas occasionally erupt effusively to form lava spines , lava domes or "coulees" (which are thick, short lava flows). The lavas typically fragment as they extrude, producing block lava flows . These often contain obsidian . Felsic lavas can erupt at temperatures as low as 800 °C (1,470 °F). Unusually hot (>950 °C; >1,740 °F) rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in

4756-407: A week. The civic-mindedness of the workers and the company is demonstrated through their donations to build the all-marble Columbus Catholic Church in Marble (on Park Street, between West 3rd Street and West 2nd Street). The company was donating the marble and the workers their time to quarry and cut it and build the church. The foundation was laid and a cornerstone ceremony was held in 1912. However,

4920-467: Is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO 3 ) or dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is typically not foliated ( layered ), although there are exceptions. In geology , the term marble refers to metamorphosed limestone , but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble

5084-399: Is a rock composed of calcium and magnesium carbonate , mostly white and pink. Common marble varieties are granular limestone or dolomite . The hardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and the internal stress disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It

Yule Marble - Misplaced Pages Continue

5248-439: Is a very popular building material. The following table is a summary of the features of Marble. White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times . This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into

5412-409: Is added to the rock, the temperature remains at 1274 °C until either the anorthite or diopside is fully melted. The temperature then rises as the remaining mineral continues to melt, which shifts the melt composition away from the eutectic. For example, if the content of anorthite is greater than 43%, the entire supply of diopside will melt at 1274 °C., along with enough of the anorthite to keep

5576-533: Is as follows: In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC 2 O 4 ) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed. The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin . Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan Cathedral ; black Cladosporium attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin. Marble

5740-492: Is based on summary statements given by the company president J.F. Manning. In June 1914, Manning estimated that a monthly quarrying of 80,000 square feet (7,400 m) would yield 12,000 square feet (1,100 m) to 15,000 square feet (1,400 m) of acceptable marble. In 1915, Manning stated sometimes less than 10% of the quarried marble was shipped to the Memorial site. Once delivered to the mill site, marble blocks for other than

5904-444: Is called the eutectic and has a composition that depends on the combination of minerals present. For example, a mixture of anorthite and diopside , which are two of the predominant minerals in basalt , begins to melt at about 1274 °C. This is well below the melting temperatures of 1392 °C for pure diopside and 1553 °C for pure anorthite. The resulting melt is composed of about 43 wt% anorthite. As additional heat

6068-463: Is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material . The word "marble" derives from the Ancient Greek μάρμαρον ( mármaron ), from μάρμαρος ( mármaros ), "crystalline rock, shining stone", perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω ( marmaírō ), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"; R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a " Pre-Greek origin is probable". This stem is also the ancestor of

6232-410: Is concentrated in a thin layer in the toothpaste next to the tube, and only here does the toothpaste behave as a fluid. Thixotropic behavior also hinders crystals from settling out of the magma. Once the crystal content reaches about 60%, the magma ceases to behave like a fluid and begins to behave like a solid. Such a mixture of crystals with melted rock is sometimes described as crystal mush . Magma

6396-456: Is driven out of the oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones , and it causes melting in the overlying mantle. Hydrous magmas with the composition of basalt or andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific Ring of Fire . These magmas form rocks of

6560-417: Is expressed as NBO/T, where NBO is the number of non-bridging oxygen ions and T is the number of network-forming ions. Silicon is the main network-forming ion, but in magmas high in sodium, aluminium also acts as a network former, and ferric iron can act as a network former when other network formers are lacking. Most other metallic ions reduce the tendency to polymerize and are described as network modifiers. In

6724-415: Is gold veining, the result of iron or manganese, that is still quarried today. When the physical characteristics of Yule Marble are compared to the other US marble, the results are about the same for general characteristics of weight, hardness , specific gravity , porosity , absorption, and coefficient of thermal expansion . In strength characteristics, the properties of Yule Marble are lower than most of

Yule Marble - Misplaced Pages Continue

6888-610: Is international. The first major use was in the Colorado State Capitol building in 1895. Yule Marble quarried between 1907 and 1941 can be found in banks, mausoleums, libraries, schools, hotels, and government buildings from the west coast (Seattle south to Los Angeles) to the east coast, including the Equitable Building skyscraper in New York City. The dimension of the deposit enables large blocks to be quarried, which

7052-466: Is magma extruded onto the surface, are almost all in the range 700 to 1,400 °C (1,300 to 2,600 °F), but very rare carbonatite magmas may be as cool as 490 °C (910 °F), and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as 1,600 °C (2,900 °F). Magma has occasionally been encountered during drilling in geothermal fields, including drilling in Hawaii that penetrated a dacitic magma body at

7216-647: Is melted before the heat supply is exhausted. Pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite -composition magmas are eutectic (or cotectic) melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of partial melting of the crust, as well as by fractional crystallization . Most magmas are fully melted only for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles. Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve. As magma cools, minerals typically crystallize from

7380-416: Is melted, the small globules of melt (generally occurring between mineral grains) link up and soften the rock. Under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent of partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. Melt rapidly separates from its source rock once the degree of partial melting exceeds 30%. However, usually much less than 30% of a magma source rock

7544-615: Is practically no polymerization of the mineral compounds, creating a highly mobile liquid. Viscosities of komatiite magmas are thought to have been as low as 100 to 1000 cP (0.1 to 1 Pa⋅s), similar to that of light motor oil. Most ultramafic lavas are no younger than the Proterozoic , with a few ultramafic magmas known from the Phanerozoic in Central America that are attributed to a hot mantle plume . No modern komatiite lavas are known, as

