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86-448: A 1339 VS ( c.  1282 CE ) Yajvapala inscription, issued during the reign of Gopala, names the dynasty's progenitor as Jayapala (called Jajapella in vernacular language). It names the dynasty's place of origin as Ratnagiri (unidentified), and attributes the rise of Jayapala to the blessings of the goddess Maharunda (probably a family deity ). The next known member of the family is Ya[pa]ramadi-raja, whose son Chahadadeva conquered

172-532: A 19-year cycle) to ensure that festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season. Early Buddhist communities in India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar , followed by the Vikram Samvat and local Buddhist calendars . Buddhist festivals are still scheduled according to a lunar system. The Vikram Samvat has two systems. It began in 56 BCE in the southern Hindu calendar system ( amaanta ) and 57–56 BCE in

258-484: A Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual

344-567: A Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana . The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( punya ). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in

430-668: A battle was fought on the banks of the Valuva river (near modern Baruwa near Narwar) on 28 March 1281 CE (assuming Karttikadi year). The Narwar inscription states that Gopala defeated Viravarman and king Lakshmana of Chandragiri on the banks of the Sikata river. However, the Dahi copper-plate inscription of the Chandelas claims that the Chandela general Mallaya defeated the lord of Nalapura (that is, Gopala). It

516-424: A body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of

602-411: A duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined

688-464: A predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras , which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and

774-424: A sidereal year, correctional months ( adhika māsa ) are added or (occasionally) subtracted ( kshaya masa ). A lunar year consists of 12 months, and each month has two fortnights , with a variable duration ranging from 29 to 32 days. The lunar days are called tithis . Each month has 30 tithis , which vary in length from 20 to 27 hours. The waxing phase , beginning with the day after the new moon ( amavasya ) ,

860-523: A social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana ) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini , Sāmāyika

946-411: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa , tapasya or vrata , and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan , eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of

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1032-665: A universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there

1118-400: Is anekāntavāda , from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically " non -oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya , "partial expression of

1204-440: Is sallekhana , a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially

1290-1022: Is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying

1376-985: Is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when

1462-478: Is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata . The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for

1548-545: Is a restricted (optional) holiday in India. The calendar remains in use by people in Nepal serving as its national calendar where the first month is Baisakh and the last month is Chaitra. It is also symbolically used by Hindus of north, west and central India. Alongside Nepal Sambat , Bikram Sambat is one of two official calendars used in Nepal. In south India and portions of east and west India (such as Assam, West Bengal and Gujarat),

1634-421: Is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike

1720-565: Is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions

1806-513: Is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra , going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form

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1892-534: Is called devapuja , and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar , completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of

1978-439: Is called gaura or shukla paksha (the bright or auspicious fortnight). The waning phase is called krishna or vadhya paksha (the dark fortnight, considered inauspicious). The classical Vikram Samvat is generally 57 years ahead of Gregorian Calendar, except during January to April, when it is ahead by 56 years. The month that the new year starts varies by region or sub-culture. Upto 13 April 2025, it will be 2081 BS in

2064-426: Is considered as "faith in the tattvas ". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ( pramana ). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ( pratyaksa ), inference ( anumana ) and testimony ( sabda or

2150-545: Is dated in two eras. The theory was discredited by Falk and Bennett, who place the inception of the Azes era in 47–46 BCE. The Vikram Samvat has been used by Hindus , Sikhs , and Pashtuns . One of several regional Hindu calendars in use on the Indian subcontinent , it is based on twelve synodic lunar months and 365 solar days . The lunar year begins with the new moon of the month of Chaitra . This day, known as Chaitra Sukhladi,

2236-446: Is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Monks observe

2322-481: Is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic

2408-448: Is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote

2494-458: Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya ). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across

2580-691: Is possible that the Chandelas achieved some initial successes, but ultimately, they were forced to retreat. The last known ruler of the dynasty is Ganapatideva. It is known that the Yajvapalas ruled Narwar until 1298 CE, but the end of the dynasty is not certain. Historians generally assume that the Yajvapalas fell to an invasion by the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji . Following rulers of the dynasty are attested by inscriptions and coins: Vikrama Samvat Traditional Vikram Samvat ( ISO : Vikrama Saṁvata ; abbreviated VS), also known as

2666-429: Is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about

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2752-453: Is the concept of bhedvigyān , or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul , distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of birth and rebirth . Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization , which marks

2838-674: Is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta . The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha 's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it

2924-521: The Jinas . In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha , Neminatha and Rishabhanatha . Among the non- tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember

3010-611: The Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas , the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. The second main principle of Jainism

