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60-624: The Buddhist sangha in China held Buddhism to be superior to Daoism, whose canon it regarded as "heretical" ( xié 邪 ) and "false sutra" ( wěijīng 伪经 ). Daoists , for their part, published the Huahujing in the 4th century, which argued that Chinese Buddhism was a simplified form of Daoism, developed during the travels of the Daoist philosopher Laozi while he was in India. One organized Daoist-Buddhist debate

120-507: A Marathi-language work titled Shri-Hindu-dharma-sthapana . Narayana Rao, another Hindu apologist, wrote Svadesha-dharma-abhimani in response to Wilson. In the mid-19th century, several Hindu apologist works were written in response to John Muir 's Mataparīkṣā . These include Mata-parīkṣā-śikṣā (1839) by Somanatha of Central India , Mataparīkṣottara (1840) by Harachandra Tarkapanchanan of Calcutta , Śāstra-tattva-vinirṇaya (1844-1845) by Nilakantha Gore of Benares , and

180-637: A critique (published later in 1861 as part of Dharmādharma-parīkṣā-patra ) by an unknown Vaishnava writer. A range of Indian philosophers, including Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose , have written rational explanations regarding the values of the Hindu religious tradition. More modern proponents such as the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi have also tried to correlate recent developments from quantum physics and consciousness research with Hindu concepts. The late Reverend Pandurang Shastri Athavale has given

240-489: A daily basis and/or on Uposatha days, depending on the school of Buddhism. In Theravada tradition they are a part of daily chanting: The Sangha: The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples ( sāvakas ) is: That is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals - This Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples is: The Sangha was originally established by Gautama Buddha in the fifth century BCE in order to provide

300-518: A means for those who wish to practice full-time in a direct and highly disciplined way, free from the restrictions and responsibilities of the household life. The Sangha also fulfils the function of preserving the Buddha's original teachings and of providing spiritual support for the Buddhist lay-community. The Sangha has historically assumed responsibility for maintaining the integrity of the doctrine as well as

360-605: A more popular or pastoral approach. Some prominent modern apologists are Douglas Groothuis , Frederick Copleston , John Lennox , Walter R. Martin , Dinesh D'Souza , Douglas Wilson , Cornelius Van Til , Gordon Clark , Francis Schaeffer , Greg Bahnsen , Edward John Carnell , James White , R. C. Sproul , Hank Hanegraaff , Alister McGrath , Lee Strobel , Josh McDowell , Peter Kreeft , G. K. Chesterton , William Lane Craig , J. P. Moreland , Hugh Ross , David Bentley Hart , Gary Habermas , Norman Geisler , Scott Hahn , RC Kunst, Trent Horn , and Jimmy Akin . Apologists in

420-552: A plethora of discourses regarding the symbolism and rational basis for many principles in the Vedic tradition . In his book The Cradle of Civilization , David Frawley, an American who has embraced the Vedic tradition, has characterized the ancient texts of the Hindu heritage as being like "pyramids of the spirit". ' Ilm al-Kalām , literally "science of discourse", usually foreshortened to kalam and sometimes called Islamic scholastic theology ,

480-532: A rational basis for the Christian faith, to defend the faith against objections and misrepresentation, and to show that the Christian doctrine is the only world-view that is faultless and consistent with all fundamental knowledge and questions. Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries. In the Roman Empire , Christians were severely persecuted, and many charges were brought against them. Examples in

540-494: Is a bhikkhu in Pali , Sanskrit bhikṣu , while a nun is a bhikkhuni , Sanskrit bhikṣuṇī . These words literally mean "beggar" or "one who lives by alms ", and it was traditional in early Buddhism for the Sangha to go on "alms round" for food, walking or standing quietly in populated areas with alms bowls ready to receive food offerings each day. Although in the vinaya laid down by

600-450: Is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but no longer intervenes in human affairs. Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. The World Order of Deists maintains a web site presenting deist apologetics that demonstrate

660-407: Is an Islamic undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against skeptics and detractors. A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimūn ) as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists. Jewish apologetic literature can be traced back as far as Aristobulus of Paneas , though some discern it in the works of Demetrius

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720-470: Is donated to them by laypeople, except that they may not eat meat if they know or suspect the animal was killed specifically for them. Consequently, the Theravada tradition does not practice strict vegetarianism, although an individual may do so as his or her personal choice. Both Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions vary depending on their interpretation of their scriptures. In some Mahayana sutras , meat-eating