7708-545: Is produced by melting of the mantle or the crust in various tectonic settings, which on Earth include subduction zones , continental rift zones , mid-ocean ridges and hotspots . Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During magma's storage in the crust, its composition may be modified by fractional crystallization , contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following its ascent through

7872-443: Is similar to coal mines and other underground mines in the need to constantly pump out water. With the marble dust created from the cutting, the floor is covered with marble mud. The interior temperature normally varies no more than 20 °F (11 °C) ranging from 20 to 40 °F (−7 to 4 °C), although temperatures have reached from −40 °F (−40 °C) to a high of 49 °F (9 °C). The number of people working in

8036-448: Is still many orders of magnitude higher than water. This viscosity is similar to that of ketchup . Basalt lavas tend to produce low-profile shield volcanoes or flood basalts , because the fluidal lava flows for long distances from the vent. The thickness of a basalt lava, particularly on a low slope, may be much greater than the thickness of the moving lava flow at any one time, because basalt lavas may "inflate" by supply of lava beneath

8200-416: Is the grain of Yule Marble that gives an appearance of smooth texture, a homogeneous look, and a luminous surface that polishes well. These qualities are why it has been chosen for a number of major national and state landmarks, most notably the Lincoln Memorial . Because of its aesthetic value, architect Henry Bacon successfully urged that it be used to clad the whole exterior of the Memorial, even though it

8364-459: Is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma (sometimes colloquially but incorrectly referred to as lava ) is found beneath the surface of the Earth , and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites . Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles . Magma

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8528-413: Is typically also viscoelastic , meaning it flows like a liquid under low stresses, but once the applied stress exceeds a critical value, the melt cannot dissipate the stress fast enough through relaxation alone, resulting in transient fracture propagation. Once stresses are reduced below the critical threshold, the melt viscously relaxes once more and heals the fracture. Temperatures of molten lava, which

8692-408: Is typically the most abundant magmatic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide . Other principal magmatic gases include hydrogen sulfide , hydrogen chloride , and hydrogen fluoride . The solubility of magmatic gases in magma depends on pressure, magma composition, and temperature. Magma that is extruded as lava is extremely dry, but magma at depth and under great pressure can contain

8856-410: Is used for tile and slabs (walls, countertops, etc.). As the marble industry cycled, the town's economy, being based on a single industry, also fluctuated. At the same time, had Marble not made the transition from its origins as a mining town to quarrying Yule Marble, the town would have died, as did other Colorado mining towns such as nearby Crystal and Schofield. On 9 March 2004, Yule Marble became

9020-746: Is why Yule Marble was selected for the Tomb of the Unknowns (Tomb of the Unknown Soldier) in Arlington National Cemetery . In 1931, the 56-ton (55.86 metric ton) block for the die section (on which six wreaths, three Greek figures, and the inscription were carved) was the largest single piece of marble ever quarried at that time. Today, the marble is primarily shipped to Italy to supply fabricators throughout Europe. Blocks also go to Saudi Arabia, Peru, and other developing international markets. Finished marble

9184-460: Is why the marble for the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Arlington National Cemetery , with its 56-long-ton (57 t) die block, was quarried from Yule Marble. Yule's quality comes at a high price due to the cost of quarrying in a high-altitude mountain environment. This challenge has caused the industry and the town of Marble to undergo many boom-and-bust periods since quarrying started in

9348-547: The Cuyahoga County Court House , in Cleveland , Ohio, and set off a quarrying boom. In spite of the increased quarrying, by 1913 the company was in financial trouble due to the huge start-up debt and high operating costs not generating enough revenue to pay down the debt. A loan of $ 1,868,000 was obtained in early February 1913 and used to refinance to debt. In spite of the financial difficulty orders kept coming in with

9512-560: The English word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like." While the English term "marble" resembles the French marbre , most other European languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek. Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks , most commonly limestone or dolomite . Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of

9676-666: The Snake River Plain of the northwestern United States. Intermediate or andesitic magmas contain 52% to 63% silica, and are lower in aluminium and usually somewhat richer in magnesium and iron than felsic magmas. Intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep composite volcanoes , such as in the Andes . They are also commonly hotter, in the range of 850 to 1,100 °C (1,560 to 2,010 °F)). Because of their lower silica content and higher eruptive temperatures, they tend to be much less viscous, with

9840-458: The calc-alkaline series, an important part of the continental crust . With low density and viscosity, hydrous magmas are highly buoyant and will move upwards in Earth's mantle. The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some silica-undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions. In

10004-453: The convection of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an adiabatic process , but the cooling is only about 0.3 °C per kilometer. Experimental studies of appropriate peridotite samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3 °C to 4 °C per kilometer. If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt. Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards. This process of melting from

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10168-485: The dimension stone trade, the term marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the Holston Formation . Ashgabat , the capital city of Turkmenistan , was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having

10332-471: The CYMC-built hydro-electric plant located just east of the town. Reaching the mill site, the marble went into an expansive finishing mill built by CYMC from 1907 through 1910. At its widest point the mill site was 150 feet (46 m) and almost 1,400 feet (430 m) long totaling 108,000 square feet (10,000 m) (the largest finishing mill in the world under one roof). Here the marble was transformed into

