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85-471: Vomiting (also known as emesis , puking and throwing up ) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose . Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning , gastroenteritis , pregnancy , motion sickness , or hangover; or it can be an after effect of diseases such as brain tumors , elevated intracranial pressure , or overexposure to ionizing radiation . The feeling that one

170-401: A lamina propria , and a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa . Beneath the mucosa lies the submucosa , consisting of fibrous connective tissue . Meissner's plexus is in this layer interior to the oblique muscle layer. Outside of the submucosa lies the muscular layer. It consists of three layers of muscular fibres, with fibres lying at angles to each other. These are

255-531: A few minutes is termed a bout; a bout of over 48 hours is termed persistent or protracted. Hiccups lasting longer than a month are termed intractable. In many cases, only a single hemidiaphragm, usually the left one, is affected, although both may be involved. Hiccups are normally waited out, as fits will usually pass quickly. Folk cures for hiccups are common and varied. Hiccups are treated medically only in severe and persistent (termed "intractable") cases. Numerous medical remedies exist but no particular treatment

340-449: A form of mass hysteria . Most people try to contain their vomit by vomiting into a sink, toilet, or trash can, as vomit is difficult and unpleasant to clean. On airplanes and boats, special bags are supplied for sick passengers to vomit into. A special disposable bag (leakproof, puncture-resistant, odorless) containing absorbent material that solidifies the vomit quickly is also available, making it convenient and safe to store until there

425-412: A glass of water upside-down, being frightened by someone, breathing into a bag, eating a large spoonful of peanut butter and placing sugar on or under the tongue. Acupressure , either through actual function or placebo effect , may cure hiccups in some people. For example, one technique is to relax the chest and shoulders and find the deepest points of the indentations directly below the protrusions of

510-410: A high triglyceride content remain in the stomach the longest. Since enzymes in the small intestine digest fats slowly, food can stay in the stomach for 6 hours or longer when the duodenum is processing fatty chyme. However, this is still a fraction of the 24 to 72 hours that full digestion typically takes from start to finish. Although the absorption in the human digestive system is mainly a function of

595-606: A possible shared physiology and evolutionary heritage. These proposals may explain why premature infants spend 2.5% of their time hiccuping, possibly gulping like amphibians , as their lungs are not yet fully formed. The phylogenetic hypothesis may explain hiccups as an evolutionary remnant, held over from our amphibious ancestors. Episodes of hiccups usually last under 30 minutes. Prolonged attacks, while rare, can be serious. Root causes of prolonged hiccups episodes are difficult to diagnose. Such attacks can cause significant morbidity and even death. An episode lasting more than

680-430: A process called gastric emptying , rhythmic mixing waves force about 3 mL of chyme at a time through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum. Release of a greater amount of chyme at one time would overwhelm the capacity of the small intestine to handle it. The rest of the chyme is pushed back into the body of the stomach, where it continues mixing. This process is repeated when the next mixing waves force more chyme into

765-408: A quarter of a second later by closure of the vocal cords, which results in the "hic" sound. Hiccups may occur individually, or they may occur in bouts. The rhythm of the hiccup, or the time between hiccups, tends to be relatively constant. A bout of hiccups generally resolves itself without intervention, although many home remedies are often used to attempt to shorten the duration. Medical treatment

850-489: A rather simple motor reflex akin to mammalian hiccuping. The motor pathways that enable hiccuping form early during fetal development, before the motor pathways that enable normal lung ventilation form. Thus, the hiccup is evolutionarily antecedent to modern lung respiration . Additionally, this group (C. Straus et al.) points out that hiccups and amphibian gulping are inhibited by elevated CO 2 and may be stopped by GABA B receptor agonists , illustrating

935-527: A single or a series of breathing diaphragm spasms , of variable spacing and duration, and a brief (less than one half second), unexpected, shoulder , abdomen , throat , or full body tremor . Hiccups may be triggered by a number of common human conditions. In rare cases, they can be a sign of serious medical problems such as myocardial infarction . A leading hypothesis is that hiccups evolved to facilitate greater milk consumption in young mammals. The coordination of breathing and swallowing during suckling