780-684: Is frequently (and according to them, mistakenly) used in the West to refer to any sort of Buddhist community. Accordingly, the Nichiren Shōshū sect maintains the traditionalist definition of the sangha as the Head Temple Taisekiji priesthood collective as the sole custodians and arbiters of Buddhist doctrine. The Soka Gakkai , a new religious movement which began as a lay organization previously associated with Nichiren Shōshū in Japan, disputes

840-679: Is most frequently associated with the defense of Christianity, the term is sometimes used referring to the defense of any religion in formal debate involving religion. Many apologetic books have been written in defence of the history or teachings of the Baháʼí Faith . The religion's founders wrote several books presenting proofs of their religion; among them are the Báb 's Seven Proofs and Bahá'u'lláh 's Kitáb-i-Íqán . Later Baháʼí authors wrote prominent apologetic texts, such as Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl 's The Brilliant Proof and Udo Schaefer et al.'s Making

900-688: Is strongly discouraged and it is stated that the Buddha did not eat meat. In particular, East Asian sangha members take on the Bodhisattva Precepts originating in the Brahmajāla Sūtra , which has a vow of vegetarianism as part of the Triple Platform Ordination, where they receive the three sets of vows: śrāmaṇera / śrāmaṇerī (novitiate), monastic, and then the Brahmajāla Sūtra Bodhisattva Precepts, whereas

960-550: Is written in 36 sections in an imitation of the Daoist canon , and aimed to show that the mythology, rituals, and practices of Daoism were inconsistent and absurd. Zhen's text criticizes not those scripture which were most important to contemporary Daoist practice, but those which were easiest to ridicule, such as "The Size of the Sun and the Moon". In addition, the treatise references Daoist texts from

1020-588: The Ancient Greek word apologia ( ἀπολογία ). In the Classical Greek legal system, the prosecution delivered the kategoria ( κατηγορία ), the accusation or charge, and the defendant replied with an apologia , the defence . The apologia was a formal speech or explanation to reply to and rebut the charges. A famous example is Socrates ' Apologia defense, as chronicled in Plato's Apology . In

1080-521: The Catholic Church include Bishop Robert Barron , G. K. Chesterton , Dr. Scott Hahn , Trent Horn, Jimmy Akin , Patrick Madrid , Kenneth Hensley, Karl Keating , Ronald Knox , and Peter Kreeft . John Henry Newman (1801–1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism , later made a cardinal , and beatified in 2010. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to bring

1140-615: The Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua ',' in 1864, he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret. Christian apologists employ a variety of philosophical and formal approaches, including ontological , cosmological , and teleological arguments . The Christian presuppositionalist approach to apologetics uses

1200-583: The Koine Greek "treis Hypostaseis , Homoousios "), and the terms Vetus Testamentum ( Old Testament ) and Novum Testamentum ( New Testament ). There are Latter-day Saint apologists who focus on the defense of Mormonism , including early church leaders, such as Parley P. Pratt , John Taylor , B. H. Roberts , and James E. Talmage , and modern figures, such as Hugh Nibley , Daniel C. Peterson , John L. Sorenson , John Gee , Orson Scott Card , and Jeff Lindsay. Several well known apologetic organizations of

1260-679: The Koine Greek of the New Testament , the Apostle Paul employs the term apologia in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defense" in Acts 26 :2. A cognate form appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" in Philippians 1:7, and in "giving an answer" in 1 Peter 3:15. Although the term apologetics has Western, primarily Christian origins and

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1320-644: The Lingbao and Tianshi schools of Daoism disproportionately to those from the Shangqing school. The polemic accuses Daoists of "stealing" ( qiè 窃 ) the Buddhist Lotus Sutra for use in Daoist scripture. Zhen further charged the Daoists of not fully understanding the Buddhist texts that they plagiarized. These criticisms prompted some internal Daoist reform, as the Buddhist encyclopedia Fayuan Zhulin (668) noted

1380-568: The Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581). Zhen Luan was a scholar-official for Emperor Wu's court who also served as a commandant , mathematician , and astronomer . Zhen trained in a Daoist congregation, but converted to Buddhism out of disgust with Daoist sexual practices . He wrote the Xiaodao Lun after attending three of the Buddhist-Daoist debates sponsored by Emperor Wu. The Xiaodan Lun

1440-571: The Three Refuges —with a few exceptions reserving "sangha" for its original use in the Pāli Canon —the ideal ( arya ) and the conventional. The two meanings overlap but are not necessarily identical. Some members of the ideal Sangha are not ordained; some monastics have yet to acquire the Dharma-eye. Unlike the present Sangha, the original Sangha viewed itself as following the mission laid down by

