112-608: Ungdomshuset ( lit. ' the Youth House ' ) is a social centre in Copenhagen , currently based at Dortheavej 61, Bispebjerg . Between 1982 and 2007, it was located at Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro . That building was originally named Folkets Hus ("House of the People"), constructed by Copenhagen's labour movement in 1897. It functions as an underground music venue and focal point for varying autonomist and leftist groups. From
224-421: A Channel 4 interview, broadcast on 14 November 2011, British undercover police officer Mark Kennedy claimed that his inside intelligence was instrumental in the eviction of the original Ungdomshuset. 55°41′37.77″N 12°32′52.77″E / 55.6938250°N 12.5479917°E / 55.6938250; 12.5479917 Community centre A community centre , community center , or community hall
336-600: A Presbyterian minister, joined the Extension Department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison , organizing the Wisconsin Bureau of Civic and Social Development . By 1911 they organized a country-wide conference on schools as social centers. Despite concerns expressed by politicians and public officials that they might provide a focus for alternative political and social activity, the idea was successful. In 1916, with
448-477: A gametangium , a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete -producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore , a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis , generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores . These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia. The spores of most of
560-421: A monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings . There is no unique generally accepted system at
672-432: A Danish chain of supermarkets , bought Folkets Hus, planning to tear down the building and build a supermarket in its place. However, as this was prohibited due to the historic importance of the place, Brugsen sold the ground to the folk music ensemble Tingluti in 1978. As a consequence of a burst water main which they could not afford to repair, Tingluti had to sell the ground to the municipality of Copenhagen. The price at
784-517: A company called Human A/S bought the building in December 2000 (although ownership did not actually change hands until 2001), after which Human A/S was sold to the independent Christian sect " Faderhuset ". However, the squatters refused to leave the house. Until 1 March 2007 the young squatters used the house as if the change of ownership had not happened and the new owners were not allowed inside at any time. Ungdomshuset received more than 500 visitors
896-735: A cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium , a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes ( basidiocarps ) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms . The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios . Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens , including Magnaporthe grisea , form
1008-417: A different kingdom from plants , bacteria , and some protists is chitin in their cell walls . Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs ; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize . Growth is their means of mobility , except for spores (a few of which are flagellated ), which may travel through
1120-650: A direct source of human food , in the form of mushrooms and truffles ; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine , beer , and soy sauce . Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics , and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents . Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins , such as alkaloids and polyketides , that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of
1232-615: A few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies . Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease ) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little
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#17328440722681344-496: A fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche , and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi)
1456-641: A government/church or to the local subdivision of it. In addition to these models, community centres are also run by humanitarian organizations and the national societies of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement . These centres serve as hubs for providing humanitarian aid, offering services such as psychosocial support (MHPSS), socio-economic development programs, social cohesion activities, and protection services for vulnerable populations, including refugees and migrants. These community centres are vital in crisis contexts, facilitating recovery and resilience by addressing
1568-405: A high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate , ammonia , acetate , or ethanol . In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation , such as gamma radiation . This form of " radiotrophic " growth has been described for only a few species,
1680-570: A major part in her concept of community development and democracy seen through individuals organizing themselves into neighborhood groups, and attending to people's needs, desires and aspirations. This can also include parks. In the United Kingdom, the oldest community centre is possibly that which was established in 1901 in Thringstone , Leicestershire by the old age pensions pioneer, Charles Booth (1847-1916). Extended in 1911 and taken over by
1792-633: A massive public attempt to squat an old public waterworks located on Grøndalsvænge Allé 13 in northwestern Copenhagen to be used as a new Ungdomshuset. The event, which gathered several thousand, was announced as non-violent, but was met with heavy opposition from the police who arrested 436 people and threw large amounts of tear gas . Recognizing that the event, which had received heavy public attention, had been carried out with peaceful means, on 11 October Ritt Bjerregaard—the Lord Mayor of Copenhagen—invited spokesmen from Ungdomshuset to have negotiations concerning
1904-573: A motile zoospore , enabling them to propel themselves through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean. As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists , but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species. The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2,000 with
2016-402: A new haploid mycelium. Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection , is formed at each hyphal septum. As with
2128-483: A peaceful solution to the conflict. The new Ungdomshuset opened successfully on 1 July 2008, it is located at Dortheavej 61 in northwest Copenhagen's Bispebjerg area, after more than 16 months of weekly demonstrations. The building at Jagtvej 69 was completed on 12 November 1897, with the name "Folkets Hus" ( The People's House ). The house functioned as one of the resorts for the then-incipient labour movement of Copenhagen. Since labour organisations were unpopular in
2240-431: A peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1,882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown. The following year, 2,905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as