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1020-431: A suckling infant may increase its capacity for milk by more than 15–25%, bringing a significant survival advantage. There is a strong tendency for infants to get hiccups, and although the reflex persists throughout life it decreases in frequency with age. The location of the sensory nerves that trigger the reflex suggests it is a response to a condition in the stomach. The component of the reflex that suppresses peristalsis in

1105-439: Is a complicated process. Some air inevitably enters the stomach, occupying space that could otherwise be optimally used for calorie-rich milk. The hypothesis suggests that the presence of an air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory (afferent) limb of the reflex through receptors in the stomach, esophagus and along the underside of the diaphragm. This triggers the active part of the hiccup (efferent limb), sharply contracting

1190-442: Is a narrow tubular region, the proventriculus , lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the crop . Beyond lies the powerful muscular gizzard , lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food. In insects , there is also a crop. The insect stomach is called the midgut . Information about the stomach in echinoderms or molluscs can be found under

1275-404: Is a precursor to pepsin- the highly acidic environment converts the pepsinogen to pepsin), and neuroendocrine cells that secrete serotonin . Glands differ where the stomach meets the esophagus and near the pylorus. Near the gastroesophageal junction lie cardiac glands , which primarily secrete mucus. They are fewer in number than the other gastric glands and are more shallowly positioned in

1360-519: Is a term that is also used to describe the removal of the heart . A gastrectomy may be carried out because of gastric cancer or severe perforation of the stomach wall. Fundoplication is stomach surgery in which the fundus is wrapped around the lower esophagus and stitched into place. It is used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) . The word stomach is derived from Greek stomachos ( στόμαχος ), ultimately from stoma ( στόμα ) 'mouth'. Gastro- and gastric (meaning 'related to

1445-410: Is about to vomit is called nausea ; it often precedes, but does not always lead to vomiting. Impairment due to alcohol or anesthesia can cause inhalation of vomit. In severe cases, where dehydration develops, intravenous fluid may be required. Antiemetics are sometimes necessary to suppress nausea and vomiting. Self-induced vomiting can be a component of an eating disorder such as bulimia , and

1530-542: Is an acidic fluid containing hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes. The glands contains a number of cells, with the function of the glands changing depending on their position within the stomach. Within the body and fundus of the stomach lie the fundic glands . In general, these glands are lined by column-shaped cells that secrete a protective layer of mucus and bicarbonate . Additional cells present include parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor , chief cells that secrete pepsinogen (this

1615-447: Is an indirect result of the kidney compensating for the loss of acid. With the loss of intake of food the individual may eventually become cachectic . A less frequent occurrence results from a vomiting of intestinal contents, including bile acids and HCO 3 . Repeated or profuse vomiting may cause erosions to the esophagus or small tears in the esophageal mucosa ( Mallory–Weiss tear ). This may become apparent if fresh red blood

1700-509: Is an opportunity to dispose of it conveniently. People who vomit chronically (e.g., as part of an eating disorder such as bulimia nervosa ) may devise various ways to hide this disorder. An online study of people's responses to "horrible sounds" found vomiting "the most disgusting". Professor Trevor Cox of the University of Salford 's Acoustic Research Centre said, "We are pre-programmed to be repulsed by horrible things such as vomiting, as it

1785-525: Is from the celiac trunk , and venous drainage is by the portal venous system . Lymph from these organs is drained to the prevertebral celiac nodes at the origin of the celiac artery from the aorta . In the human digestive system , a bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the esophagus via the lower esophageal sphincter . The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin ), and hydrochloric acid , which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides

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1870-412: Is fundamental to staying alive to avoid nasty stuff." It is thought that disgust is triggered by the sound of vomiting to protect those nearby from possibly diseased food. Emetophilia is sexual arousal from vomiting, or watching others vomit. Emetophobia is a phobia that causes overwhelming, intense anxiety pertaining to vomiting. Stomach The stomach is located between the esophagus and

1955-447: Is in response to food products in the liver and gall bladder, which have not yet been absorbed. The stomach needs to push food into the small intestine only when the intestine is not busy. While the intestine is full and still digesting food, the stomach acts as storage for food. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival. EGF is a low-molecular-weight polypeptide first purified from

