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97-588: The Yavuz Selim Mosque is the second oldest extant imperial mosque in Istanbul. It was commissioned by the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in memory of his father Selim I who died in 1520. The architect was Alaüddin (Acem Alisi). The mosque was completed in 1527/8. Attempts have been made to associate the structure with the famous imperial architect Mimar Sinan , but there is no supporting documentary evidence, and

194-497: A decision on whether to remain or abandon the siege. The Sultan convened an official council on 12 October to deliberate the matter. It was decided to attempt one final, major assault on Vienna, an "all or nothing" gamble. The assault was launched on 14 October, but despite extra rewards being offered to the troops, it was beaten back, with the defenders' arquebuses and long pikes proving decisive. The following day, with supplies running low and winter approaching, Suleiman called off

291-534: A former concubine, became the legal wife of the Sultan, much to the astonishment of the observers in the palace and the city. He also allowed Hurrem Sultan to remain with him at court for the rest of her life, breaking another tradition—that when imperial heirs came of age, they would be sent along with the imperial concubine who bore them to govern remote provinces of the Empire, never to return unless their progeny succeeded to

388-598: A funeral monument for the German commander Nicholas, Count of Salm , head of the mercenary relief force dispatched to Vienna, as a token of appreciation of his efforts. Nicholas survived the initial siege attempt, but had been injured during the last Ottoman assault and died on May 4, 1530. The Renaissance sarcophagus is now on display in the baptistery of the Votivkirche cathedral in Vienna. Ferdinand's son, Maximilian II , later built

485-774: A great patron of culture, overseeing the " Golden Age " of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic , literary and architectural development. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hurrem Sultan , a woman from his harem, an Orthodox Christian of Ruthenian origin who converted to Sunni Islam , and who became famous in Western Europe of his time by the name Roxelana, due to her red hair. Their son, Selim II , succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleiman's other potential heirs, Mehmed and Mustafa , had died; Mehmed had died in 1543 from smallpox, and Mustafa had been strangled to death in 1553 at

582-509: A harem girl from Ruthenia , then part of Poland . Western diplomats, taking notice of the palace gossip about her, called her "Russelazie" or "Roxelana", referring to her Ruthenian origins. The daughter of an Orthodox priest, she was captured by Tatars from Crimea , sold as a slave in Constantinople, and eventually rose through the ranks of the Harem to become Suleiman's favorite . Hurrem,

679-621: A lasting presence in the province of Van , control of the western half of Azerbaijan and some forts in Georgia . In 1553, Suleiman began his third and final campaign against the Shah. Having initially lost territories in Erzurum to the Shah's son, Suleiman retaliated by recapturing Erzurum, crossing the Upper Euphrates and laying waste to parts of Persia. The Shah's army continued its strategy of avoiding

776-540: A legitimate sultan. Suleiman was born in Trabzon on the southern coast of the Black Sea to Şehzade Selim (later Selim I ), probably on 6 November 1494, although this date is not known with absolute certainty or evidence. His mother was Hafsa Sultan , a concubine convert to Islam of unknown origins, who died in 1534. At the age of seven, Suleiman began studies of science, history, literature, theology and military tactics in

873-621: A phenomenon often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire . Suleiman the Magnificent ( محتشم سليمان Muḥteşem Süleymān ), as he was known in the West , was also called Suleiman the First ( سلطان سليمان أول Sulṭān Süleymān-ı Evvel ), and Suleiman the Lawgiver ( قانونی سلطان سليمان Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) for his reform of the Ottoman legal system. It is unclear when exactly

970-515: A push towards Persia, only to find the Shah sacrificing territory instead of facing a pitched battle, resorting to harassment of the Ottoman army as it proceeded along the harsh interior. In 1535 Suleiman made a grand entrance into Baghdad. He enhanced his local support by restoring the tomb of Abu Hanifa , the founder of the Hanafi school of Islamic law to which the Ottomans adhered. Attempting to defeat

1067-584: A result, an Ottoman expedition to Aceh was launched, which was able to provide extensive military support to the Acehnese. The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Ajuran Sultanate allied with

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1164-486: A second siege of Vienna in 1683. In August 1526, Sultan Suleiman I decisively defeated the forces of King Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács , paving the way for the Ottomans to gain control of south-eastern Hungary; the childless King Louis died, possibly drowning when he attempted to escape the battlefield. His brother-in-law, Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria , brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , claimed