2352-516: A process called branching , or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis ). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium , an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic . Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to
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#17328440722682464-567: A small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g ; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs , rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use
2576-581: A structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis , can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi). The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes . The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol . Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into
2688-482: A terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism , saprobism , and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times. In May 2019, scientists reported
2800-668: A third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules . Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores ( conidia ) or through mycelial fragmentation . Mycelial fragmentation occurs when
2912-562: A week. In August 2003, Faderhuset served a writ upon Ungdomshuset and its users and claimed ownership of the building. In December the same year, the trial began at the Copenhagen County Court . On 7 January 2004 the verdict from City Court arrived, stating that Faderhuset was entitled to sue four activists (rather than Ungdomshuset itself). Both sides appealed against the decision; Faderhuset demanding compensation and Ungdomshuset demanding future right of usage. On 28 August 2006
3024-568: Is a public location where members of a community gather for group activities, social support, public information, and other purposes. They may be open for the whole community or for a specialized subgroup within the greater community. Community centres can be religious in nature, such as Christian churches , Islamic mosques , Jewish synagogues , Hindu temples , or Buddhist temples ; though they can also be secular and in some cases government-run, such as youth clubs or Leisure centres . The community centres are usually used for: Around
3136-446: Is also another reason. Fungus A fungus ( pl. : fungi or funguses ) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms . These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms , along with Animalia , Plantae , and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista . A characteristic that places fungi in
3248-404: Is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli 's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera . Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753),
3360-625: Is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus , Christiaan Hendrik Persoon , and Elias Magnus Fries , fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology . Advances in molecular genetics have opened
3472-638: Is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage. Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on
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3584-531: Is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla , two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya , the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and
3696-427: Is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution. In contrast to plants and animals , the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include
3808-601: The Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales , and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte -like plants. Prototaxites , which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian . Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until
3920-643: The First Employment Contract (CPE) had been used: special units of undercover agents moving around the demonstrators, and suddenly grabbing those who seemed to be the leaders. Since the Internet had been used by the demonstrators to coordinate their movements, hour by hour, informing about the police's whereabouts, a new priority of the police forces, according to Le Monde diplomatique , was to pirate this information. Demolition of Ungdomshuset began at 8 am on 5 March 2007. A demolition crane started its work at
4032-679: The Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny . This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel ('mold'). The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes
4144-678: The Leicestershire County Council in 1950, this centre still thrives as an educational, social and recreational community resource and was the inspiration for numerous others of its kind. There are also community centres for a specific purpose, but serving the whole community, such as an arts centre . Online community centres are defined as a web-based interactive, user-submitted network for groups, organizations, or businesses. Users create their own personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, art, calendars, music, and videos to display on their own pages. Administrators provide oversight to
4256-570: The National Court stated, as the City Court did, that the right of ownership and usage of Ungdomshuset belonged to Faderhuset and it was free to evict the inhabitants. Originally, this decision ordered the current occupants out by 9:00 a.m. on the morning of 14 December 2006. Ungdomshuset was also denied the right of appeal to the Supreme Court, meaning that they had no further options within
4368-545: The ascomycete genus Cochliobolus , and the ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii . The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction . Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus , may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events
4480-440: The biopolymer chitin. Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates , such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds . Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies . These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation ) that can be used as diagnostic features in
4592-522: The foundation "Jagtvej 69" to sell the house for DKK 13 million. On 16 December, around 2000 activists, some of them foreigners, demonstrated in Copenhagen in support of Ungdomshuset. The police had not been notified of the demonstration. The vanguard of the demonstration wore masks or helmets, which is not permitted by law during demonstrations in Denmark. The police ordered the demonstration to break up and
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4704-455: The roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks . Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of
4816-569: The -8 Celsius weather. A women's demonstration took place on 8 March, comprising more than 3,000 people. The police carried out systematic identity controls . In total, more than 750 people were arrested during the events (among them, about 140 foreigners). Based on a population of approximately a million in Copenhagen, the Monde diplomatique noticed that if the same proportion of arrests had been carried out in Paris, 8,000 persons would have been detained. Since