1500-418: The Xiaodao Lun is consulted for its quotations of medieval Daoist scriptures that have not survived court censorship. Sangha (Buddhism) Sangha ( IPA: [sɐnɡʱɐ] ) is a Pali word used in many Indian languages, including Sanskrit which means "association", "assembly", "company" or "community"; in these languages, sangha is frequently used as a surname. In a political context, it

1560-500: The bhikkhu-sangha or the bhikkhuni-sangha . As a separate category, those Buddhists who have attained any of the four stages of enlightenment , whether or not they are members of the monastic community, are referred to as the āryasaṅgha ("noble Sangha"). According to the Theravada school and Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism , the term sangha does not refer to the community of unenlightened sāvakas (lay followers) nor does it refer to

1620-410: The prefaces and dedications , which proceed many Early Modern plays, novels, and poems. Eighteenth century authors such as Colley Cibber , Frances Burney , and William Congreve , to name but a few, prefaced the majority of their poetic work with such apologies. In addition to the desire to defend their work, the apologetic preface often suggests the author's attempt to humble his- or herself before

1680-495: The sangha , but in Theravada suttas it is clearly recorded that the Buddha's uncle, a lay follower, reached enlightenment by hearing the Buddha's discourse, and there are many other such instances described in the Pāli Canon. Accordingly, emphasis on lay persons, as well as Sangha members, practicing the Buddhist path of morality, meditation, and wisdom is present in all major Buddhist schools. Some liberal scholars opine that sangha

1740-564: The transcendental argument for the existence of God . Tertullian was an early Christian apologist. He was born, lived, and died in Carthage . He is sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church ". He introduced the term Trinity ( Latin : trinitas ) to the Christian vocabulary and probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres Personae , una Substantia " (from

1800-866: The Apostle , Justin Martyr , Irenaeus , and others often defended Christianity against charges that were brought to justify persecution. Later apologists have focused on providing reasons to accept various aspects of Christian belief. Christian apologists of many traditions, in common with Jews, Muslims, and some others, argue for the existence of a unique and personal God. Theodicy is one important aspect of such arguments, and Alvin Plantinga 's arguments have been highly influential in this area. Many prominent Christian apologists are scholarly philosophers or theologians, frequently with additional doctoral work in physics , cosmology , comparative religions , and other fields. Others take

1860-690: The Bible include the Apostle Paul's address to the Athenians in the Areopagus ( Acts 17: 22-34 ). J. David Cassel gives several examples: Tacitus wrote that Nero fabricated charges that Christians started the burning of Rome . Other charges included cannibalism (due to a literal interpretation of the Eucharist ) and incest (due to early Christians' practice of addressing each other as "brother" and "sister"). Paul

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1920-614: The Buddha’s followers, lay or ordained, who have at least attained the level of srotāpanna ; (2) on the conventional ( saṃvṛti ) level, it denotes the orders of the Bhikṣus and Bhikṣunis. Mahayana practitioners may use the word "sangha" as a collective term for all Buddhists, but the Theravada Pāli Canon uses the word parisā (Sanskrit pariṣad ) for the larger Buddhist community—the monks, nuns, lay men, and lay women who have taken

1980-583: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (a group of scholars at Brigham Young University ) and FairMormon (an independent, not-for-profit group run by Latter Day Saints), have been formed to defend the doctrines and history of the Latter Day Saint movement in general and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in particular. Deism

2040-625: The Crooked Straight . One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda , which deals with the Buddhist metaphysics such as the "no-self" nature of the individual and characteristics such as wisdom, perception, volition, feeling, consciousness and the soul. In the Meiji Era (1868-1912), encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan as a result of increasing contact between Japan and other nations may have prompted

2100-527: The Gautama Buddha, the sangha was not allowed to engage directly in agriculture, this later changed in some Mahayana schools when Buddhism moved to East Asia, so that in the East Asian cultural sphere , the monastic community traditionally has engaged in agriculture. An emphasis on working for food is attributed to additional training guidelines laid down by a Chan Buddhist master, Baizhang Huaihai , notably

2160-653: The Lutheran headquarters in Halle , and 99 letters written by the Hindu priests to him (later translated into German under the title Malabarische Korrespondenz from 1718 onwards). During 1830–1831, missionary John Wilson engaged in debates with Hindu apologists in Bombay . In 1830, his protege Ram Chandra, a Hindu convert to Christianity, debated with several Hindu Brahmin apologists in public. Hindu pandit Morobhatt Dandekar summarized his arguments from his 1831 debate with Wilson in