1261-549: A series of projects, including bridges, mosques, palaces and various charitable and social establishments. The greatest of these were built by the Sultan's chief architect, Mimar Sinan , under whom Ottoman architecture reached its zenith. Sinan became responsible for over three hundred monuments throughout the empire, including his two masterpieces, the Süleymaniye and Selimiye mosques—the latter built in Adrianople (now Edirne ) in

1358-425: A set of fines for specific offenses, as well as reducing the instances requiring death or mutilation. In the area of taxation, taxes were levied on various goods and produce, including animals, mines, profits of trade, and import-export duties. Higher medreses provided education of university status, whose graduates became imams ( امام ) or teachers. Educational centers were often one of many buildings surrounding

1455-458: A shallow dome 32.5 metres (107 ft) in height. As with the Hagia Sophia , the dome is much shallower than a full hemisphere. The windows are decorated with lunette panels of polychrome cuerda seca tiles. To the north and south of the main room, domed passages led to four small domed rooms, which were intended to function as hospices for traveling dervishes . Located in the garden behind

1552-462: A single legal code, all the while being careful not to violate the basic laws of Islam. It was within this framework that Suleiman, supported by his Grand Mufti Ebussuud , sought to reform the legislation to adapt to a rapidly changing empire. When the Kanun laws attained their final form, the code of laws became known as the kanun‐i Osmani ( قانون عثمانی ), or the "Ottoman laws". Suleiman's legal code

1649-418: A variety of European mercenaries, namely German Landsknecht pikemen and professional Spanish harquebusiers , sent by Charles V , who was Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. Queen Mary of Hungary, who was the sister of Charles V, in addition to 1,000 German Landsknechts under Count Niklas Salm, sent a contingent of 700–800 Spanish harquebusiers . Only 250 Spanish survived. The Spanish were under

1746-558: Is aptly named, enjoys reading, is knowledgeable and shows good judgment." Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, eventually leading to a revolt led by the Ottoman-appointed governor of Damascus in 1521. Suleiman soon made preparations for the conquest of Belgrade from the Kingdom of Hungary —something his great-grandfather Mehmed II had failed to achieve because of John Hunyadi 's strong defense in

1843-530: Is attributed to Mimar Sinan . The third türbe in the garden is that of Sultan Abdülmecid I , built shortly before his death in 1861. (See also: Ottoman architectural decoration ) Suleiman the Magnificent Suleiman I ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان اول , romanized :  Süleyman-ı Evvel ; Turkish : I. Süleyman , pronounced [syleiˈman] ; 6 November 1494 – 6 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman

1940-554: The cuerda seca technique. These are similar to the lunette panels above the windows on either side of the fireplace in the Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odası) of the Topkapı Palace and were almost certainly made by the same group of Iranian craftsmen working for the Ottoman court. The mosque is flanked by twin minarets . The interior plan of the mosque is a simple square room, 24.5 metres (80 ft) on each side, covered by

2037-634: The Barbary pirates of North Africa can be seen in the context of the wars against Spain. In 1541, the Spaniards led an unsuccessful expedition to Algiers . In 1542, facing a common Habsburg enemy during the Italian Wars , Francis I sought to renew the Franco-Ottoman alliance . In early 1542, Polin successfully negotiated the details of the alliance, with the Ottoman Empire promising to send 60,000 troops against

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2134-635: The Hagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace . Despite his following marriage and his new sumptuous residence, Ibrahim sometimes spent the night with Suleiman I at Topkapı Palace. In turn, the sultan occasionally slept at Ibrahim's lodgings. Ibrahim Pasha rose to Grand Vizier in 1523 and commander-in-chief of all the armies. Suleiman also conferred upon Ibrahim Pasha the honor of beylerbey of Rumelia (first-ranking military governor-general), granting Ibrahim authority over all Ottoman territories in Europe, as well as command of troops residing within them in times of war. At

2231-527: The Islamic calendar of 1543 AD. In addition to Suleiman's own work, many great talents enlivened the literary world during Suleiman's rule, including Fuzûlî and Bâkî . The literary historian Elias John Wilkinson Gibb observed that "at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan". Suleiman's most famous verse is: The people think of wealth and power as

2328-710: The Mughal imperial ports of Thatta , Surat and Janjira . The Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great himself is known to have exchanged six documents with Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman led several naval campaigns against the Portuguese in an attempt to remove them and reestablish trade with the Mughal Empire . Aden in Yemen was captured by the Ottomans in 1538, in order to provide an Ottoman base for raids against Portuguese possessions on

2425-642: The Persian Gulf , while the Persians retained their former capital Tabriz and all their other northwestern territories in the Caucasus and as they were prior to the wars, such as Dagestan and all of what is now Azerbaijan . Ottoman ships had been sailing in the Indian Ocean since the year 1518. Ottoman admirals such as Hadim Suleiman Pasha , Seydi Ali Reis and Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis are known to have voyaged to