10496-700: The Crystal River Railway (CRR). (To support his coal and coke operations in the Redstone area, Osgood started building the CRR line in the late 1890s from Carbondale, Colorado southward reaching Redstone in June 1900. By the early 1900s, the line reached its final destination of Placita.) In 1910, the CR&;SJ obtained a right-of-way to operate on the CRR line to Carbondale, 28 miles (45 km) from Marble. The railway also increased

10660-472: The Earth's mantle has cooled too much to produce highly magnesian magmas. Some silicic magmas have an elevated content of alkali metal oxides (sodium and potassium), particularly in regions of continental rifting , areas overlying deeply subducted plates , or at intraplate hotspots . Their silica content can range from ultramafic ( nephelinites , basanites and tephrites ) to felsic ( trachytes ). They are more likely to be generated at greater depths in

10824-465: The Earth's upper crust, but this varies widely by region, from a low of 5–10 °C/km within oceanic trenches and subduction zones to 30–80 °C/km along mid-ocean ridges or near mantle plumes . The gradient becomes less steep with depth, dropping to just 0.25 to 0.3 °C/km in the mantle, where slow convection efficiently transports heat. The average geothermal gradient is not normally steep enough to bring rocks to their melting point anywhere in

10988-509: The Treasure Mountain Dome and thick marble. This time a transition started that moved the town away from mining to one of quarrying marble, although some locals were still involved with mining in 1910. The transition enabled the town to survive while nearby towns such as Crystal and Schofield became ghost towns . The town was still a one-industry economy, and its future followed that of the marble operation. The local miners never had

11152-416: The Yule Creek Valley is the only known location of marble in the region. When the magma cooled, it crystallized into granite. This local geological activity resulted in a type of marble that is 99.5% pure calcite , with trace amounts of non-calcite inclusions (mainly quartz ), and has a density of 170 pounds per cubic foot (2,700 kg/m). The non-calcite inclusions were caused through penetrations along

11316-580: The Yule Valley have a north-northwest strike paralleling the valley and variable dips of 35 to 50 degrees to the west-southwest. This local contact with the heat and pressure from the intrusion of hot granitic magma recrystallized the Leadville Limestone into a distinctive white marble. Although the Leadville Limestone covered hundreds of square miles and was the ore host at the Leadville mining district ,

11480-548: The Yule area was transformed by contact metamorphism that occurred during the latest Eocene and Oligocene epochs (34 to 28 million years ago) associated with the intrusion and uplift of the nearby granitic Treasure Mountain Dome. The uplift of the Treasure Mountain Dome tilted the limestone away from the intrusion resulting in the marble bed dipping at an angle into the mountain. The marble unit along with older and younger adjacent units in

11644-476: The anorthite is melted. If the anorthite content of the mixture is less than 43%, then all the anorthite will melt at the eutectic temperature, along with part of the diopside, and the remaining diopside will then gradually melt as the temperature continues to rise. Because of eutectic melting, the composition of the melt can be quite different from the source rock. For example, a mixture of 10% anorthite with diopside could experience about 23% partial melting before

11808-413: The block away from the mountain after all sides have been cut). Next is the back cut with a wire saw followed by chain saws to cut the vertical sides. A metal bag is then inserted behind the back cut and filled with water, which pushes the block away from the rock face (on the metal rollers). The block is then rigged for lifting by forklift and placed on a haul truck and driven out of the mountain and down to

11972-487: The block away so other cables could be attached for lifting out of the quarry. The lifting was done with wooden derricks above and outside of the quarry or the 50-ton electric hoist if in Quarry 2 (which was Quarry 3 during the boom period of 1905 to 1916). Once out of the quarry, a block was moved to a loading station for transport to the mill site. The first method (1906 through 1909) used the 50-ton electric hoist, which lowered

12136-412: The block down and onto a Pea Vine cable-powered cart. The cart then moved on rails with downgrades to 54% to a loading station where the block was transferred to a wagon for towing to the mill site. The wagons were first towed by teams of four horses then in 1908 by a 110-horsepower steam tractor previously used for logging. The road to the mill site was built in the 1890s by John Osgood to his quarry, which

12300-474: The boiler house is a 50-ton (49.875 metric ton) electric hoist and the hoist electric power house is to the right of the boiler house. Below the boiler house area near the bottom of the photo is the Pea Vine (winch-cable powered carts on rails) used to move marble from the quarry to the loading station several hundred feet away, where it was placed on wagons for transport to the mill site. There are other facilities to

12464-401: The capital for machinery. The machinery reduced waste because blasting damaged a lot of the surrounding marble. Cutting a block involved a channeling machine (consisting of several drill bits and powered by electricity or steam) that made vertical holes from the top down. Next the bottom was cut by drilling horizontal holes. The block was then freed from the mountainside by inserting wedges into

12628-601: The capital to develop marble quarries and in the 1890s they started selling marble claims: Though better financed, the new companies had little success in spite of growing interest in Yule Marble generated by glowing test results from London (1887), the St Louis Exposition (1890) and the Chicago Exposition (1893). The companies had different degrees of development and success with the quarry of John Osgood obtaining

12792-430: The cliff was the blasting of a 16-by-16-foot (4.9 by 4.9 m) tunnel for access to the quarry interior. Today the marble is loaded onto a truck inside the mountain and driven out. In the early years, the quarry was three separate caverns inside the marble formation. By 1914 a tunnel connected the three caverns. As the quarry went further down into the marble the three caverns eventually joined into one. The marble quarry

