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66-510: 28 species Acoroides Sol. ex Kite , not validly published Xanthorrhoea ( / z æ n θ oʊ ˈ r iː ə / ) is a genus of about 30 species of succulent flowering plants in the family Asphodelaceae . They are endemic to Australia. Common names for the plants include grasstree , grass gum-tree (for resin-yielding species), kangaroo tail , balga ( Western Australia ), yakka ( South Australia ), yamina ( Tasmania ), and black boy (or "blackboy"). The most common species

132-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

198-458: A bushfire resembles a child-like black figure. The name is now seen as racist, and Xanthorrhoea are more commonly known as grass tree. However a 2015 report written by Aboriginal Tasmanian authors, who refer to the plant as yamina , says "yamina forest on lungtalanana is important to the community. yamina are also commonly known as black boys. They are called this because the plant has a thick black trunk". In South Australia , Xanthorrhoea

264-457: A distinct period, which varies for each species, and often stimulated by bushfire . Fires will burn the leaves and blacken the trunk, but the plant survives as the dead leaves around the stem serve as insulation against the heat of a wildfire . The rate of growth of Xanthorrhoea is slow. Some species grow slowly (0.8–6 centimetres or 0.31–2.36 inches in height per year), but increase their rate of growth in response to season and rainfall. After

330-537: A few), but is placed within its own monotypic subfamily , the Xanthorrhoeoideae . The Xanthorrhoeoideae are monocots , part of the greater order of Asparagales . A reference to its yellow resin , Xanthorrhoea literally means "yellow-flow" in Ancient Greek . Smith named it, in 1798 , from xanthos ('yellow, golden') and rhœa ('flowing, flow'). The invalid Acoroides (' Acorus -like')

396-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

462-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

528-445: A mutually beneficial relationship with the grass tree roots. The fungus increases the tree root's access to water and nutrients and therefore increases tree growth especially in poor conditions. The grass tree also suffers from a condition known as phytophthora dieback. Phytophthora cinnamomi is a discrete soil borne pathogen that attacks and destroys vascular root systems, causing hosts to perish through lack of nutrients and water. It

594-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

660-506: A species has been established in this manner, specialist taxonomists may work on the subject and make certain types of changes in the light of new information. In modern practice it is greatly preferred that the collector of the specimens immediately passes them to specialists for naming; it is rarely possible for non-specialists to tell whether their specimens are of new species or not, and in modern times not many publications or their referees would accept an amateur description. In any event,

726-492: A substantial amount of soil, greater than one cubic metre (35 cu ft), has been taken with the plants. The genus Xanthorrhoea , more commonly known as the grass tree, is an iconic plant that epitomizes the Australian bush in its ability to live in poor nutrient soils and respond to wildfire. Commonly-grown species for the garden include Xanthorrhoea australis , X. malacophylla , and X. preissii . Xanthorrhoea

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792-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

858-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

924-446: Is Xanthorrhoea australis , and some of these names are applied specifically to this species. All species in the genus are perennials and have a secondary thickening meristem in the stem. Many, but not all, species develop an above ground stem. The stem may take up to twenty years to emerge. Plants begin as a crown of rigid grass-like leaves, the caudex slowly growing beneath. The main stem or branches continue to develop beneath

990-436: Is an abbreviation of " secundum ", meaning "following" or "in accordance with".) Such an author citation is different from the citation of the nomenclatural "author citation" or "authority citation" . In biological taxonomy the author citation following the name of a taxon simply identifies the author who originally published the name and applied it to the type , the specimen or specimens that one refers to in case of doubt about

1056-448: Is applied to many other plants. They are also known as balga grass plants, which derives from the word balga in the Noongar language of south-west of Western Australia , particularly for X. preissii . Its meaning is "black boy" or "blackboy", a name which was applied to the plant for many years. Some thought that Aboriginal peoples used the name balga because the trunk blackened after

1122-504: Is commonly known as yakka , also spelled yacca and yacka , a name probably from the Kaurna language ( Yakko , or alternatively Kurru ). The Ngarrindjeri name is Bukkup . Some of the above names are applied specifically to Xanthorrhoea australis , the most common species. The genus is endemic to Australia, occurring in all national states and territories. Some species have a restricted range, others are widely distributed. According to

1188-428: Is considered invalid and may be used in place of the author designation of a taxon in such a case (for instance, "Tricholoma amethystinum sensu auct." is an erroneous name for a mushroom which should really be " Lepista personata (Fr.) Cooke"). A related usage is in a concept-author citation (" sec . Smith", or " sensu Smith"), indicating that the intended meaning is the one defined by that author. (Here " sec ."