2522-613: The Battle of Mohács to the Austrians, including Buda , which fell on 8 September. The only resistance came at Pozsony , where the Turkish fleet was bombarded as it sailed up the Danube . As the Ottomans advanced towards Vienna, the city's population organised an ad-hoc resistance formed from local farmers, peasants, and civilians determined to repel the inevitable attack. The defenders were supported by

2619-628: The Christian powers in Central Europe and the Mediterranean. Belgrade fell to him in 1521 and the island of Rhodes in 1522–1523. At Mohács , in August 1526, Suleiman broke the military strength of Hungary. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering

2716-606: The Christian strongholds of Belgrade and Rhodes as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf . At

2813-524: The Diet of Pozsony (modern Bratislava ) on 26 October, Ferdinand was declared king of Royal Hungary due to the agreement between his and Louis's families, cemented by Ferdinand's marriage to Louis's sister Anna and Louis's marriage to Ferdinand's sister Mary . Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on Hungary and captured Buda in 1527, only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter-attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains. In

2910-752: The Eastern Mediterranean island of Rhodes , the home base of the Knights Hospitaller . Suleiman built a large fortification, Marmaris Castle , that served as a base for the Ottoman Navy . Following a five-month siege , Rhodes capitulated and Suleiman allowed the Knights of Rhodes to depart. The conquest of the island cost the Ottomans 50,000 to 60,000 dead from battle and sickness (Christian claims went as high as 64,000 Ottoman battle deaths and 50,000 disease deaths). As relations between Hungary and

3007-553: The Habsburgs. The attack on Vienna led to a rapprochement between Charles V and Pope Clement VII , and contributed to the Pope's coronation of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor on February 24, 1530. The outcome of the campaign was presented as a success by the Ottomans, who used the opportunity to show off their imperial grandeur by staging elaborate ceremonies for the circumcision of princes Mustafa , Mehmed , and Selim . Ferdinand I erected

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3104-551: The Knights killed in battle; but a relief force from Spain entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 10,000 Ottoman troops and the victory of the local Maltese citizenry. While Sultan Suleiman was known as "the Magnificent" in the West, he was always Kanuni Suleiman or "The Lawgiver" ( قانونی ) to his Ottoman subjects. The overriding law of the empire was the Shari'ah , or Sacred Law, which as

3201-532: The Magnificent in Western Europe and Suleiman the Lawgiver (Ottoman Turkish: قانونى سلطان سليمان , romanized:  Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) in his Ottoman realm, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman Empire ruled over at least 25 million people. Suleiman succeeded his father, Selim I , as sultan on 30 September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against

3298-427: The Ottoman Empire deteriorated, Suleiman resumed his campaign in Central Europe, and on 29 August 1526 he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1506–1526) at the Battle of Mohács . Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, Suleiman is said to have lamented: "I came indeed in arms against him; but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off before he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty." While Suleiman

3395-542: The Ottoman army incorporated a contingent from Moldavia and renegade Serbian warriors from the army of John Zápolya . Suleiman acted as the commander-in-chief (as well as personally leading his force), and in April he appointed his Grand Vizier (the highest Ottoman minister), a Greek former slave called Ibrahim Pasha , as Serasker , a commander with powers to give orders in the sultan's name. Suleiman launched his campaign on 10 May, 1529 and faced numerous obstacles from

3492-511: The Ottoman fleet. In 1535, Charles V led a Holy League of 26,700 soldiers (10,000 Spaniards, 8,000 Italians, 8,000 Germans, and 700 Knights of St. John) to victory against the Ottomans at Tunis , which together with the war against Venice the following year, led Suleiman to accept proposals from Francis I of France to form an alliance against Charles . Huge Muslim territories in North Africa were annexed. The piracy carried on thereafter by

3589-405: The Ottoman force. Instead of going ahead with a second siege attempt, the Ottoman force turned back, laying waste the south-eastern Austrian state of Styria in their retreat. The two Viennese campaigns in essence marked the extreme limit of Ottoman logistical capability to field large armies deep in central Europe at the time. The 1529 campaign produced mixed results. Buda was brought back under

3686-613: The Ottomans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese. Having consolidated his conquests on land, Suleiman was greeted with the news that the fortress of Koroni in Morea (the modern Peloponnese , peninsular Greece) had been lost to Charles V 's admiral, Andrea Doria . The presence of