2040-414: Is in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity . The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm . Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas . A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained; the lower esophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region), at

2125-527: Is itself now classified as an eating disorder on its own, purging disorder . Vomiting is dangerous if gastric content enters the respiratory tract . Under normal circumstances the gag reflex and coughing prevent this from occurring; however, these protective reflexes are compromised in persons who are under the influence of certain substances (including alcohol ) or even mildly anesthetized . The individual may choke and asphyxiate or develop aspiration pneumonia . Prolonged and excessive vomiting depletes

2210-615: Is known to be especially effective, generally because of a lack of high-quality evidence. A vagus nerve stimulator has been used with an intractable case of hiccups. "It sends rhythmic bursts of electricity to the brain by way of the vagus nerve , which passes through the neck. The Food and Drug Administration approved the vagus nerve stimulator in 1997 as a way to control seizures in some patients with epilepsy ." In one person, persistent digital rectal massage coincided with terminating intractable hiccups. There are many folk remedies for hiccups, including headstanding , drinking

2295-409: Is mixed with vomit after several episodes. Recurrent vomiting, such as observed in bulimia nervosa , may lead to the destruction of the tooth enamel due to the acidity of the vomit. Digestive enzymes can also have a negative effect on oral health, by degrading the tissue of the gums . Receptors on the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain represent a chemoreceptor trigger zone , known as

2380-503: Is occasionally necessary in cases of chronic hiccups. Hiccups affect people of all ages, even being observed in utero . They become less frequent with advancing age. Intractable hiccups, lasting more than a month, are more common in adults. While males and females are affected equally often, men are more likely to develop protracted and intractable hiccups. Along with humans, hiccups have been studied and observed in cats , rats , rabbits , dogs , and horses . A hiccup consists of

2465-434: Is passed to the lateral hypothalamus and limbic system in the brain as a palatability signal through the vagus nerve . The stomach can also sense, independently of tongue and oral taste receptors, glucose , carbohydrates , proteins , and fats . This allows the brain to link nutritional value of foods to their tastes. This syndrome defines the association between thyroid disease and chronic gastritis, which

2550-407: Is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. The greater curvature is supplied by the right gastroepiploic artery inferiorly and the left gastroepiploic artery superiorly. The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, is supplied by the short gastric arteries , which arise from

2635-467: Is used medically when a substance has been ingested and must be expelled from the body immediately. For this reason, many toxic and easily digestible products such as rat poison contain an emetic. This presents no problem for the effectiveness of the rodenticide as rodents are unable to vomit. Inducing vomiting can remove the substance before it is absorbed into the body. Emetics can be divided into two categories, those which produce their effect by acting on

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2720-468: The Greeks , notes that to vomit in the presence of others is prohibited among Persians. It is quite common that, when one person vomits, others nearby become nauseated, particularly when smelling the vomit of others, and often to the point of vomiting themselves. It is believed that this is an evolved trait among primates . Many primates in the wild tend to browse for food in small groups. Should one member of

2805-569: The area postrema , stimulation of which can lead to vomiting. The area postrema is a circumventricular organ and as such lies outside the blood–brain barrier ; it can therefore be stimulated by blood-borne drugs that can stimulate vomiting or inhibit it . There are various sources of input to the vomiting center: The vomiting act encompasses three types of outputs initiated by the chemoreceptor trigger zone: Motor, parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and sympathetic nervous system (SNS). They are as follows: The vomiting act has two phases. In

2890-418: The iron in the blood is oxidized ) and, when this matter is identified, the term coffee-ground vomiting is used. Bile can enter the vomit during subsequent heaves due to duodenal contraction if the vomiting is severe. Fecal vomiting is often a consequence of intestinal obstruction or a gastrocolic fistula and is treated as a warning sign of this potentially serious problem ( signum mali ominis ). If

2975-414: The nervous system . Chyme from the stomach is slowly released into the duodenum through coordinated peristalsis and opening of the pyloric sphincter. The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive hormones of the digestive system: Other than gastrin, these hormones all act to turn off the stomach action. This