12956-495: The columns were taken to Shop 3 after being sawed into multiple pieces with a wire saw and the gang saws in one of the two mills. The wire saw and 20 of the 30 gangs saws were cutting nothing but Memorial marble 24 hours a day in May 1914. Marble for the 38 columns was offloaded in front of Shop 4. Each column comprised 11 drums and the top piece, with each of the 418 marble drums taking more than 18 hours to fashion. Marble Marble

13120-458: The crust or upper mantle, so magma is produced only where the geothermal gradient is unusually steep or the melting point of the rock is unusually low. However, the ascent of magma towards the surface in such settings is the most important process for transporting heat through the crust of the Earth. Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure, to a change in composition (such as an addition of water), to an increase in temperature, or to

13284-603: The crust, magma may feed a volcano and be extruded as lava, or it may solidify underground to form an intrusion , such as a dike , a sill , a laccolith , a pluton , or a batholith . While the study of magma has relied on observing magma after its transition into a lava flow , magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects , twice in Iceland (see Use in energy production ) and once in Hawaii. Magma consists of liquid rock that usually contains suspended solid crystals. As magma approaches

13448-455: The crystallization process would not change the overall composition of the melt plus solid minerals. This situation is described as equillibrium crystallization . However, in a series of experiments culminating in his 1915 paper, Crystallization-differentiation in silicate liquids , Norman L. Bowen demonstrated that crystals of olivine and diopside that crystallized out of a cooling melt of forsterite , diopside, and silica would sink through

13612-607: The efficiency of getting supplies to the operation from outside the Crystal River Valley. The town's residents benefited by the railroad for transportation with the depot on the grounds of the mill site. In later years, livestock was transported out of the Crystal River Valley by the railroad. Development of the integrated operation also created a large debt that led directly to receivership in July 1916 and bankruptcy in April 1917. Although

13776-399: The eutectic temperature of 1274 °C. This shifts the remaining melt towards its eutectic composition of 43% diopside. The eutectic is reached at 1274 °C, the temperature at which diopside and anorthite begin crystallizing together. If the melt was 90% diopside, the diopside would begin crystallizing first until the eutectic was reached. If the crystals remained suspended in the melt,

13940-487: The excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable. Marble sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints. Using ground calcium carbonate as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness, hiding power and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensive pigments such as titanium dioxide . Recycling of marble waste leads to

14104-512: The extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces. Decompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure. It is the most important mechanism for producing magma from the upper mantle. The solidus temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water. Peridotite at depth in the Earth's mantle may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level. If such rock rises during

14268-451: The favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture ), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material. Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts ; Marblehead, Ohio ; Marble Arch , London; the Sea of Marmara ; India's Marble Rocks ; and

14432-581: The first contract of one million dollars for the Equitable Building , New York City, in August 1913 for 1,200,000 square feet (110,000 m) of marble. As the quarry boomed, so did the town reaching its population peak from 1912 through 1914 of 1,400 to 1,500 residents, including a large number of skilled Italian marble worker immigrants with most of them in the mill site. There were two newspapers, three hotels, movie theater, ice cream parlor, five ice houses, and nine stables among other businesses. In January 1910,

14596-437: The formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles). Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products. Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO 3 ). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows

14760-843: The grains are intrusions (non-calcite material) which does not vary significantly among the four grades; tests in the late 1990s confirm the 1910 amount of 0.5%. Constant inclusions in all Yules are magnesium oxide (MgO), manganese oxide (MnO), iron oxide (FeO), and strontium oxide (SrO) while other inclusions vary by quarry location. Inclusions are in four groups: quartz (the most abundant and gray in color); muscovite (mica, occurs as thin gold lines and streaks, and also occurs with quartz in clouds of gray mixed with brown); feldspar (with larger grain size 0.591 inches (15 mm) to 1.379 inches (35 mm) and gray in color but less translucent than quartz inclusions); and pyrite . Other minor inclusions are sphene , apatite , rutile , zircon , and sphalerite . An example of inclusion affect

14924-457: The grains become rounded. As the surface grains become round, they loosen and fall off the surface of the stone. Because Yule Marble is finely grained with tight bonding, water is not likely to react as quickly as with a coarse-grained, loose-textured marble. Also the crenulated boundaries of Yule Marble crystals may account for the weathering resistance, because the spaces between grains must be widened enough to free adjoining crystals. Included in

15088-421: The horizontal holes, then inserting feathers until the block broke free. Sometimes in winter, water was poured into the holes so the expansion of the freezing water would break the block loose. Sometimes a wire saw would cut the quarried block inside the quarry into individual blocks before it was lifted out. Lifting out of the quarry required a hole to be made through the block so a cable could be inserted to pull

15252-420: The importance of each mechanism being a topic of continuing research. The change of rock composition most responsible for the creation of magma is the addition of water. Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800 °C in the presence of excess water, but near 1,500 °C in the absence of water. Water

15416-419: The left of #3 (out of view) was started but did not become a producing quarry. To operate the quarries, structures for various functions were built around the quarry exterior. Wooden derricks were located by and above the openings to lift blocks out of the quarries. The boiler house (providing steam power for quarrying equipment) was the last major addition (second building to the right of opening 2). In front of

15580-566: The limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism. Acids react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producing carbonic acid (which decomposes quickly to CO 2 and H 2 O) and other soluble salts : Outdoor marble statues, gravestones , or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain whether by carbonation , sulfation or