3783-690: The Ottomans, leading to a stalemate from which neither army made any significant gain. In 1555, a settlement known as the Peace of Amasya was signed, which defined the borders of the two empires. By this treaty, Armenia and Georgia were divided equally between the two, with Western Armenia , western Kurdistan , and western Georgia (incl. western Samtskhe ) falling in Ottoman hands while Eastern Armenia , eastern Kurdistan, and eastern Georgia (incl. eastern Samtskhe) stayed in Safavid hands. The Ottoman Empire obtained most of Iraq , including Baghdad, which gave them access to

3880-547: The Shah once and for all, Suleiman embarked upon a second campaign in 1548–1549. As in the previous attempt, Tahmasp avoided confrontation with the Ottoman army and instead chose to retreat, using scorched earth tactics in the process and exposing the Ottoman army to the harsh winter of the Caucasus . Suleiman abandoned the campaign with temporary Ottoman gains in Tabriz and the Urmia region,

3977-537: The Spanish in the Eastern Mediterranean concerned Suleiman, who saw it as an early indication of Charles V's intention to rival Ottoman dominance in the region. Recognizing the need to reassert naval preeminence in the Mediterranean, Suleiman appointed an exceptional naval commander in the form of Khair ad Din , known to Europeans as Barbarossa . Once appointed admiral-in-chief, Barbarossa was charged with rebuilding

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4074-456: The West. With a reinforced garrison of 16,000 men, the Austrians inflicted the first defeat on Suleiman, sowing the seeds of a bitter Ottoman–Habsburg rivalry that lasted until the 20th century. His second attempt to conquer Vienna failed in 1532, as Ottoman forces were delayed by the siege of Güns and failed to reach Vienna. In both cases, the Ottoman army was plagued by bad weather, forcing them to leave behind essential siege equipment, and

4171-581: The aftermath of the 1526 Battle of Mohács , which had resulted in the death of Louis II , King of Hungary , and the descent of the kingdom into civil war. Following Louis' death, rival factions within Hungary selected two successors: Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria , supported by the House of Habsburg , and John Zápolya . Zápolya would eventually seek aid from, and become a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, after Ferdinand began to take control of western Hungary, including

4268-510: The attacks and defended the Eger Castle . Suleiman's father had made war with Persia a high priority. At first, Suleiman shifted attention to Europe and was content to contain Persia , which was preoccupied by its own enemies to its east. After Suleiman stabilized his European frontiers, he now turned his attention to Persia, the base for the rival Shia Muslim faction. The Safavid dynasty became

4365-453: The breadth of Suleiman's patronage of the arts, the earliest of the documents dating from 1526 list 40 societies with over 600 members. The Ehl-i Hiref attracted the empire's most talented artisans to the Sultan's court, both from the Islamic world and from the recently conquered territories in Europe, resulting in a blend of Arabic, Turkish and European cultures. Artisans in service of

4462-508: The city could withstand a lengthy siege, he blocked the four city gates and reinforced the walls, which in some places were no more than six feet thick, and erected earthen bastions and an inner earthen rampart , levelling buildings where necessary to clear room for defences. The Ottoman army that arrived in late September had been depleted during the long advance into Austrian territory, leaving Suleiman short of camels and heavy artillery. Many of his troops arrived at Vienna in poor health after

4559-462: The city of Buda . The Ottoman attack on Vienna was part of the empire's intervention into the Hungarian conflict, and in the short term sought to secure Zápolya's position. Historians offer conflicting interpretations of the Ottoman's long-term goals, including the motivations behind the choice of Vienna as the campaign's immediate target. Some modern historians suggest that Suleiman's primary objective

4656-514: The command of Marshal Luis de Ávalos , with captains Juan de Salinas, Jaime García de Guzmán, Jorge Manrique, and Cristóbal de Aranda. This elite infantry excelled in the defense of the northern area and with discretion fire prevented the Ottomans from settling in the Danube meadows , near the ramparts, where they could have breached with enough space to work. These elite soldiers also built additional palisades and trap pits that would be essential during

4753-415: The confined space hindered their return to the city. More rain fell on 11 October, and with the Ottomans failing to breach the walls, the prospect of victory began to fade. In addition, Suleiman was facing critical shortages of food, water and other supplies, while casualties, sickness, and desertions began to take their toll. The janissaries began voicing their displeasure at the lack of progress, demanding

4850-416: The control of the Ottoman vassal John Zápolya , strengthening the Ottoman position in Hungary. The campaign left behind a trail of collateral damage in neighbouring Habsburg Hungary and Austria that impaired Ferdinand's capacity to mount a sustained counter-attack. However, Suleiman failed to force Ferdinand to engage him in open battle, and was thus unable to enforce his ideological claim to superiority over