3060-400: The retching phase , the abdominal muscles undergo a few rounds of coordinated contractions together with the diaphragm and the muscles used in respiratory inspiration. For this reason, an individual may confuse this phase with an episode of violent hiccups . In this retching phase, nothing has yet been expelled. In the next phase, also termed the expulsive phase , intense pressure is formed in

3145-416: The small intestine . The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food ( chyme ) from the stomach into the duodenum , the first and shortest part of the small intestine, where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines. In the human digestive system , the stomach lies between the esophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine ). It

3230-484: The tail of the pancreas , splenic artery , left kidney , left suprarenal gland , transverse colon and its mesocolon , and the left crus of diaphragm , and the left colic flexure . The term was introduced around 1896 by Philip Polson of the Catholic University School of Medicine, Dublin. However this was brought into disrepute by surgeon anatomist J Massey. The lesser curvature of the human stomach

3315-409: The acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through peristaltic muscular contractions of the wall – reducing the volume of the bolus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine , where

3400-402: The back of the throat, particularly forceful vomiting, or producing large quantities of vomit may result in material being ejected through the nostrils in addition to the mouth. Individuals who do not regularly exercise their abdominal muscles may experience pain in those muscles for a few days. The decrease in pressure and the release of endorphins into the bloodstream after the expulsion causes

3485-445: The basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. The sac is surrounded by a network of vitelline arteries and veins . Over time, these arteries consolidate into the three main arteries that supply the developing gastrointestinal tract: the celiac artery , superior mesenteric artery , and inferior mesenteric artery . The areas supplied by these arteries are used to define the foregut , midgut , and hindgut . The surrounded sac becomes

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3570-417: The body of water ( dehydration ), and may alter the electrolyte status. Gastric vomiting leads to the loss of acid (protons) and chloride directly. Combined with the resulting alkaline tide , this leads to hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (low chloride levels together with high HCO 3 and CO 2 and increased blood pH ) and often hypokalemia ( potassium depletion). The hypokalemia

3655-400: The cardia followed by the fundus, the body and the pylorus. The cardia is defined as the region following the "z-line" of the gastroesophageal junction , the point at which the epithelium changes from stratified squamous to columnar . Near the cardia is the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach bed refers to the structures upon which the stomach rests in mammals. These include

3740-615: The collarbones. The index or middle fingers are inserted into the indents and pressed firmly for sixty seconds as long, deep breaths are taken. A simple treatment involves increasing the partial pressure of CO 2 and inhibiting diaphragm activity by holding one's breath or rebreathing into a paper bag . Other potential remedies suggested by NHS Choices include pulling the knees up to the chest and leaning forward, sipping ice-cold water and swallowing some granulated sugar. A breathing exercise called Supra-supramaximal inspiration (SSMI) has been shown to stop persistent hiccups. It combines

3825-457: The consistent emetic effects of ayahuasca—in addition to its many other therapeutic properties—was of medicinal benefit to indigenous peoples of the Amazon , in helping to clear parasites from the gastrointestinal system. There have also been documented cases of a single ill and vomiting individual inadvertently causing others to vomit, when they are especially fearful of also becoming ill, through

3910-439: The digesting and readsorbing ability, and lastly, similar ability to form iodotyrosines by peroxidase activity, where iodide acts as an electron donor in the presence of H 2 O 2 . In the following years, many researchers published reviews about this syndrome. A series of radiographs can be used to examine the stomach for various disorders. This will often include the use of a barium swallow . Another method of examination of

3995-464: The dorsal mesentery thins and forms the greater omentum , which is attached to the greater curvature of the stomach. The ventral mesentery forms the lesser omentum, and is attached to the developing liver . In the adult, these connective structures of omentum and mesentery form the peritoneum , and act as an insulating and protective layer while also supplying organs with blood and lymph vessels as well as nerves. Arterial supply to all these structures

4080-411: The duodenum. Gastric emptying is regulated by both the stomach and the duodenum. The presence of chyme in the duodenum activates receptors that inhibit gastric secretion. This prevents additional chyme from being released by the stomach before the duodenum is ready to process it. The fundus stores both undigested food and gases that are released during the process of chemical digestion. Food may sit in