3096-703: The Indian national calendar is widely used. With the arrival of Islamic rule, the Hijri calendar became the official calendar of sultanates and the Mughal Empire . During British colonial rule of the Indian subcontinent, the Gregorian calendar was adopted and is commonly used in urban areas of India. The predominantly-Muslim countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh have used the Islamic calendar since 1947, but older texts included

3182-529: The Malava tribe " (424), or simply "Samvat". The earliest known inscription which calls the era "Vikrama" is from 842. This inscription, from the Chauhana ruler Chandamahasena, was found at Dholpur and is dated "Vikrama Samvat 898, Vaishakha Shukla 2, Chanda" (20 April 842). The earliest known inscription which associates the era with a king called Vikramaditya is dated 971, and the earliest literary work connecting

3268-453: The Nepal Sambat , a much more recent innovation. A number of ancient and medieval inscriptions used the Vikram Samvat. Although it was reportedly named after the legendary king Vikramaditya , the term "Vikrama Samvat" does not appear in the historical record before the 9th century; the same calendar system is found with other names, such as Krita and Malava. In colonial scholarship, the era

3354-622: The Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras . The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar . This typically falls in August or September of

3440-611: The Vikrami calendar is a national Hindu calendar historically used in the Indian subcontinent and still also used in several Indian states and Nepal . It is a solar calendar , using twelve to thirteen lunar months each solar sidereal years . The year count of the Vikram Samvat calendar is usually 57 years ahead of the Gregorian calendar , except during January to April, when it is ahead by 56 years. The Vikram Samvat calendar (also called Bikram Sambat in Nepali) should not be confused with

3526-414: The ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas : the sentient ( jiva or living),

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3612-458: The nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra , is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from

3698-523: The 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada , Europe , and the United States . Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana , Ashtanika , Mahavir Janma Kalyanak , Akshaya Tritiya , and Dipawali . Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating

3784-578: The BS calendar. The names of months in the Vikram Samvat in Sanskrit and Nepali, with their roughly corresponding Gregorian months, respectively are: Jainism Jainism ( / ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / JAY -niz-əm ), also known as Jain Dharma , is an Indian religion . Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankara s (supreme preachers of Dharma ), with

3870-629: The Buddha or the Mahavira. According to popular tradition, King Vikramaditya of Ujjain established the Vikrama Samvat era after defeating the Śakas . Kalakacharya Kathanaka ( An account of the monk Kalakacharya ), by the Jain sage Mahesarasuri, gives the following account: Gandharvasena, the then-powerful king of Ujjain, abducted a nun called Sarasvati, who was the sister of the monk. The enraged monk sought

3956-517: The Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras , while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing

4042-478: The Jain text Tattvartha sūtra , the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( Guṇa ): consciousness ( chaitanya , the most important), bliss ( sukha ) and vibrational energy ( virya ). It further claims

4128-463: The Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh , has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni ), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika ), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday , in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged

4214-658: The Narwar area. Chahadadeva is mentioned as Chahar-i-Ajari in the writings of the Delhi Sultanate writer Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani . The Delhi Sultan Iltutmish had appointed Nusrat al-Din Taisi (Tayasi) as the governor of Gwalior region. In 1235 CE, Nusrat al-Din led an expedition against the neighbouring Chandela kingdom. While he was returning to Gwalior, Chahadadeva ambushed his army. According to Minhaj-i-Siraj, Taisi's army managed to defend itself with considerable difficulty. In 1251,

4300-559: The Sultanate general Balban defeated Chahadadeva during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud , but he could not capture Narwar. Chahadadeva was succeeded by Asalladeva. The next ruler Gopaladeva faced an invasion from the Chandela king Viravarman in 1281–82 CE (1338 VS). The Bangla and Narwar inscriptions of the Yajvapalas claim that Gopala defeated Viravarman. According to the Bangla inscription,

4386-663: The Vikram Samvat and Gregorian calendars. In 2003, the India-based Sikh Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee controversially adopted the Nanakshahi calendar . Like the Hebrew and Chinese calendars, the Vikram Samvat is lunisolar . In common years, the year is 354 days long, while a leap month ( adhik maas ) is added in accordance to the Metonic cycle roughly once every three years (or 7 times in

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4472-444: The beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation . The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to

4558-456: The body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without

4644-463: The era to Vikramaditya is Subhashita-Ratna-Sandoha (993-994) by the Jain author Amitagati. A number of authors believe that the Vikram Samvat was not started by Vikramaditya, who might be a legendary king or a title adopted by a later king who renamed the era after himself. V. A. Smith and D. R. Bhandarkar believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya, and changed the era's name to "Vikrama Samvat". According to Rudolf Hoernlé ,

4730-413: The faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas . The Sallekhana (or Santhara ) vow