4947-595: The court included painters, book binders, furriers, jewellers and goldsmiths. Whereas previous rulers had been influenced by Persian culture (Suleiman's father, Selim I, wrote poetry in Persian), Suleiman's patronage of the arts saw the Ottoman Empire assert its own artistic legacy. Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in Persian and Turkish under the takhallus (nom de plume) Muhibbi ( محبی , "Lover"). Some of Suleiman's verses have become Turkish proverbs, such as

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5044-705: The courtyards of mosques, others included libraries, baths, soup kitchens, residences and hospitals for the benefit of the public. Under Suleiman's patronage, the Ottoman Empire entered the golden age of its cultural development . Hundreds of imperial artistic societies (called the اهل حرف Ehl-i Hiref , "Community of the Craftsmen") were administered at the Imperial seat, the Topkapı Palace . After an apprenticeship, artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid commensurate wages in quarterly annual installments. Payroll registers that survive testify to

5141-545: The date of the mosque is too early. However, one of the türbe in the garden of the mosque is a work of Sinan (see below). The mosque was built on a terrace overlooking the Cistern of Aspar , the largest of the three Roman reservoirs in Constantinople . The large courtyard ( avlu ) has a colonnaded portico with columns of various types of marble and granite . The mosque has panels of coloured tiles that were decorated using

5238-443: The difficult conditions, were lost in large numbers. Sickness and poor health became common among the janissaries, claiming many lives along the perilous journey. Suleiman arrived in Osijek on 6 August. On the 18th he reached the Mohács plain , to be greeted by a substantial cavalry force led by John Zápolya (which would later accompany Suleiman to Vienna), who paid him homage and helped him recapture several fortresses lost since

5335-410: The digging and mining of tunnels below the city's walls by Ottoman sappers , in one case almost capturing Ibrahim Pasha . The defending forces detected and successfully detonated several mines that had been intended to breach the walls. On 6 October, 8,000 men were dispatched to attack the Ottoman mining operations. They succeeded in destroying many of the tunnels, but they sustained heavy losses when

5432-446: The divine law of Islam was outside of the Sultan's powers to change. Yet an area of distinct law known as the Kanuns ( قانون , canonical legislation) was dependent on Suleiman's will alone, covering areas such as criminal law, land tenure and taxation. He collected all the judgments that had been issued by the nine Ottoman Sultans who preceded him. After eliminating duplications and choosing between contradictory statements, he issued

5529-414: The greatest fate, But in this world a spell of health is the best state. What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war; Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates. Suleiman also became renowned for sponsoring a series of monumental architectural developments within his empire. The Sultan sought to turn Constantinople into the center of Islamic civilization by

5626-416: The helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major judicial changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with the empire's chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi , harmonized the relationship between the two forms of Ottoman law: sultanic ( Kanun ) and religious ( Sharia ). He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith; he also became

5723-464: The ire of the Ottomans, who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. The Ottomans invaded Malta in 1565, undertaking the Great Siege of Malta , which began on 18 May and lasted until 8 September, and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of Matteo Perez d'Aleccio in the Hall of St. Michael and St. George. At first, it seemed that this would be a repeat of the battle on Rhodes, with most of Malta's cities destroyed and half

5820-429: The main enemy after two episodes. First, Shah Tahmasp killed the Baghdad governor loyal to Suleiman, and put his own man in. Second, the governor of Bitlis had defected and sworn allegiance to the Safavids. As a result, in 1533, Suleiman ordered his Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha to lead an army into eastern Asia Minor where he retook Bitlis and occupied Tabriz without resistance. Suleiman joined Ibrahim in 1534. They made

5917-486: The mosque and overlooking the Golden Horn is the türbe of Sultan Selim I which was completed in 1523. The building is externally octagonal, and has a porch decorated with panels of tiles of unique design. A second octagonal türbe with a long inscription carved into the stonework of the exterior contains the tombs of three sons of Suleiman the Magnificent (Mahmud, Murad and Abdullah ) and two daughters of Selim I ( Hafize Hafsa and Hatice ). It dates from 1556, and

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6014-413: The nobleman John Zápolya , whom Suleiman supported. Under Charles V and his brother Ferdinand I, the Habsburgs reoccupied Buda and took possession of Hungary. Reacting in 1529, Suleiman marched through the valley of the Danube and regained control of Buda; in the following autumn, his forces laid siege to Vienna . This was to be the Ottoman Empire's most ambitious expedition and the apogee of its drive to