1254-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

1320-477: Is important to the Aboriginal peoples. It is a highly-valued resource with many uses. The flowering spike may be utilised as the lightweight handle of a composite spear with a hardwood sharp shaft inserted into the end. It is also soaked in water and the nectar from the flowers gives a sweet-tasting drink . In the bush the flowers could reveal directions, since flowers on the warmer, sunnier side – usually north – of

1386-409: Is in use to indicate the sense of a particular context, such as "Nonmonophyletic groups are ... nonnatural (sensu cladistics) in that ..." or "... computation of a cladogram (sensu phenetics) ..." Also the expression sensu auctorum (abbreviation: sensu auct. ) is used to mean "in the sense of certain authors", who can be designated or described. It normally refers to a sense which

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1452-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1518-423: Is spread through infected plants and the movement of contaminated soil and gravel. The leaves of the grass tree are hosts to another fungi, Pseudodactylaria xanthorrhoeae . Xanthorrhoea may be cultivated, as seed is easily collected and germinated. While they do grow slowly, quite attractive plants with short trunks (10 centimetres or 3.9 inches) and leaf crowns up to 1.5 metres or 4 feet 11 inches (to

1584-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1650-516: Is used in describing any particular concept, but it also appears in expressions that indicate the convention or context of the usage. Sensu is the ablative case of the noun sensus , here meaning "sense". It is often accompanied by an adjective (in the same case). Three such phrases are: Søren Kierkegaard uses the phrase sensu eminenti to mean "in the pre-eminent [or most important or significant] sense". When appropriate, comparative and superlative adjectives may also be used to convey

1716-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

1782-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1848-519: The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families , as of September 2014 the following species are accepted: Grasstrees grow in coastal heaths, and wet and dry forests of Australia. They are drought and frost tolerant. The grass tree mainly occurs in soils that are very free draining and consequently low in nutrients. It survives in the poorest soils, with a shallow root system, enabling it easily access nutrients from decaying litter, while storing all

1914-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1980-400: The polyphyletic taxon because the members were long believed to form a "true" taxon and the standard literature still refers to them together. Alternatively a taxon might include members simply because they form a group that is convenient to work with in practice. In this example, we can know from additional sources that we are dealing with the latter case: by adding other groups of plants to

2046-469: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

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2112-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

2178-407: The broader APG circumscription the family Malvaceae s.l. includes Malvaceae s.s. and also the families Bombacaceae , Sterculiaceae and Tiliaceae ." Here the circumscription is broader, stripped of some of its constraints by saying sensu lato ; that is what speaking more broadly amounts to. Discarding such constraints might be for historical reasons, for example when people usually speak of

2244-415: The crown. This is rough-surfaced, built from accumulated leaf-bases around the secondarily thickened trunk. The trunk is sometimes unbranched, some species will branch if the growing point is damaged, and others naturally grow numerous branches. Flowers are borne on a long spike above a bare section called a scape ; the total length can be over three to four metres long in some species. Flowering occurs in

2310-448: The definition of a species. Given that an author (such as Linnaeus, for example) was the first to supply a definite type specimen and to describe it, it is to be hoped that his description would stand the tests of time and criticism, but even if it does not, then as far as practical the name that he had assigned will apply. It still will apply in preference to any subsequent names or descriptions that anyone proposes, whether his description

2376-424: The entire family of plants under the name Malvaceae ( strictly speaking ), over 1000 species, including the closest relatives of cotton and hibiscus , all descend from a shared ancestor, specifically, that they, and no other extant plant taxa , share a notional most recent common ancestor (MRCA). If this is correct, that ancestor might have been a single species of plant. Conversely the assertion also means that

2442-480: The family Malvaceae s.l. , including those related to cacao , cola , durian , and jute , the APG circumscription omits some of the criteria by which the new members previously had been excluded. The s.l. group remains monophyletic. "The 'clearly non-monophyletic' series Cyrtostylis sensu A.S. George has been virtually dismantled..." This remark specifies Alex George 's particular description of that series. It

2508-421: The family includes all surviving species descended from that ancestor. Other species of plants that some people might ( broadly speaking or s.l. ) have included in the family would not have shared that MRCA (or ipso facto they too would have been members of the family Malvaceae s.s. In short, this circumscription s.s. includes all and only plants that have descended from that particular ancestral stock. "In

2574-411: The fields. In geology for example, in which the concept of ancestry is looser and less pervasive than in biology, one finds usages such as: Sensu is used in the taxonomy of living creatures to specify which circumscription of a given taxon is meant, where more than one circumscription can be defined. "The family Malvaceae s.s. is cladistically monophyletic ." This means that the members of

2640-441: The fire. They need fire to clear away dead leaves and promote flowering, as these slow-growing trees were among the first flowering plants to evolve. Grass trees have developed a structural adaptation which helps the grass tree take advantage of soil fertilized with ash after fire, producing a flowering stalk in the aftermath. The grass tree forms a mycorrhizal relationship with fungi deep in its root system, wherein fungi live in