4928-615: The 1 of March 2007, 150 people gathered around the Danish Embassy in Oslo , protesting against the demolition of " Ungeren ". They threw paint and snowballs against the Embassy . The Norwegian Police was at presence, with a great number of Police officers. On 16 March 2007, Danish police admitted to having mistakenly used a potentially lethal form of delivery system for tear gas. The projectiles, known as Ferret 40 , were used against crowds during
5040-588: The Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley , August Carl Joseph Corda , Anton de Bary ,
5152-703: The Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes ). Two amber -preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti ) appeared during the late Cretaceous , 90 Ma. Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments ) formed, suggesting that fungi were
5264-500: The UK many villages and towns have their own Community Centre, although nearby schools may offer their assembly or dining hall after school for Community Centre activities. For example, local schools near Ouston, County Durham may host dance or sporting activities provided by a local community centre. Parks are also considered community centers. Another pioneer of community centers was Mary Parker Follett , who saw community centers as playing
5376-449: The air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota ( true fungi or Eumycetes ), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group ), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics . This fungal group is distinct from
5488-487: The air over long distances. Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins ), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of
5600-645: The apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants —has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication . Fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs , organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism . Fungi have evolved
5712-415: The areas surrounding Freetown Christiania and south of Nørrebrogade. Containers were turned over, windows were broken. Molotov cocktails were thrown out by the demonstrators, at the cries of "The street is ours!" Setting up barricades , they played alter-globalization songs such as Manu Chao from trucks. Riot police used tear gas ( CS gas ) on several occasions throughout the riots. The entire area
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#17328440722685824-497: The back of the house with the top floor. The logos on the crane were covered and workers wore masks to conceal their identity. The union representing Ungdomshuset was on the ground trying to persuade the workers to stop working and reveal the company they were working for. At 10 am the Danish Working Environment Authority (Arbejdstilsynet) had the demolition interrupted due to reported concerns about dust and
5936-414: The basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia , can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems : heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of
6048-490: The basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to
6160-692: The brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne , Arthur H. R. Buller , Curtis G. Lloyd , and Pier Andrea Saccardo . In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry , genetics , molecular biology , biotechnology , DNA sequencing , and phylogenetic analysis have provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity , and have challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy . Most fungi grow as hyphae , which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 μm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by
6272-621: The cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm , organelles , and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into
6384-450: The content and approve membership of users. In Singapore , community centres are distinct buildings that are officially designated by the government of Singapore . They are meant to play an urban planning role especially as part of Housing Development Board projects. Enrichment and grassroots organization are their functions like most other community centres, but relieving traffic congestion concerns by placing community centres nearby
6496-471: The demonstrators to disperse. The demonstrators attacked the police; stones and fireworks were thrown at the police and burning barricades set up. The demonstration degenerated into what the police characterised as the worst riots in Denmark in many years—they used teargas , which was a very rare occurrence in Denmark. Both police and demonstrators were injured. By the end of the night 273 people had been arrested . The majority of those arrested were released
6608-512: The discovery of a fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae , in the Canadian Arctic , that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during
6720-602: The dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary. Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there
6832-535: The early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert , mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota . At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian , 318.1–299 Ma). Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and
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#17328440722686944-412: The effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO 2 fixation via visible light , but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy. Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that
7056-427: The environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides , proteins , and lipids —into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below
7168-522: The estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus , found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are
7280-621: The eyes of the authorities, and reprisals were often carried out against them, the organisations had to build their own headquarters—Folkets Hus was the fourth of these to be built. The roots of several demonstrations and meetings were planted in Folkets Hus, and as a result it was strongly linked to the great demonstration against unemployment in 1918 when workers stormed the Copenhagen Stock Exchange ( Børsen ). In 1910, The Second International held an International Women's conference at
7392-403: The following day, 17 December. On 1 March 2007 Ungdomshuset was cleared of its occupants by the police at about 7:00 ( CET ) in the morning. A 50-metre area surrounding the building was sealed off. The building was taken with assistance from a military helicopter, an airport crash tender and two boom cranes , used as a form of modern-day siege towers . Special forces entered the building from
7504-535: The force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns , a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores. In homothallic sexual reproduction , two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis . Homothallic fungi include species with an Aspergillus -like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of
7616-417: The formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci ) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp , or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores . After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form