6111-416: The one only who does not distress me in this room ... My Istanbul, my karaman, the earth of my Anatolia My Badakhshan, my Baghdad and Khorasan My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted brow, my love of eyes full of misery ... I'll sing your praises always I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of tears, I am happy. Before his downfall, Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha

6208-435: The onset. The spring rains that are characteristic of south-eastern Europe and the Balkans were particularly heavy that year, causing flooding in Bulgaria and rendering parts of the route used by the army barely passable. Many large-calibre cannons and artillery pieces became hopelessly mired or bogged down, leaving Suleiman no choice but to abandon them, while camels brought from the empire's Eastern provinces, not used to

6305-401: The opportunity to avenge the defeat suffered at Vienna. In 1541, the Habsburgs attempted to lay siege to Buda but were repulsed, and more Habsburg fortresses were captured by the Ottomans in two consecutive campaigns in 1541 and 1544 as a result, Ferdinand and Charles were forced to conclude a humiliating five-year treaty with Suleiman. Ferdinand renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary and

6402-551: The region. Its capture was vital in removing the Hungarians and Croats who, following the defeats of the Albanians , Bosniaks , Bulgarians , Byzantines and the Serbs , remained the only formidable force who could block further Ottoman gains in Europe. Suleiman encircled Belgrade and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the Danube . Belgrade, with a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, fell in August 1521. The road to Hungary and Austria lay open, but Suleiman turned his attention instead to

6499-455: The reign of Suleiman's son Selim II . Suleiman also restored the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Walls of Jerusalem (which are the current walls of the Old City of Jerusalem ), renovated the Kaaba in Mecca , and constructed a complex in Damascus . Suleiman loved gardens and his shaykh grew a white tulip in one of the gardens. Some of the nobles in the court had seen the tulip and they also began growing their own. Soon images of

6596-465: The schools of the imperial Topkapı Palace in Constantinople . As a young man, he befriended Pargalı Ibrahim , a Greek slave who later became one of his most trusted advisers (but who was later executed on Suleiman's orders). At age seventeen, he was appointed as the governor of first Kaffa (Theodosia), then Manisa , with a brief tenure at Edirne . Upon the death of his father, Selim I (r. 1512–1520), Suleiman entered Constantinople and ascended to

6693-504: The siege and ordered a withdrawal to Constantinople. With unusually heavy snowfall, conditions deteriorated. The Ottoman retreat was hampered by muddy roads along which their horses and camels struggled to pass. Pursuing Austrian horsemen took many stragglers prisoner, although there was no Austrian counter-attack. The Ottomans reached Buda on 26 October, Belgrade on 10 November and their destination, Constantinople, on 16 December. Some historians speculate that Suleiman's final assault

6790-494: The siege. The Hofmeister of Austria , Wilhelm von Roggendorf , assumed charge of the defensive garrison, with operational command entrusted to a seventy-year-old German mercenary named Nicholas, Count of Salm , who had distinguished himself at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. Salm arrived in Vienna as head of the mercenary relief force and set about fortifying the three-hundred-year-old walls surrounding St. Stephen's Cathedral , near which he established his headquarters. To ensure

6887-432: The spring of 1529, Suleiman mustered a large army in Ottoman Bulgaria , with the aim of securing control over all of Hungary at his new borders by Ferdinand I and the Holy Roman Empire . Estimates of Suleiman's army vary widely from 120,000 to more than 300,000 men, as mentioned by various chroniclers. As well as numerous units of Sipahi , the elite mounted force of the Ottoman cavalry , and thousands of janissaries ,

6984-455: The sultan's order. His other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleiman's orders, along with Bayezid's four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars typically regarded the period after his death to be one of crisis and adaptation rather than simple decline , the end of Suleiman's reign was a watershed in Ottoman history. In the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes,

7081-469: The term Kanunî (the Lawgiver) first came to be used as an epithet for Suleiman. It is entirely absent from sixteenth and seventeenth-century Ottoman sources and may date from the early 18th century. There is a tradition of western origin, according to which Suleiman the Magnificent was "Suleiman II", but that tradition has been based on an erroneous assumption that Süleyman Çelebi was to be recognised as

7178-518: The territories of the German king Ferdinand, as well as 150 galleys against Charles, while France promised to attack Flanders , harass the coasts of Spain with a naval force, and send 40 galleys to assist the Turks for operations in the Levant. In August 1551, Ottoman naval commander Turgut Reis attacked and captured Tripoli , which had been a possession of the Knights of Malta since 1530. In 1553, Turgut Reis