4165-497: The esophagus opening directly into the intestine. These animals all consume diets that require little storage of food, no predigestion with gastric juices, or both. The gastric lining is usually divided into two regions, an anterior portion lined by fundic glands and a posterior portion lined with pyloric glands. Cardiac glands are unique to mammals , and even then are absent in a number of species. The distributions of these glands vary between species, and do not always correspond with

4250-473: The esophagus while the airway is being actively blocked suggests the esophagus is involved. Additionally, hiccups are only described in mammals, the group of animals that share the trait of suckling their young. An international respiratory research group composed of members from Canada, France, and Japan proposed that the hiccup is an evolutionary remnant of earlier amphibian respiration . Amphibians such as tadpoles gulp air and water across their gills via

4335-429: The extraction of nutrients begins. Gastric juice in the stomach also contains pepsinogen . Hydrochloric acid activates this inactive form of enzyme into the active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides . Within a few moments after food enters the stomach, mixing waves begin to occur at intervals of approximately 20 seconds. A mixing wave is a unique type of peristalsis that mixes and softens

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4420-418: The food with gastric juices to create chyme. The initial mixing waves are relatively gentle, but these are followed by more intense waves, starting at the body of the stomach and increasing in force as they reach the pylorus. The pylorus, which holds around 30 mL of chyme, acts as a filter, permitting only liquids and small food particles to pass through the mostly, but not fully, closed pyloric sphincter . In

4505-501: The fundus of the stomach for a while before being mixed with the chyme. While the food is in the fundus, the digestive activities of salivary amylase continue until the food begins mixing with the acidic chyme. Ultimately, mixing waves incorporate this food with the chyme, the acidity of which inactivates salivary amylase and activates lingual lipase . Lingual lipase then begins breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids, and mono- and diglycerides. The breakdown of protein begins in

4590-534: The hiccups should be gone. Drinking through a straw with the ears plugged is a folk remedy that can be successful. In 2021 a scientific tool with a similar basis was tested on 249 hiccups subjects; the results were published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). This device is named FISST (Forced Inspiratory Suction and Swallow Tool) and branded as " HiccAway ". This study supports

4675-406: The inner oblique, middle circular, and outer longitudinal layers. The presence of the inner oblique layer is distinct from other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, which do not possess this layer. The stomach contains the thickest muscular layer consisting of three layers, thus maximum peristalsis occurs here. The outer longitudinal layer is responsible for moving the semi-digested food towards

4760-424: The intestines. In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be placed around the cardia area, which can adjust to limit intake. The anatomy of the stomach may be modified , or the stomach may be bypassed entirely . Surgical removal of the stomach is called a gastrectomy , and removal of the cardia area is a called a cardiectomy . "Cardiectomy"

4845-400: The junction of the esophagus and stomach, and the pyloric sphincter at the junction of the stomach with the duodenum. The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (inhibitor) and sympathetic (stimulant) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior , superior and inferior , celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of

4930-738: The mouse submandibular gland, but since then found in many human tissues including the submandibular gland , and the parotid gland . Salivary EGF, which also seems to be regulated by dietary inorganic iodine , also plays an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-esophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis, and mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and from physical, chemical, and bacterial agents. The human stomach has receptors responsive to sodium glutamate and this information

5015-414: The mucosa. There are two kinds - either simple tubular glands with short ducts or compound racemose resembling the duodenal Brunner's glands . Near the pylorus lie pyloric glands located in the antrum of the pylorus. They secrete mucus, as well as gastrin produced by their G cells . About 20,000 protein-coding genes are expressed in human cells and nearly 70% of these genes are expressed in

5100-416: The mucosa; pepsinogen and gastric lipase , expressed in gastric chief cells ; and a gastric ATPase and gastric intrinsic factor , expressed in parietal cells . In the early part of the development of the human embryo , the ventral part of the embryo abuts the yolk sac . During the third week of development, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround parts of the yolk sac. The enveloped portions form