7728-616: The foundation of the National Community Center Association, the term Community Center was generally used in the US. By 1918 there were community centers in 107 US cities, and in 240 cities by 1924. By 1930 there were nearly 500 centers with more than four million people regularly attending. The first of these was Public School 63, located in the Lower East Side . Clinton Child's , one of the organizers, described it as: In
7840-414: The general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms , form conspicuous fruit bodies , which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses . The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around
7952-769: The higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature . Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants , fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms ). The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi
8064-408: The host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are opisthokonts —a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum —all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan ) and other typical components, also contains
8176-526: The house, claiming that it would be too expensive to repair the damages and renovate the building. The activists of the house decided to fix the damages themselves and on 1 March of the next year, their work was approved by the fire prevention department. In 1999 the building was put on sale by the municipality. This prodded the users of the building to post a large banner on the facade with the message: "For sale along with 500 autonome, stone throwing, violent psychopaths from hell." . Despite this ominous warning,
8288-405: The house, during which Clara Zetkin launched the idea of an International Women's Day . Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg visited the centre. During the 1950s it was still primarily used by the different sections, associations and unions of the labour movement. All kinds of different activities took place: for example, boxing matches and end-of-season dances. Several years later, Brugsen ,
8400-411: The identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes , which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years. The apothecium —a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is
8512-416: The intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans , parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as
8624-500: The legal system. The police, however, stated that they would not evict the activists until 2007. The activists refused to leave the house and barricaded themselves inside. In addition, an open-letter stating "Troublemakers of the World; We bid you Welcome!" had been sent to different autonomous groups around the world, asking for help defending the house in the event of a forced eviction. On 12 December, Faderhuset refused an offer from
8736-524: The mid-1990s till 2007, Jagtvej 69 was the subject of intense media attention and public debate. This was due to an ongoing conflict between the Copenhagen Municipality and activists occupying the premises. In 2007, Ungdomshuset was evicted from Jagtvej 69 and the building demolished. Police started to clear the Ungdomshuset building early on Thursday, 1 March 2007. Demolition began on 5 March, and
8848-607: The nature of fungal fruiting bodies , which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues, and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy . Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving
8960-401: The opposite mating type , whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself. Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis , is required for the initiation of
9072-445: The phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and funga . Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile , and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among
9184-468: The plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants. Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation , as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive
9296-1114: The police carried out raids searching for activists for six days and six nights, for example at the People's House of Stengade , at an independent collective in Baldersgade , at the Solidaritetshuset and in many personal flats in Copenhagen. More than 140 foreigners were arrested on the grounds of "presumption of danger", without being charged. This was denounced by the Association of Parents against Police Brutality . Many under-age people were arrested and registered in data bases . The frontiers were controlled. In total, 690 arrests were made in three days. The operation had an international scale, and has even been qualified by Le Monde diplomatique as "a 'laboratory experience' in police repression." Twenty Swedish police vehicles were brought over from Malmö , and five senior Swedish police officials invited for observation. Witnesses have claimed that plainclothes police agents, wearing earphones, circulated in
9408-460: The police did not have the facilities to detain this number of people, many of them were transported to Funen or to Jylland . A penitentiary building of Copenhagen had to be partially emptied of its common law detainees to make place for the arrested youth. From 10 March to 19 March, Nørrebro and Christianshavn were decreed zones where any citizen could be searched and registered on databases, even without reasonable grounds for suspicion. On
9520-739: The potential presence of asbestos. The demolition resumed at 11 am. At 4 pm, about one-third of the house had been removed. The demolition was broadcast live by webcam on TV2 News' website. In protest at the eviction of the centre, demonstrations have been held across Europe. Germany has seen more than twenty actions and there have also been solidarity protests in Austria, Finland, the Netherlands, Italy, Norway, Sweden and Poland. There were also protests in front of Denmark's UN Consulate in New York City — although it only counted eight persons during
9632-417: The preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi. Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology
9744-451: The researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through
9856-466: The resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups. Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology ,
9968-457: The riots following the demolition, although the cartridge is designed and marketed as a barricade-penetrating round. It is shot from a military shoulder-fired 40 mm grenade launcher. According to Professor Lars Dencik, from the University of Roskilde , the Danish state used the opportunity of this evacuation to test its anti-terrorist security forces (as any other opportunity, or real danger,
10080-416: The roof, the windows and the ground, while the house was covered in foam to diminish the effectiveness of possible counterattacks such as Molotov cocktails . Afterwards the supporters of Ungdomshuset announced that it was "either an Ungdomshus or a battle for an Ungdomshus — the clearing will never be forgiven". Rioting broke out, including a blockade of Nørrebrogade, the main street of Nørrebro , and fires in