7275-450: The throne as the tenth Ottoman Sultan. An early description of Suleiman, a few weeks following his accession, was provided by the Venetian envoy Bartolomeo Contarini : The sultan is only twenty-five years [actually 26] old, tall and slender but tough, with a thin and bony face. Facial hair is evident, but only barely. The sultan appears friendly and in good humor. Rumor has it that Suleiman

7372-496: The throne in 1703. Ahmet III’s gardens in Istanbul were adorned with tulips from Turkey’s mountains and the finest bulbs imported from Dutch commercial growers. Throughout his reign, he imported millions of Dutch tulip bulbs, reflecting the enduring legacy of Suleiman’s influence and the extravagant height of tulip culture during this period. Suleiman had two known consorts: Suleiman I had at least eight sons: Süleyman had two daughters: Suleiman fell in love with Hurrem Sultan ,

7469-423: The throne. Under his pen name, Muhibbi, Sultan Suleiman composed this poem for Hurrem Sultan: Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my moonlight. My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan, my one and only love. The most beautiful among the beautiful ... My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my sweetheart, laughing leaf ... My plants, my sweet, my rose,

7566-655: The throne. Ibrahim eventually fell from grace with the Sultan and his wife. Suleiman consulted his Qadi , who suggested that Ibrahim be put to death. The Sultan recruited assassins and ordered them to strangle Ibrahim in his sleep. Siege of Vienna (1529) [REDACTED] Holy Roman Empire [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Vassal states : ≈ 120,000–125,000 Unknown, with presumably high civilian fatalities Mediterranean Ottoman–Habsburg War (1540–1547) Ottoman–Habsburg War (1551–1562) Habsburg–Transylvanian War (1556–1567) Ottoman–Habsburg War (1565–1568) The siege of Vienna , in 1529,

7663-414: The time, Ibrahim was only about thirty years old and lacked any actual military expertise; it is said that 'tongues wagged' at this unprecedented promotion straight from palace service to the two highest offices of the empire. During his thirteen years as Grand Vizier, his rapid rise to power and vast accumulation of wealth had made Ibrahim many enemies at the Sultan's court. Suleiman's suspicion of Ibrahim

7760-518: The trade routes to the Portuguese and maintained a significant level of trade with the Mughal Empire throughout the 16th century. From 1526 until 1543, Suleiman stationed over 900 Turkish soldiers to fight alongside the Somali Adal Sultanate led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi during the Conquest of Abyssinia . After the first Ajuran-Portuguese war , the Ottoman Empire would in 1559 absorb

7857-482: The tribulations of the long march through the worst of the wet season. Of those fit to fight, a third were Sipahis , ill-suited for siege warfare. Three richly dressed Austrian prisoners were dispatched as emissaries by the Sultan to negotiate the city's surrender; Salm sent three richly dressed Muslims back without a response. As the Ottoman army settled into position, the Austrian garrison launched sorties to disrupt

7954-511: The tulip were woven into rugs and fired into ceramics. Suleiman is credited with large-scale cultivation of the tulip and it is thought that the tulips spread throughout Europe because of Suleiman. It is thought that diplomats who visited him were gifted the flowers while visiting his court. Suleiman’s passion for tulips set a precedent for their cultivation and cultural significance in the Ottoman Empire. This fascination continued to flourish, reaching its zenith under Sultan Ahmet III, who ascended

8051-567: The vacant Hungarian throne. Ferdinand won recognition only in western Hungary; a noble called John Zápolya , from a power-base in Transylvania , challenged him for the crown and was recognised as king by Suleiman in return for accepting vassal status within the Ottoman Empire. Thus Hungary became divided into three zones: Royal Hungary , Ottoman Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania , an arrangement which persisted until 1700. Following

8148-623: The weakened Adal Sultanate into its domain. This expansion furthered Ottoman rule in Somalia and the Horn of Africa . This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with the Portuguese Empire with its close ally, the Ajuran Empire . In 1564, Suleiman received an embassy from Aceh (a sultanate on Sumatra , in modern Indonesia ), requesting Ottoman support against the Portuguese. As

8245-469: The well-known Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story . When his young son Mehmed died in 1543, he composed a moving chronogram to commemorate the year: Peerless among princes, my Sultan Mehmed . In Turkish the chronogram reads شهزاده‌لر گزیده‌سی سلطان محمدم ( Şehzadeler güzidesi Sultan Muhammed'üm ), in which the Arabic Abjad numerals total 955, the equivalent in