2706-402: The food reserves in its stem. The grass tree has developed adaptations that help it better suit the environment where it occurs. If a fire breaks out, the grass tree has a special physiological adaptation called thermal insulation that helps protect the plant. The grass tree holds its thick, dead leaves around its stem which serves as insulation, and helps to protect the plant against the heat of

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2772-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

2838-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

2904-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

2970-464: The initial establishment phase, the rate of growth varies widely from species to species. Thus, while a five-metre-tall (16 ft) member of the fastest-growing Xanthorrhoea may be 200 years old, a member of a more slowly growing species of equal height may have aged to 600 years. Xanthorrhoea is part of the family Asphodelaceae , containing related genera such as Aloe , Alstroemeria , Gasteria , Haworthia and Hemerocallis (to name

3036-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

3102-472: The leaves for weaving . Resin collected from the plant was used in Australia until the mid-twentieth century for the following purposes: Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

3168-414: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Sensu stricto Sensu is a Latin word meaning "in the sense of". It is used in a number of fields including biology , geology , linguistics , semiotics , and law . Commonly it refers to how strictly or loosely an expression

3234-536: The meaning of "more" or "most". Thus sensu stricto becomes sensu strictiore ("in the stricter sense" or "more strictly speaking") and sensu strictissimo ("in the strictest possible sense" or "most strictly speaking"). Current definitions of the plant kingdom ( Plantae ) offer a biological example of when such phrases might be used. One definition of Plantae is that it consists of all green plants (comprising green algae and land plants ), all red algae and all glaucophyte algae . A stricter definition excludes

3300-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

3366-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

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3432-418: The person who finally classifies and describes a species has the task of taxonomic circumscription . Circumscription means in essence that anyone competent in the matter can tell which creatures are included in the species described, and which are excluded . It is in this process of species description that the question of the sense arises, because that is where the worker produces and argues their view of

3498-448: The proper circumscription. Equally, or perhaps even more strongly, the arguments for deciding questions concerning higher taxa such as families or orders , require very difficult circumscription, where changing the sense applied could totally upset an entire scheme of classification, either constructively or disastrously. Note that the principles of circumscription apply in various ways in non-biological senses. In biological taxonomy

3564-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

3630-424: The red and glaucophyte algae; the group defined in this way could be called Plantae in sensu stricto . An even stricter definition excludes green algae, leaving only land plants; the group defined in this way could be called Plantae in sensu strictiore . Conversely, where convenient, some authors derive expressions such as " sensu non strictissimo ", meaning "not in the narrowest possible sense". A similar form

3696-417: The same family as Xanthorrhoea . However, future anatomical and phylogenetic research supported the views of Dahlgren, whom regarded Xanthorrhoea as the sole taxon of the family Xanthorrhoeaceae sensu stricto , which is now treated as a subfamily, Xanthorrhoeoideae. Common names for Xanthorrhoea include grasstree, grass gum-tree (for its resin-yielding species), and kangaroo tail. The name grasstree

3762-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

3828-510: The spike often open before the flowers on the cooler side facing away from the sun. The resin from Xanthorrhoea plants is used in spear -making and is an invaluable adhesive for Aboriginal people, often used to patch up leaky coolamons (water containers) and even yidaki ( didgeridoos ). The dried flower stalk scape was also used to generate fire by the hand drill friction method. On the Tasmanian island of lungtalanana , Aboriginal people use

3894-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

3960-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

4026-484: The top of the leaves) can be achieved in 10 years. The slow growth rate means that it can take 30 years to achieve a specimen with a significant trunk. Most Xanthorrhoea sold in nurseries are established plants taken from bushland. Nurseries charge high prices for the plants. However, there is a very low survival rate for nursery-purchased plants (mainly due to over watering), which may take several years to die. The most successful examples of transplanting have been where

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4092-401: The usual assumption is that circumscription reflects the shared ancestry perceived as most likely in the light of the currently available information; in geology or legal contexts far wider and more arbitrary ranges of logical circumscription commonly apply, not necessarily formally uniformly. However, the usage of expressions incorporating sensu remains functionally similarly intelligible among

4158-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

4224-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

4290-477: Was a temporary designation in Solander 's manuscript from his voyage with Cook , originally not meant for publication. Kingia and Dasypogon are unrelated Australian plants with a similar growth habit to Xanthorrhoea . Both genera have, at times, been confused with xanthorrhoeas and misnamed as "grasstrees". Some plant classification systems, such as Cronquist , have included a wide range of other genera in

4356-499: Was correct or not, and whether he had correctly identified its biological affinities or not. This does not always happen of course; all sorts of errors occur in practice. For example, a collector might scoop a netful of small fish and describe them as a new species; it then might turn out that he had failed to notice that there were several (possibly unrelated) species in the net. It then is not clear what he had named, so his name can hardly be taken seriously, either s.s. or s.l . After

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