4816-458: The first day of the month of Baisakh , which usually falls around 13–15 April in the Gregorian calendar and ends with the last day of the month Chaitra . The first day of the new year is a public holiday in Nepal. Bisket Jatra , an annual carnival in Bhaktapur , is also celebrated on Baishakh 1. In 2007, Nepal Sambat was also recognised as a national calendar alongside Bikram Sambat. In India,

4902-452: The first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī , full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after

4988-432: The first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva , whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha , whom historians date to the 9th century BCE , and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira , around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology . Central to understanding Jain philosophy

5074-529: The five life events of the tirthankaras , including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja . The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva , which includes Jina, or other yaksas , gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati , Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi ). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual

5160-445: The flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants , studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as

5246-578: The help of the Śaka ruler King Sahi in Sistan . Despite heavy odds but aided by miracles, the Śaka king defeated Gandharvasena and made him a captive. Sarasvati was repatriated, although Gandharvasena himself was forgiven. The defeated king retired to the forest, where he was killed by a tiger. His son, Vikramaditya, being brought up in the forest, had to rule from Pratishthana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra ). Later on, Vikramaditya invaded Ujjain and drove away from

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5332-403: The images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye ), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of

5418-454: The insentient ( ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul ( Āsrava , which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( Bandha ), the stoppage of karmic particles ( Saṃvara ), the wiping away of past karmic particles ( Nirjarā ), and the liberation ( Moksha ). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas , namely good karma ( Punya ) and bad karma ( Paapa ). The true insight in Jain philosophy

5504-558: The king responsible for this change was Yashodharman . Hoernlé believed that he conquered Kashmir and is the "Harsha Vikramaditya" mentioned in Kalhana 's Rajatarangini . Some earlier scholars believed that the Vikram Samvat corresponded to the Azes era of the Indo-Scythian (Śaka) king King Azes . This was disputed by Robert Bracey after the discovery of an inscription of Vijayamitra , which

5590-553: The law of substance dualism , and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism . Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit . Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( jīva ), non-sentient substance or matter ( pudgala ), the principle of motion ( dharma ), the principle of rest ( adharma ), space ( ākāśa ), and time ( kāla ). The last five are united as

5676-500: The lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar , north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali

5762-484: The northern system ( purnimaanta ). The Shukla Paksha, when most festivals occur, coincides in both systems. The lunisolar Vikram Samvat calendar is 56.7 years ahead of the solar Gregorian calendar ; the year 2081 BS begins mid-April 2024 CE, and ends mid-April 2025 CE. The Rana dynasty of Nepal made the Bikram Sambat the official Hindu calendar in 1901 CE, which began as 1958 BS . The new year in Nepal begins with

5848-515: The other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which

5934-591: The reformulated Saka calendar is officially used (except for computing dates of the traditional festivals). In the Hindi version of the preamble of the constitution of India , the date of its adoption (26 November 1949) is presented in Vikram Samvat as Margsheersh Shukla Saptami Samvat 2006. A call has been made for the Vikram Samvat to replace the Saka calendar as India's official calendar. The Vikram Samvat uses lunar months and solar sidereal years . Because 12 months do not match

6020-570: The sixth ara , the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created , and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism , but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in

6106-500: The slaughter of animals. Forgiveness I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. — Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari . Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in

6192-461: The soul ( jiva ). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka ). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( ara ), and in

6278-454: The soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas . Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul ( jiva )

6364-447: The texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons ( śrāvakas and śrāvikas ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas , who reside mostly in India , where they numbered around 4.5 million at

6450-465: The tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ( panca namaskara ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of

6536-538: The truth of soul ( jīva ); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas ; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( moksha ). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation). The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury)

6622-459: The truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt , or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth

6708-480: The use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian . Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism , meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism

6794-406: The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to

6880-433: The violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor

6966-559: The word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra , Parvacanasara , Nandi and Anuyogadvarini . Some Jain texts add analogy ( upamana ) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna ( clairvoyance ), manah prayāya Jñāna ( telepathy ) and kevala jnana ( omniscience ). According to

7052-411: The world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " Micchami Dukkadam " or " Khamat khamna " to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of

7138-543: The world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan , similar to those in the Hindu communities. The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on

7224-410: The Śakas. To commemorate this event, he started a new era called the "Vikrama era". The Ujjain calendar started around 58–56 BCE, and the subsequent Shaka-era calendar was started in 78 CE at Pratishthana. The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the 9th century CE; earlier sources call the era "Kṛṭa" (343 and 371 CE), "Kritaa" (404), "the era of

7310-466: Was believed to be based on the commemoration of King Vikramaditya expelling the Sakas from Ujjain . However, later epigraphical evidence and scholarship suggest that this theory has no historical basis. During the 9th century, epigraphical artwork began using Vikram Samvat (suggesting that the Hindu calendar era in use became popular as Vikram Samvat); Buddhist and Jain epigraphy continued to use an era based on

7396-507: Was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At

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