15744-405: The long axes of the grains are essentially perpendicular to the principal veining in the deposit. When marble does break down, the cause is weak boundaries between the grains that permit water or solutions to penetrate into the marble. As water enters, the calcite grains dissolve slightly, and the opening between the grains widens. With time, as the grain openings widen, the edges become smooth, and

15908-476: The magma completely solidifies, and the liquidus , defined as the temperature at which the magma is completely liquid. Calculations of solidus temperatures at likely depths suggests that magma generated beneath areas of rifting starts at a temperature of about 1,300 to 1,500 °C (2,400 to 2,700 °F). Magma generated from mantle plumes may be as hot as 1,600 °C (2,900 °F). The temperature of magma generated in subduction zones, where water vapor lowers

16072-408: The magma. Gabbro may have a liquidus temperature near 1,200 °C, and the derivative granite-composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700 °C. Incompatible elements are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to pegmatite ,

16236-419: The mantle than subalkaline magmas. Olivine nephelinite magmas are both ultramafic and highly alkaline, and are thought to have come from much deeper in the mantle of the Earth than other magmas. Tholeiitic basalt magma Rhyolite magma Some lavas of unusual composition have erupted onto the surface of the Earth. These include: The concentrations of different gases can vary considerably. Water vapor

16400-427: The marble 28 miles (45 km) north to Carbondale, Colorado, where the cars were connected to other railway trains. Methods for cutting a block can vary depending on the formation and other factors, but usually involve three types of saws (wire and two chain types of which all three are diamond edged). The usual approach starts with a horizontal cut at the bottom after which metal rollers are inserted (on which to move

16564-421: The marble also created a host of problems in quarrying the stone. Quarrying in this high altitude environment with steep slopes, deep snow, and snow-mud slides is so expensive that advances in technology have not been able to overcome the challenges. These factors limit periods of operation and the amount of marble that can be brought down from the quarry. In the early years a lack of transportation to move enough of

16728-514: The marble deposits of the Marble City Quarry Company on 28 February 1905. He in turn sold the deposits to the newly formed CYMC on 11 April 1905 and subsequently became the CYMC president. The marble deposit that became the quarry of the CYMC was acquired on 14 November 1905 from Osgood. (Osgood never quarried the marble because of financial problems.) Because the three remaining quarries had no more production to speak of this leaves only

16892-503: The marble is bounded above and below by unconformities . This lack of conformable contact resulted in the early dating of the limestone as Silurian rather than the currently accepted Mississippian . The lack of conformable boundaries in exposures along the Treasure Mountain dome explains the variation in reported thicknesses in the quarry area west of Yule Creek of 166–239 feet (51–73 m) about 2,000 feet (610 m) southeast of

17056-424: The melt at different temperatures. This resembles the original melting process in reverse. However, because the melt has usually separated from its original source rock and moved to a shallower depth, the reverse process of crystallization is not precisely identical. For example, if a melt was 50% each of diopside and anorthite, then anorthite would begin crystallizing from the melt at a temperature somewhat higher than

17220-438: The melt at the eutectic composition. Further heating causes the temperature to slowly rise as the remaining anorthite gradually melts and the melt becomes increasingly rich in anorthite liquid. If the mixture has only a slight excess of anorthite, this will melt before the temperature rises much above 1274 °C. If the mixture is almost all anorthite, the temperature will reach nearly the melting point of pure anorthite before all

17384-449: The melt deviated from the eutectic, which has the composition of about 43% anorthite. This effect of partial melting is reflected in the compositions of different magmas. A low degree of partial melting of the upper mantle (2% to 4%) can produce highly alkaline magmas such as melilitites , while a greater degree of partial melting (8% to 11%) can produce alkali olivine basalt. Oceanic magmas likely result from partial melting of 3% to 15% of

17548-402: The melt on geologically relevant time scales. Geologists subsequently found considerable field evidence of such fractional crystallization . When crystals separate from a magma, then the residual magma will differ in composition from the parent magma. For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of granitic composition if early formed crystals are separated from

17712-429: The melting temperature, may be as low as 1,060 °C (1,940 °F). Magma densities depend mostly on composition, iron content being the most important parameter. Magma expands slightly at lower pressure or higher temperature. When magma approaches the surface, its dissolved gases begin to bubble out of the liquid. These bubbles had significantly reduced the density of the magma at depth and helped drive it toward

17876-455: The mid-1880s, making the town emblematic of the economic fluctuations that beset a single-industry economy. Technology advancements in quarrying machinery and transportation have reduced, but not solved, the cost problem that afflicts the operation through the present. The forces that created Yule Marble make it distinct from all other American marbles. It was formed by contact metamorphism , unlike Vermont marble and Georgia marble , which are

18040-448: The mill on 4 August 1909, and by the next day quarry workers started to join. The strikers were demanding an 8-hour day, time-and-a-half for overtime, and double time on Sunday. The company management quickly won the support of the public. By September, only 20 men were working at the mill and even fewer at the quarry. The strike lasted until 2 November with the workers going back to work at reduced wages. Full operations were resumed within

18204-481: The more abundant elements in the source rock. The ions of these elements fit rather poorly in the structure of the minerals making up the source rock, and readily leave the solid minerals to become highly concentrated in melts produced by a low degree of partial melting. Incompatible elements commonly include potassium , barium , caesium , and rubidium , which are large and weakly charged (the large-ion lithophile elements, or LILEs), as well as elements whose ions carry