2220-558: The Master, viz, to go forth "…on tour for the blessing of the manyfolk, for the happiness of the manyfolk out of compassion for the world, for the welfare, the blessing, the happiness of deva and men". The Sangha is the third of the Three Refuges in Buddhism. Common over all schools is that the āryasaṅgha is the foremost form of this third jewel. As for its recognizable contemporary forms,

2280-476: The Tibetan lineages transmit a tradition of Bodhisattva Precepts from Asanga 's Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra , which do not include a vow of vegetarianism. According to Mahayana sutras, Shakyamuni Buddha always maintained that lay persons were capable of great wisdom and of reaching enlightenment. In some areas there has been a misconception that Theravada regards enlightenment to be an impossible goal for those outside

2340-657: The World Pantheist Movement and the Universal Pantheist Society to promote and defend the belief in pantheism . In a famous speech called "Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red" in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket gave an apologetic for Native American religion. Plato's Apology may be read as both a religious and literary apology; however, more specifically literary examples may be found in

2400-617: The chronographer (3rd century BCE) traces of the style of "questions" and "solutions" typical of the genre. Aristobulus was a Jewish philosopher of Alexandria and the author of an apologetic work addressed to Ptolemy VI Philometor . Josephus 's Contra Apion is a wide-ranging defense of Judaism against many charges laid against Judaism at that time, as too are some of the works of Philo of Alexandria . In response to modern Christian missionaries, and congregations that "are designed to appear Jewish, but are actually fundamentalist Christian churches, which use traditional Jewish symbols to lure

2460-399: The community of Buddhists as a whole. The Theravada school uses the term parisā ("assembly") or catuparisā ("fourfold assembly") to refer to the bhikkhu , bhikkhunī , upāsaka , and upāsikā . In a glossary of Buddhist terms, Richard Robinson et al. define sangha as: Sangha. Community. This word has two levels of meaning: (1) on the ideal ( arya ) level, it denotes all of

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2520-605: The conclusions of the Xiaodao Lun , positively interpreting Zhen's examples of alleged Daoist plagiarism of Buddhist texts, as increasing Daoism's appeal as a unifying ideology for the Zhou realm. Emperor Wu went on to found the Tongdao Guan ( 通道观 ) for Daoist research, which would eventually compile the first Daoist encyclopedia, the Wushang Biyao ( 无上秘要 ). However, Emperor Wu would not achieve his goal of Chinese reunification , which

2580-416: The deciphering and preservation of Sanskrit . Many translations of Hindu texts were produced which made them accessible to a broader reading audience. In the early 18th century, Christian missionary Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg engaged in dialogues with several Tamil -speaking Malabarian Hindu priests, and recorded arguments of these Hindu apologists. These records include German-language reports submitted to

2640-726: The duties for members of the sangha . Transgression of rules carries penalties ranging from confession to permanent expulsion from the sangha . Saichō , the founder of the Japanese school of Tendai , decided to reduce the number of rules down to about 60 based on the Bodhisattva Precepts. In the Kamakura , many Japanese schools that originated in or were influenced by the Tendai such as Zen , Pure Land Buddhism and Nichiren Buddhism abolished traditional ordination in favor of this new model of

2700-553: The existence of God based on evidence and reason, absent divine revelation. Hindu apologetics began developing during the British colonial period. A number of Indian intellectuals had become critical of the British tendency to devalue the Hindu religious tradition. As a result, these Indian intellectuals, as well as a handful of British Indologists , were galvanized to examine the roots of the religion as well as to study its vast arcana and corpus in an analytical fashion. This endeavor drove

2760-648: The formation of Japanese New Buddhism , including the apologetic Shin Bukkyō ( 新仏教 ) magazine. In recent times, A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism , has written a book, Beyond Belief , providing Buddhist apologetic responses and a critique of Christian Fundamentalist doctrine. Gunapala Dharmasiri wrote an apologetic critique of the Christian concept of God from a Theravadin Buddhist perspective. Christian apologetics combines Christian theology , natural theology , and philosophy in an attempt to present

2820-707: The head, and a water filter. In practice, they often have a few additional personal possessions. Traditionally, Buddhist monks, nuns, and novices eschew ordinary clothes and wear robes. Originally the robes were sewn together from rags and stained with earth or other available dyes. The color of modern robes varies from community to community: saffron is characteristic for Theravada groups; blue, grey or brown for Mahayana Sangha members in Vietnam , maroon in Tibetan Buddhism , grey in Korea , and black in Japan . A Buddhist monk

2880-475: The interpretation of what is the Jewel is often dependent on how a school defines Sangha. In many schools, for example, monastic life is considered to provide the safest and most suitable environment for advancing toward enlightenment and liberation due to the temptations and vicissitudes of life in the world. In Buddhism , Gautama Buddha , the Dharma and the Sangha each are described as having certain characteristics. These characteristics are chanted either on

