213-526: The XYZ Affair was a political and diplomatic episode in 1797 and 1798, early in the presidency of John Adams , involving a confrontation between the United States and Republican France that led to the Quasi-War . The name derives from the substitution of the letters X, Y, and Z for the names of French diplomats Jean-Conrad Hottinguer (X), Pierre Bellamy (Y), and Lucien Hauteval (Z) in documents released by
426-630: A 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Minister Talleyrand . After this, the diplomats were met by three of Talleyrand's agents. Each refused to conduct diplomatic negotiations unless the United States paid enormous bribes, one to Talleyrand personally, and another to the Republic of France. The Americans refused to negotiate on such terms. Marshall and Pinckney returned home, while Gerry remained. In an April 1798 speech to Congress, Adams publicly revealed Talleyrand's machinations, sparking public outrage at
639-505: A Federalist congressman. In an attempt to quell the threat of subversion among hostile immigrants, the Federalists passed a series of laws, the " Alien and Sedition Acts " in 1798. Historians debate Adams' involvement beyond his signature; he denied seeking the acts in his memoirs, but his complaints about "libelous" attacks on his presidency may have played a role in the laws' passage. The Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four measures –
852-477: A balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures now threatened to cause major budget deficits. Hamilton, Alcott, and Adams developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a progressive land value tax of up to 1% of the value of a property. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799
1065-462: A candidate from their own state (a so-called " favorite son " candidate) over one from another state. So they created the office of vice president and required the electors to vote for two candidates, at least one of whom must be from outside the elector's state, believing that the second vote would be cast for a candidate of national character. Additionally, to guard against the possibility that electors might strategically waste their second votes, it
1278-496: A case of succession. Debate records from the 1787 Constitutional Convention, along with various participants' later writings on the subject, show that the framers of the Constitution intended that the vice president would temporarily exercise the powers and duties of the office in the event of a president's death, disability or removal, but not actually become the president of the United States in their own right. This understanding
1491-411: A challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot. In the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, which pitted Hillary Clinton against Barack Obama , Clinton suggested a Clinton–Obama ticket with Obama in the vice president slot, which she said would be "unstoppable" against
1704-501: A declaration of war. Democratic-Republican leaders in Congress, believing Adams had exaggerated the French position because he sought war, united with hawkish Federalists to demand the release of the commissioners' dispatches. On March 20, Adams turned them over, with the names of some of the French actors redacted and replaced by the letters W, X, Y, and Z. The use of these disguising letters led
1917-524: A deterioration in relations between the U.S. and Spain. Francisco de Miranda , a Venezuelan patriot, also attempted to stir up support for an American intervention against Spain, possibly with the help of the British. Rejecting Hamilton's ambitions for the seizure of Spanish territory, Adams refused to meet with Miranda, squashing the plot. Having avoided war with both France and Spain, the Adams administration oversaw
2130-479: A few years in the United States, was openly concerned about the establishment of closer ties between the U.S. and Britain. The Directory, generally not well-disposed to American interests, became notably more hostile to them in September 1797, when an internal coup propelled several anti-Americans into power. These leaders, and Talleyrand, viewed President Adams as hostile to their interests, but did not think that there
2343-602: A fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. John Nance Garner , who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt , claimed that the vice presidency "isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss". Harry Truman , who also served as vice president under Franklin Roosevelt, said the office was as "useful as a cow's fifth teat". Walter Bagehot remarked in The English Constitution that "[t]he framers of
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#17328447794092556-486: A loan before formal negotiations could begin. Although it was widely known that diplomats from other nations had paid bribes to deal with Talleyrand at the time, the Americans were offended by the demands, and eventually left France without ever engaging in formal negotiations. Gerry, seeking to avoid all-out war, remained for several months after the other two commissioners left. His exchanges with Talleyrand laid groundwork for
2769-400: A memo following the 1976 election, that his most important role would be as a "general adviser" to the president. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment . Dick Cheney was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Joe Biden asked President Barack Obama to let him always be the "last person in
2982-470: A method of electing the chief executive (president). Delegates had previously considered the selection of the Senate's presiding officer, deciding that "the Senate shall choose its own President", and had agreed that this official would be designated the executive's immediate successor. They had also considered the mode of election of the executive but had not reached consensus. This all changed on September 4, when
3195-409: A number of American residents of Paris, who reported the growing possibility of war. Around this time Gerry, at Talleyrand's insistence, began keeping secret from the other commissioners the substance of their meetings. All three commissioners met with Talleyrand informally in March, but it was clear that the parties were at an impasse. This appeared to be the case despite Talleyrand's agreement to drop