18368-415: The most abundant chemical elements in the Earth's crust, with smaller quantities of aluminium , calcium , magnesium , iron , sodium , and potassium , and minor amounts of many other elements. Petrologists routinely express the composition of a silicate magma in terms of the weight or molar mass fraction of the oxides of the major elements (other than oxygen) present in the magma. Because many of

18532-546: The nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel. Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and that the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone. Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such as silicosis . Skin and eye problems are also

18696-467: The needed quantity and its durability. Colonel W. W. Harts, the US Army Engineer Officer in charge of Public Grounds and overseer of the project, commissioned geologist George Perkins Merrill to make a determination. After visiting the quarry, Merrill concluded Yule marble met the needed requirements. Yet Secretary of War Lindsley Garrison called for testing by Bureau of Standards which gave

18860-462: The new electric tram finished in 1910. The electric tram replaced the Pea Vine. After closing in October 1941, the equipment inside was removed and the wood structures fell apart. When the quarry reopened in 1990, the functions of the previous structures that were needed were located inside the quarry. The only structures remaining from prior to 1942 are the two cable derricks. One major 1990 alteration to

19024-540: The official state rock of Colorado. The designation was the result of petitioning by Girl Scout Troop 357 of Lakewood, Colorado of the Colorado General Assembly , who in turn passed a bill that was signed by Governor Bill Owens (R). Yule Marble was discovered in the Crystal River Valley in the spring of 1873 by geologist Sylvester Richardson. George Yule (for whom the marble was later named)

19188-645: The original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals . Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock ( protolith ) have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure ( silicate -poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties, sometimes called striations , are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay , silt , sand , iron oxides , or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in

19352-420: The other marbles for compressive strength and transverse strength, but they are not unreasonably low. For ordinary uses, stone having a compressive strength of 5,000 lb per square inch is satisfactory. Test results from 1913 to 1937 ranged from 6,694 to 10,195 pounds per square inch (471 to 717 kg per square cm); in 1996, results were 14,874 (1,046 kg per square cm). The same geology that created

19516-439: The presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200 °C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70 km. At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200 km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450 °C to 600 °C lower than for

19680-630: The properties of a magma (such as its viscosity and temperature) are observed to correlate with silica content, silicate magmas are divided into four chemical types based on silica content: felsic , intermediate , mafic , and ultramafic . Felsic or silicic magmas have a silica content greater than 63%. They include rhyolite and dacite magmas. With such a high silica content, these magmas are extremely viscous, ranging from 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for hot rhyolite magma at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) to 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for cool rhyolite magma at 800 °C (1,470 °F). For comparison, water has

19844-435: The quarry (an early Colorado ski lift). Quarry Town was abandoned after the quarry closed in 1941 and today only a few scraps remain located behind the quarry fence. Bootlegging started when Marble went dry after alcohol prohibition was passed by the voters on 3 December 1908. Prohibition was backed by the company because drunkenness was affecting the operation. Prohibition left workers in Quarry Town and folks in Marble without

20008-406: The quarry down to the finishing mill in the town of Marble. Two tall wooden derricks (one to the left opening 2 and another on the east side of Yule Creek) suspended an 880 feet (270 m) long cable. The 50-ton (49.875 metric ton) electric hoist attached a block to the cable for lowering marble 225 feet (69 m) to the new loading station and onto a railroad car (on standard gauge track) towed by

20172-494: The quarry started by the CYMC in 1905. When the Colorado-Yule Marble Company (CYMC) arrived in Marble in 1905 they developed the last Yule Marble quarry, which is still in production today. The operation showed the unrealized promise of the previous 20 years with a 10-year boom in which marble was shipped to the east and west coasts with contracts reaching one million dollars. The marble boom also resulted in one for

20336-501: The quarry varied from 57 in 1910 to a maximum during the 1905–1917 boom of about 125. (Today that number varies between 15 and 20.) The 1910 census shows most quarry personnel were American born, although the mill site employed more Italian-born workers. The 1910 census recorded 57 quarry workers with 50 American born, 4 Italian, 2 German, and 1 Austrian. The marble mill employed 291 people of which 110 were American born and 120 born in Italy. As

20500-651: The quarry. The overlying Pennsylvanian Molas Formation was an argillite unit which was converted to hornfels and quartzite . Stratigraphically below the Leadville, the chert bearing Devonian Dyer Dolomite Member of the Chaffee Formation was altered by the metamorphism to impure silica-rich marble and occasional serpentine -bearing marble. The Yule Marble is a metamorphic facies of the regionally distributed Leadville Limestone of Mississippian age deposited 350 million to 324 million years ago. The Leadville within

20664-520: The quarrying stopped in August 1912 when company president Channing Meek died of injuries received from an electric tram accident on the quarry road and his successor did not want to continue the marble donation. Today, much of the foundation is still present as is the cabin across the street to the right. Quarring techniques had changed since the miners initial quarrying of the mid-1880s with blasting being replaced with equipment to drill and cut. The miners were familiar with explosives plus they did not have

20828-411: The rate of flow is proportional to the shear stress . Instead, a typical magma is a Bingham fluid , which shows considerable resistance to flow until a stress threshold, called the yield stress, is crossed. This results in plug flow of partially crystalline magma. A familiar example of plug flow is toothpaste squeezed out of a toothpaste tube. The toothpaste comes out as a semisolid plug, because shear

20992-502: The result of regional metamorphism , a process more associated with the orogeny and erosion of mountain ranges on a regional scale. Geologists still debate over Tennessee marble which did not undergo the same type of metamorphism, leaving it in a very unique property somewhere between metamorphic marble and sedimentary limestone. In evaluating the marble cross-section, the United States Geological Survey found