2940-402: The monastic regulations. The Order of Interbeing , established in 1964 and associated with the Plum Village Tradition , has fourteen precepts observed by all monastics. They were written by Thích Nhất Hạnh . Monks and nuns generally own a minimum of possessions due to their samaya as renunciants, including three robes, an alms bowl, a cloth belt, a needle and thread, a razor for shaving

3000-516: The most vulnerable of our Jewish people into their ranks", Jews for Judaism is the largest counter-missionary organization in existence, today. Kiruv Organization (Mizrachi) , founded by Rabbi Yosef Mizrachi, and Outreach Judaism, founded by Rabbi Tovia Singer , are other prominent international organizations that respond "directly to the issues raised by missionaries and cults, by exploring Judaism in contradistinction to fundamentalist Christianity." Some pantheists have formed organizations such as

3060-474: The phrase, "A day without work is a day without food" ( Chinese : 一日不做一日不食 ). The idea that all Buddhists, especially sangha members, practice vegetarianism is a Western misperception. In the Pali Canon, the Buddha rejected a suggestion by Devadatta to impose vegetarianism on the sangha . According to the Pali Texts, the Buddha ate meat as long as the animal was not killed specifically for him. The Pāli Canon allowed Sangha members to eat whatever food

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3120-417: The religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and recommended their faith to outsiders were called Christian apologists . In 21st-century usage, apologetics is often identified with debates over religion and theology . The term apologetics derives from

3180-526: The replacement of Buddhist terminology in Daoist texts with more native Chinese terms. The Xiaodao Lun was the most lurid and complete account of Daoist sexual practices that anti-Daoist polemicists used to attack the religion, including group sex and partner swapping . Another argument of the Xiaodao Lun implicated Daoism in general for various peasant revolts , including the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184–205), whose organizers were associated with secret Daoist societies. The Emperor largely disregarded

3240-416: The suitability of Buddhism and Daoism as state religions , resulting in the Xiaodao Lun by official Zhen Luan, and Erjiao Lun ( 二教论 ) by Dao An . Submitted in 570 as the Xiaodao Lun , Zhen's report denied that Daoism had any value and ridiculed the religion's exorcisms, talismans, and internal inconsistencies. The author of the Xiaodao Lun was Zhen Luan , an apostate from Daoism who lived during

3300-401: The terms such as "Treasure of the Priesthood" to "The Buddhist Order". Some modernist sects of Nichiren-shu holds a position that any Buddhist community is also called Sangha, along with both liberal and progressive Mahayana lay movements as well claiming this new definition. Apologetic Apologetics (from Greek ἀπολογία , apología , 'speaking in defense') is

3360-456: The traditional definition of sangha. The organization interprets the meaning of the Three Jewels of Buddhism, in particular the "treasure of the Sangha", to include all people who practice Buddhism according to its own interpretation within their organization, whether lay or clerical. After its formal expulsion from its parent religion in December 1991 due to conflicts of religious doctrine, the organization re—published newer literature which revised

3420-469: The translation and propagation of the teachings of the Buddha. The key feature of Buddhist monasticism is the adherence to the vinaya which contains an elaborate set of "227 main rules of conduct" (known as Patimokkha in Pāli) including complete chastity, eating only before noon, and not indulging in malicious or salacious talk. Between midday and the next day, a strict life of scripture study, chanting, meditation , and occasional cleaning forms most of

3480-482: Was achieved by the Sui dynasty (581–618), who favored Buddhism over Daoism. As an apologetic , the Xiaodao Lun is included in the Chinese Buddhist canon . Polemical confrontation between Buddhists and Daoists was limited after the Tang dynasty (618–907), with the last great flareup during the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Yuan debates of 1255 and 1258 concluded in a government-sponsored book burning of Daoist texts and printing materials in 1281. In modern times,

3540-498: Was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used by religious associations, including Buddhists , Jains and Sikhs . Given this history, some Buddhists have stated that the tradition of the sangha represents humanity's oldest surviving democratic institution. In Buddhism, sangha refers to the monastic communities of bhikkhu (monks) and bhikkhuni (nuns). These communities are traditionally referred to as

3600-427: Was organized in 520 by the Northern Wei dynasty (386–535), and a second was organized in 570 by the Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581), prompted by the proposal by the Buddhist Wei Yuansong ( 卫元嵩 ) to make the Emperor a divine Buddhist ruler and to weaken the Buddhist sangha' s independence from the state. The debate was inconclusive, so the Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (543–578) commissioned comparative reports on

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