10192-459: The scene of the riots, speaking foreign languages (German, French and English). Asked by a Danish newspaper, the Copenhagen's police's spokesman denied the presence of active units from others countries. However, he recognized that, "if there had been" some, it was "in quality of observers". Other analysts noticed that the same tactics used by the French police during the 2006 students' protests against
10304-455: The scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" ( mycologicæ ) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon . The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville . In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley 's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to mycology as
10416-420: The sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis ). In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division ,
10528-508: The size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests . The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate . The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced
10640-434: The small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites . They may become noticeable when fruiting , either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as
10752-515: The social and emotional needs of affected individuals. The community centres typically have their own origin and history. There are some examples: Early forms of community centers in the United States were based in schools providing facilities to inner city communities out of school hours. An early celebrated example of this is to be found in Rochester , New York from 1907. Edward J. Ward ,
10864-590: The start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms: Shared features: Unique features: Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria , form rhizomorphs , which resemble and perform functions similar to
10976-435: The street. The cost of the damages at the school was estimated to be around 1 million Danish kroner (133,000 euros ). On the same day, the famous Little Mermaid was painted pink and a graffiti '69' and circle-A was painted on the stone on which the statue rests. Although police would not confirm a link between this event and the Ungdomshuset riots, the graffiti seems a reference to the squat's address, and news sources around
11088-438: The structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes , mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany , although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of
11200-609: The structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section). In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota , haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming
11312-581: The study of fungi. A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular). The term mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora . The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that
11424-605: The study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi. The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman , a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder ( Fomes fomentarius ), or for medicinal purposes ( Piptoporus betulinus ). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in
11536-503: The surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details. The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago ( Ma ); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis . Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on
11648-490: The time was DKK 700,000. In 1982, Folkets Hus was assigned to a group of young people—the original founders of Ungdomshuset—although the municipality of Copenhagen still owned the building. It was at this time that the building was given its current name: Ungdomshuset. It hosted musicians like Nick Cave and Björk in its early years. In January 1996, Ungdomshuset was ravaged by a fire and found to be plagued by fungus and rot. The municipality of Copenhagen decided to close
11760-420: The way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom , seven phyla , and ten subphyla . The English word fungus is directly adopted from
11872-464: The world (and sometimes within single countries) there appear to be four common ways in which the operation of the kind of community centre are owned and organised. In the following description, " Government " may refer to the ordinary secular government or to a dominant religious organisation such as the Roman Catholic Church; and it may refer to the central, national, or international branch of
11984-521: The world used the incident to mention the 3 March riots at the same time. Also that morning, police raided six to eight addresses in Nørrebro in an attempt to find and deport foreign activists. Although foreigners were the primary target of these raids, a larger number of those arrested were Danes. The members of Ungdomshuset's legal support group (retsgruppen) were supposedly amongst those arrested, but police described this as 'purely coincidental'. In total,
12096-410: Was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap". Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts . Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support
12208-407: Was completed in two days. After the eviction, users and supporters held weekly demonstrations on Thursday evenings, demanding a new location for the Ungdomshuset. The demonstrations would start from nearby Blågårds Plads . The starting location was later changed to Gammeltorv in downtown Copenhagen. In the summer of 2007, an initiative known as G13 announced that on the 6 October they would stage
12320-465: Was more rioting outside Ungdomshuset, and by 12:36 am local time, the area of Nørrebro was completely overrun. At the same time further riots were taking place in the area around Freetown Christiania . Rioters used cars and rubbish bins to build barricades and set fires on the streets. One fire spread to a nearby kindergarten but was quickly extinguished. In a secondary school , the library and media room were ransacked and books and computers were burned on
12432-563: Was non-existent). The new Ungdomshuset opened successfully on 11 July 2008, located at Dortheavej 61 in northwest Copenhagen's Bispebjerg area. This was after weekly demonstrations since March 2007. On Monday 22 December 2008, five women and ten men who were present in the house at the time of eviction, received sentences of imprisonment. Eleven people were sentenced to one year and three months, three people to one year and one (aged under 16) to nine months. They were sentenced with preparing to assault police officers, and preparing violence. In
12544-506: Was unsafe and neighbors to Ungdomshuset were told to stay indoors. It was unsafe to walk the streets because of the riots and because the police proclaimed that anyone without a valid reason for being on the streets would be arrested. There were also demonstrations in Oslo carried out by the Blitz community . The police moved out with police dogs and were prepared to use tear gas . On 3 March 2007, there
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