5185-422: The muscles of breathing and relaxing the muscles of the esophagus, then closing the vocal cords to prevent air from entering the lungs. This creates suction in the chest, pulling air from the stomach up into the esophagus. As the respiratory muscles relax the air is expelled through the mouth, effectively "burping" the animal. There are a number of characteristics of hiccups that support this theory. The burping of

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5270-411: The normal stomach. Just over 150 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the stomach compared to other organs, with only some 20 genes being highly specific. The corresponding specific proteins expressed in stomach are mainly involved in creating a suitable environment for handling the digestion of food for uptake of nutrients. Highly stomach-specific proteins include gastrokine-1 expressed in

5355-401: The party react adversely to some ingested food, it may be advantageous (in a survival sense) for other members of the party to also vomit. This tendency in human populations has been observed at drinking parties, where excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages may cause a number of party members to vomit nearly simultaneously, this being triggered by the initial vomiting of a single member of

5440-449: The party. This phenomenon has been touched on in popular culture: notorious instances appear in the films Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (1983) and Stand by Me (1986). Intense vomiting in ayahuasca ceremonies is a common phenomenon. However, people who experience "la purga" after drinking ayahuasca, in general, regard the practise as both a physical and spiritual cleanse and often come to welcome it. It has been suggested that

5525-433: The primitive gut. Sections of this gut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, and the esophagus, and stomach form from the foregut. As the stomach rotates during early development, the dorsal and ventral mesentery rotate with it; this rotation produces a space anterior to the expanding stomach called the greater sac, and a space posterior to the stomach called the lesser sac. After this rotation

5610-504: The pylorus of the stomach through muscular shortening. To the outside of the muscular layer lies a serosa , consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum . Smooth mucosa along the inside of the lesser curvature forms a passageway - the gastric canal that fast-tracks liquids entering the stomach, to the pylorus. The mucosa lining the stomach is lined with gastric pits , which receive gastric juice , secreted by between 2 and 7 gastric glands . Gastric juice

5695-408: The respective articles. Hiccups A hiccup (scientific name singultus , from Latin for "sob, hiccup"; also spelled hiccough ) is an involuntary contraction ( myoclonic jerk) of the diaphragm that may repeat several times per minute. The hiccup is an involuntary action involving a reflex arc . Once triggered, the reflex causes a strong contraction of the diaphragm followed about

5780-409: The same regions as in humans. Furthermore, in many non-human mammals, a portion of the stomach anterior to the cardiac glands is lined with epithelium essentially identical to that of the esophagus. Ruminants , in particular, have a complex stomach, the first three chambers of which are all lined with esophageal mucosa. In birds and crocodilians , the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly

5865-449: The small intestine, some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its lining. This includes: The parietal cells of the human stomach are responsible for producing intrinsic factor , which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 . B12 is used in cellular metabolism and is necessary for the production of red blood cells , and the functioning of

5950-442: The splenic artery. The two sets of gastric lymph nodes drain the stomach. Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal wall , the human stomach wall from inner to outer, consists of a mucosa , submucosa , muscular layer , subserosa and serosa . The inner part of the stomach wall is the gastric mucosa a mucous membrane that forms the lining of the stomach. the membrane consists of an outer layer of columnar epithelium ,

6035-449: The stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles. The stomach is distensible , and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food. In a newborn human baby the stomach will only be able to hold about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is between 2 and 4 litres, although volumes of up to 15 litres have been observed in extreme circumstances. The human stomach can be divided into four sections, beginning at

6120-484: The stomach and the parts of the brain that coordinate vomiting): Pregnancy : Drug reaction (vomiting may occur as an acute somatic response to): High altitude : Illness (sometimes colloquially known as " stomach flu "—a broad name that refers to gastric inflammation caused by a range of viruses and bacteria): Psychiatric/behavioral: An emetic , such as syrup of ipecac , is a substance that induces vomiting when administered orally or by injection. An emetic

6205-430: The stomach brought about by enormous shifts in both the diaphragm and the abdomen. These shifts are, in essence, vigorous contractions of these muscles that last for extended periods of time—much longer than a normal period of muscular contraction. The pressure is then suddenly released when the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes resulting in the expulsion of gastric contents. As the mouth and nasal cavity are connected via