8342-538: The western coast of the Mughal Empire. Sailing on, the Ottomans failed against the Portuguese at the siege of Diu in September 1538, but then returned to Aden, where they fortified the city with 100 pieces of artillery. From this base, Sulayman Pasha managed to take control of the whole country of Yemen, also taking Sana'a . With its strong control of the Red Sea , Suleiman successfully managed to dispute control of

8439-487: Was an inseparable friend and possible lover of Suleiman. In fact, he is referred to by his chroniclers as "the favourite" (Maḳbūl) along with "the executed" (Maḳtūl). Historians state that Suleiman I is remembered for "his passion for two of his slaves: for his beloved Ibrahim when the sultan was a hot-blooded youth, and for his beloved Hurrem when he was mature." Ibrahim was originally a Christian from Parga (in Epirus ), who

8536-530: Was campaigning in Hungary, Turkmen tribes in central Anatolia (in Cilicia ) revolted under the leadership of Kalender Çelebi . Some Hungarian nobles proposed that Ferdinand , who was the ruler of neighboring Austria and tied to Louis II's family by marriage, be King of Hungary, citing previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs. However, other nobles turned to

8633-483: Was captured in a raid during the 1499–1503 Ottoman–Venetian War , and was given as a slave to Suleiman most likely in 1514. Ibrahim converted to Islam and Suleiman made him the royal falconer , then promoted him to first officer of the Royal Bedchamber. It was reported that they slept together in the same bed. The sultan also built Ibrahim a lavish palace on the ancient Hippodrome , Istanbul's main forum outside

8730-464: Was forced to pay a fixed yearly sum to the Sultan for the Hungarian lands he continued to control. Of more symbolic importance, the treaty referred to Charles V not as "Emperor" but as the "King of Spain", leading Suleiman to identify as the true "Caesar". In 1552, Suleiman's forces laid siege to Eger , located in the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, but the defenders led by István Dobó repelled

8827-452: Was hobbled by overstretched supply lines. In 1533 the Treaty of Constantinople was signed by Ferdinand I , in which he acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty and recognised Suleiman as his "father and suzerain", he also agreed to pay an annual tribute and accepted the Ottoman grand vizier as his brother and equal in rank. By the 1540s, a renewal of the conflict in Hungary presented Suleiman with

8924-538: Was nominated commander of Tripoli by Suleiman, making the city an important center for piratical raids in the Mediterranean and the capital of the Ottoman province of Tripolitania . In 1560, a powerful naval force was sent to recapture Tripoli, but that force was defeated in the Battle of Djerba . Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the Knights of Malta in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew

9021-649: Was not necessarily intended to take the city but to cause as much damage as possible and weaken it for a later attack, a tactic he had employed at Buda in 1526. Suleiman would lead another campaign against Vienna in 1532, but it never truly materialised as his force was stalled by the Croatian Captain Nikola Jurišić during the siege of Güns (Kőszeg). Nikola Jurišić with only 700–800 Croatian soldiers managed to delay his force until winter closed in. Charles V, now largely aware of Vienna's vulnerability and weakened state, assembled 80,000 troops to confront

9118-578: Was the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire to capture the city of Vienna in the Archduchy of Austria , part of the Holy Roman Empire . Suleiman the Magnificent , sultan of the Ottomans, attacked the city with over 100,000 men, while the defenders, led by Niklas Graf Salm , numbered no more than 21,000. Nevertheless, Vienna was able to survive the siege, which ultimately lasted just over two weeks, from 27 September to 15 October, 1529. The siege came in

9215-443: Was to assert Ottoman control over all of Hungary, including the western part (known as Royal Hungary ) that was then still under Habsburg control. Some scholars suggest Suleiman intended to use Hungary as a staging ground for further invasion of Europe. The failure of the siege of Vienna marked the beginning of 150 years of bitter military tension between the Habsburgs and Ottomans, punctuated by reciprocal attacks, and culminating in

9312-592: Was to last more than three hundred years. The Sultan also played a role in protecting the Jewish subjects of his empire for centuries to come. In late 1553 or 1554, on the suggestion of his favorite doctor and dentist, the Spanish Jew Moses Hamon , the Sultan issued a firman ( فرمان ) formally denouncing blood libels against the Jews. Furthermore, Suleiman enacted new criminal and police legislation, prescribing

9409-399: Was worsened by a quarrel between the latter and the finance secretary ( defterdar ) İskender Çelebi . The dispute ended in the disgrace of Çelebi on charges of intrigue, with Ibrahim convincing Suleiman to sentence the defterdar to death. Ibrahim also supported Şehzade Mustafa as the successor of Suleiman. This caused disputes between him and Hurrem Sultan, who wanted her sons to succeed to

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