21156-400: The right of opening 1 had been relocated to opening 3, such as the machine shop (first building to the left of opening 2), offices (to the left of the machine shop), and the compressor house (first building on the right of opening 2 and left of the boiler house). The boarding house (not visible to the right of opening 1) was also relocated. In 1910, a new system was finished to get the stone from

21320-403: The right of opening 1; compressor house, machine shop, and bunk house. To provide the needed electricity, the company built a hydro-electric plant with the generators located just east of the town limits and completed in July 1907. By 1914 the quarry configuration had gone through several changes but from then on remained largely unchanged until the shut down in 1941. Several buildings located to

21484-405: The roof of a magma chamber and fractional crystallization near its base can even take place simultaneously. Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another. In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions. When rock melts, the liquid is a primary magma . Primary magmas have not undergone any differentiation and represent the starting composition of

21648-405: The same composition with no carbon dioxide. Magmas of rock types such as nephelinite , carbonatite , and kimberlite are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70 km. Increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of

21812-442: The same lavas ranges over seven orders of magnitude, from 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for mafic lava to 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for felsic magmas. The viscosity is mostly determined by composition but is also dependent on temperature. The tendency of felsic lava to be cooler than mafic lava increases the viscosity difference. The silicon ion is small and highly charged, and so it has a strong tendency to coordinate with four oxygen ions, which form

21976-440: The samples, Memorial architect Henry Bacon wanted to use Yule marble in spite of its higher cost because the stones "whiteness and delicate veining" placed it "above any white building marble in appearance that I have seen here or abroad". The Memorial commission voted to award the marble contract for Yule marble on 26 September 1913 but the matter was not settled. Other bidders raised objections about Yule quality, ability to quarry

22140-484: The seams created by the dome uplift rather than through metamorphic contact with the uplifted dome. Though marble is on both sides of the creek, the only visible marble is the 1-mile-long (1.6 km) seam of the present-day quarry on the west side of Yule Creek. Development of Yule Marble is put into context with Colorado geology by showing the passage of time from earliest rock units to the present with "Ga" = billions of years ago and "Ma" = millions of years ago. It

22304-404: The source rock. Some calk-alkaline granitoids may be produced by a high degree of partial melting, as much as 15% to 30%. High-magnesium magmas, such as komatiite and picrite , may also be the products of a high degree of partial melting of mantle rock. Certain chemical elements, called incompatible elements , have a combination of ionic radius and ionic charge that is unlike that of

22468-424: The spending created an operation using the best equipment and was technically efficient, the company was unable to repay the debt with marble revenue because of high operating costs. By 1913 CYMC was in financial trouble when a loan of $ 1,868,000 was approved early in 1913 and used to refinance the debt. 1905 development started the first of three quarry openings with #2 in 1905. When Quarry 2 cutting started, none of

22632-413: The square centimeter (0.1550 square inches). Where the marble is in direct contact with the intrusive granite, the most consistent change in the marble is that it becomes extremely coarse-grained, with the grain size in the contact zone being 10 mm to 20 mm (0.3937–0.7874 inches). The grains in turn are tightly bonded in the shape of a jigsaw puzzle, forming crystals which are aligned so that

22796-422: The staging area on the grounds of the old mill site. When the quarry opened in 1990, a 16-by-16-foot (4.9 by 4.9 m) tunnel had been blasted through the mountain and into the quarry interior to enable marble to be driven out of the quarry. The cutting rates of today are many factors greater than in 1911 when a wire saw was sometimes used before a block was removed. In 1911, such a saw was new technology and had

22960-409: The stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form. Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction , specifically

23124-424: The stone out of Marble added to the difficulties. Taken together, these factors resulted in high operating costs that could not be covered by marble revenue. The high cost problems would also affect the next quarry and its operators up to the present time. In 1905, another major transfer of leases took place with acquisitions by the newly formed Colorado-Yule Marble Company (CYMC). First was Channing Meek purchasing

23288-444: The stone out of Marble added to the difficulties. The transportation problem was largely mitigated by the advent of a railroad (1906 through 1941) and by road and truck since 1990. The cutting rates of today's equipment are much faster than the 1911 technology. Located along and above the east and west side of Yule Creek, from an elevation of 9,000 feet (2,700 m) to 9,500 feet (2,900 m) were five quarries, of which only one on

23452-468: The surface and the overburden pressure drops, dissolved gases bubble out of the liquid, so that magma near the surface consists of materials in solid, liquid, and gas phases . Most magma is rich in silica . Rare nonsilicate magma can form by local melting of nonsilicate mineral deposits or by separation of a magma into separate immiscible silicate and nonsilicate liquid phases. Silicate magmas are molten mixtures dominated by oxygen and silicon ,

23616-401: The surface in the first place. The temperature within the interior of the earth is described by the geothermal gradient , which is the rate of temperature change with depth. The geothermal gradient is established by the balance between heating through radioactive decay in the Earth's interior and heat loss from the surface of the earth. The geothermal gradient averages about 25 °C/km in

23780-409: The town have been largely solved (by road and trucks) but the high costs of working in a mountain environment still exist today, and there have been several operator changes with the last one in 2010. The quarry was part of the integrated operation created by the CYMC during 1905 into 1907, and was retained by subsequent operators until the quarry shut down in 1941. Once marble was out of the quarry, it