6290-432: The stomach through the actions of hydrochloric acid, and the enzyme pepsin . The stomach can also produce gastric lipase , which can help digesting fat. The contents of the stomach are completely emptied into the duodenum within two to four hours after the meal is eaten. Different types of food take different amounts of time to process. Foods heavy in carbohydrates empty fastest, followed by high-protein foods. Meals with

6375-484: The stomach') are both derived from Greek gaster ( γαστήρ ) 'belly'. Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the esophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys , hagfishes , chimaeras , lungfishes , and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with

6460-414: The stomach, is the use of an endoscope . A gastric emptying study is considered the gold standard to assess the gastric emptying rate. A large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers , and gastritis , in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer . A stomach rumble is actually noise from

6545-445: The three principles of hypercapnia , diaphragm immobilization, and positive airway pressure . First, the subject must exhale completely, then take a deep breath. Then, they must hold their breath for ten seconds. After ten seconds, they must take another small breath without exhaling, then hold their breath for five seconds. Again, without exhaling, they must take another small breath and hold their breath for five seconds. Upon exhaling,

6630-490: The thyroid cells, such as primitive gastroenteric cells, migrated and specialized in uptake of iodide and in storage and elaboration of iodine compounds during vertebrate evolution. In fact, the stomach and thyroid share iodine-concentrating ability and many morphological and functional similarities, such as cell polarity and apical microvilli, similar organ-specific antigens and associated autoimmune diseases, secretion of glycoproteins (thyroglobulin and mucin) and peptide hormones,

6715-458: The use of antiemetics for nausea and vomiting among adults in the emergency department is poor. It is unclear if any medication is better than another or better than no active treatment. Nausea and/or vomiting are the main complaints in 1.6% of visits to family physicians in Australia. Herodotus , writing on the culture of the ancient Persians and highlighting the differences with those of

6800-436: The use of FISST as an option to stop transient hiccups, with more than 90% of participants reporting better results than home remedies. HiccAway stops hiccups by forceful suction that is being generated by diaphragm contraction (phrenic nerve activity), followed by swallowing the water, which requires epiglottis closure. The word hiccup itself was created through imitation . The alternative spelling of hiccough results from

6885-424: The vomiter to feel relief almost immediately after vomiting. Gastric secretions and likewise vomit are highly acidic . Recent food intake appears in the gastric vomit. Irrespective of the content, vomit tends to be malodorous . The content of the vomitus (vomit) may be of medical interest. Fresh blood in the vomit is termed hematemesis ("blood vomiting"). Altered blood bears resemblance to coffee grounds (as

6970-494: The vomiting center in the medulla, and those which act directly on the stomach itself. Some emetics, such as ipecac, fall into both categories; they initially act directly on the stomach, while their further and more vigorous effect occurs by stimulation of the medullary center. Salt water and mustard water, which act directly on the stomach, have been used since ancient times as emetics. Care must be taken with salt, as excessive intake can potentially be harmful . Copper sulfate

7055-444: The vomiting reflex continues for an extended period with no appreciable vomitus, the condition is known as non-productive emesis or "dry heaves", which can be painful and debilitating. Vomiting may be due to a large number of causes, and protracted vomiting has a long differential diagnosis . Causes in the digestive tract Causes in the sensory system : Causes in the brain : Metabolic disturbances (these may irritate both

7140-589: Was also used in the past as an emetic. It is now considered too toxic for this use. Hydrogen peroxide is used as an emetic in veterinary practice. An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea . Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of medications such as opioids and chemotherapy . Antiemetics act by inhibiting the receptor sites associated with emesis. Hence, anticholinergics, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists, and cannabinoids are used as antiemetics. Evidence to support

7225-420: Was first described in the 1960s. This term was coined also to indicate the presence of thyroid autoantibodies or autoimmune thyroid disease in patients with pernicious anemia, a late clinical stage of atrophic gastritis. In 1993, a more complete investigation on the stomach and thyroid was published, reporting that the thyroid is, embryogenetically and phylogenetically, derived from a primitive stomach, and that

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