23944-505: The town of Marble. While the CYMC overcame some quarry problems of the previous 20 years, other difficulties ultimately led to their bankruptcy in April 1917. Subsequent operations from 1922 through 1941 were on a much smaller scale with several different operators and dramatic fluctuations in quarrying until the next bust at the end of 1941 After almost 50 years the quarry reopened in September 1990. The 1905 problems of transporting marble out of

24108-658: The towns of Marble, Minnesota ; Marble, Colorado ; Marble Falls, Texas , and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York . The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum . Total world quarrying production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production. In the process of marble mining and processing, around half or

24272-613: The upward intrusion of magma from the mantle. Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a plate boundary . The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well-studied example, as the Tibetan Plateau just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust. Studies of electrical resistivity deduced from magnetotelluric data have detected

24436-462: The upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the Earth. Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges , making it by far the most important source of magma on Earth. It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. Intraplate volcanism is attributed to the rise of mantle plumes or to intraplate extension, with

24600-467: The viscosity. Higher-temperature melts are less viscous, since more thermal energy is available to break bonds between oxygen and network formers. Most magmas contain solid crystals of various minerals, fragments of exotic rocks known as xenoliths and fragments of previously solidified magma. The crystal content of most magmas gives them thixotropic and shear thinning properties. In other words, most magmas do not behave like Newtonian fluids, in which

24764-737: The west side is in operation today. Those on the west were the most productive being the John Osgood quarry (pit-type started in the early 1890s) and the present-day quarry started in 1905 by the Colorado-Yule Marble Company inside the mountain. The east side quarry, started in 1904 by the Strauss brothers, was quarried inside Whitehouse Mountain. Most marble quarries in the world today are pit-type operations, such as Carrara, Italy . The amount of Yule Marble remaining for quarrying should last for hundreds of years. Use of Yule Marble has grown through several periods of boom and bust from local to national, and today

24928-569: The widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, and sarcophagi . There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD. According to the United States Geological Survey , U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $ 18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $ 18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006

25092-401: The workers wanted to hang off the edge of the cliff sitting on a wooden bench attached to an overhead derrick. So the company president, Channing Meek, came up to the quarry, sat on the wooden bench, was lowered over the mountainside, and started cutting marble. After that no worker refused to go over the side and cut marble. Quarry 2 was followed by #3 in 1907 and #1 in 1912. A fourth opening to

25256-415: The world's highest concentration of white marble buildings. The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying . Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods. Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition. In 1998, marble production

25420-719: Was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%. White marbles throughout the Mediterranean basin were widely utilized during the Roman period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across the Italian Peninsula , mainland Greece , the Aegean Islands , Asia Minor , and smaller hubs like those in the Iberian Peninsula . The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to

25584-465: Was 11.8 million tons valued at $ 116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate . For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $ 58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown

25748-460: Was built to alleviate a housing shortage caused by hiring more workers for the first large CYMC contract, the Cuyahoga County Court House , in Cleveland, Ohio. Though intended for single men, the 1910 census recorded 66 residents of which 44 were men, 9 were women, and 13 were children. In the winter time, Quarry Town folk would ski down to Marble then return by holding onto an electric tram going up to

25912-447: Was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively. In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018

26076-408: Was just below the CYMC started quarry. By 1910, the method changed with the 50-ton hoist attaching a block to an overhead cable for lowering 225 feet (69 m) to a new loading station. Here the block was placed on a flatcar for towing by an electric tram (designed by General Electric) on standard-gauge railroad track to the town of Marble and into the mill site. Electricity to power the tram came from

26240-449: Was lowered onto CYMC transport for movement down to Marble, a descent of 1,300 feet (400 m) over 3.9 miles (6.3 km) with grades up to 54% (17% starting in 1910). In Marble, the stone entered an enormous CYMC mill site and was transformed into a variety of finished objects. The site was 150 feet (46 m) feet at its widest point and almost 1,400 feet (430 m) long under one roof, totaling 108,000 square feet (10,000 m). (It

26404-520: Was the largest operation of its kind in the world.) Finished marble was moved into railroad cars of the CYMC-built Crystal River & San Juan Railway (CR&SJ) for shipment throughout the country. Building the CR&SJ solved a major problem of no viable transportation to move large quantities of the stone out of Marble. In November 1906, the CR&SJ completed a 6-mile (10 km) railway line from Marble to Placita, where it connected to

26568-417: Was the most expensive and most demanding in the history of Yule marble at $ 1,080,000. The marble came out of Quarry 3, with the first shipment leaving Marble on 25 May 1914 and the final on 16 June 1916. The high standards resulted in a high rejection rate, yet the contract was completed 5 months ahead of schedule. Only a small amount of the marble quarried ever reached the finishing mill. The amount of rejection

26732-530: Was the most expensive material. The overall configuration of the grain is small, irregularly shaped, generally equidimensional to slightly elongated with irregular edges and does not vary significantly among the different grades (in 1992). The edges of the calcite grains are deeply crenulated (irregularly and minutely notched and scalloped). Grain sizes range primarily from 0.1 mm (0.00393 in) to 0.6 mm (0.0236 in), as determined by scanning electron microscope images. There are 2,000–3,000 grains to

26896-400: Was the prospector who "rediscovered" the marble in 1874. In the same year, an unknown person took some marble—from which polished samples were made—and appeared in Denver but failed to generate interest. The marble became lost again, and was rediscovered 10 years later, yet again by accident. By this time, prospectors were digging into Whitehouse Mountain for silver and gold when they encountered

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