3408-414: A particular constituency. The vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often resulted in
3621-655: A peace mission to France. Adams delayed sending a delegation while he awaited the construction of several U.S. warships, which he hoped would alter the balance of power in the Caribbean. Much to the chagrin of Hamilton and other arch-Federalists, the delegation was finally dispatched in November 1799. The president's decision to send a second delegation to France precipitated a bitter split in the Federalist Party, and some Federalist leaders began to look for an alternative to Adams in
3834-512: A personal tool and played into the hands of the Jeffersonians by building up a large standing army and creating a feud with Adams. Chernow writes that Hamilton believed that by eliminating Adams, he could eventually pick up the pieces of the ruined Federalist Party and lead it back to dominance. "Better to purge Adams and let Jefferson govern for a while than to water down the party's ideological purity with compromises," Chernow says. To compound
4047-473: A poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time. The Act also moved the temporary capital from New York City to Philadelphia as of 1791. Congress adjourned its last meeting in Philadelphia on May 15, 1800, and the city officially ceased to be the nation's seat of government as of June 11. In June 1800, Adams made his first official visit to Washington; amid the "raw and unfinished" cityscape,
4260-439: A point to enter into an agreement with Vice President Richard Nixon that provided for Nixon to act on his behalf if Eisenhower became unable to provide effective presidential leadership (Nixon did informally assume some of the president's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill), discussions began in Congress about clearing up the Constitution's ambiguity on the subject. The present-day power of
4473-452: A result, the vice presidency originally had authority in only a few areas, although constitutional amendments have added or clarified some matters. Article I, Section 3, Clause 4 confers upon the vice president the title "President of the Senate", authorizing the vice president to preside over Senate meetings . In this capacity, the vice president is responsible for maintaining order and decorum, recognizing members to speak, and interpreting
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#17328447794094686-434: A review of the struggle for independence, When it was first perceived, in early times, that no middle course for America remained between unlimited submission to a foreign legislature and a total independence of its claims, men of reflection were less apprehensive of danger from the formidable power of fleets and armies they must determine to resist than from those contests and dissensions which would certainly arise concerning
4899-459: A second-tier politician, chosen either to appease the party's minority faction, satisfy party bosses, or to secure a key state. Factors playing a role in the selection included: geographic and ideological balance, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside their regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich swing states were usually preferred. A 2016 study, which examined vice-presidential candidates over
5112-469: A series of informal negotiators to meet with and influence the commissioners. Some of the informal avenues were closed down (Gerry, for instance, informed Hauteval that they could no longer meet, since Hauteval had no formal authority), and Talleyrand finally appeared in November 1797 at a dinner, primarily to castigate the Americans for their unwillingness to accede to the demand for a bribe. In late November, Talleyrand began maneuvering to separate Gerry from
5325-428: A series of meetings that took place outside formal diplomatic channels. On October 17, Nicholas Hubbard, an Englishman working for a Dutch bank used by the Americans (and who came to be identified as "W" in the published papers), notified Pinckney that Baron Jean-Conrad Hottinguer , whom Hubbard described only as a man of honor, wished to meet with him. Pinckney agreed, and the two men met the next evening. Hottinguer (who
5538-426: A stepping stone to the presidency. Since the 1970s, the vice president has been afforded an official residence at Number One Observatory Circle . The Constitution does not expressly assign the vice presidency to a branch of the government, causing a dispute among scholars about which branch the office belongs to (the executive, the legislative, both, or neither). The modern view of the vice president as an officer of
5751-405: A strategy whereby American ships harassed French ships in an effort sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests, beginning an undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War . In light of the threat of invasion from the more powerful French forces, Adams asked Congress to authorize a major expansion of the navy and the creation of a twenty-five thousand man army . Congress authorized
5964-410: A ten-thousand man army and a moderate expansion of the navy, which at the time consisted of one unarmed custom boat. Washington was commissioned as senior officer of the army , and Adams reluctantly agreed to Washington's request that Hamilton serve as the army's second-in-command. It became apparent that Hamilton was truly in charge due to Washington's advanced years. The angered president remarked at
6177-527: A violation of the Constitution, he adhered to his position. His view ultimately prevailed as both the Senate and House voted to acknowledge him as president. The "Tyler Precedent" that a vice president assumes the full title and role of president upon the death, resignation, or removal from office (via impeachment conviction) of their predecessor was codified through the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967. Altogether, nine vice presidents have succeeded to
6390-406: A vote of the presidential electors selected the president. As the election took place before the ratification of the 12th Amendment , each presidential elector cast two votes for president, though electors were not allowed to cast both votes for the same person. The Constitution prescribed that the person receiving the most votes would become president, provided that they won votes from a majority of
6603-427: Is both head of state and head of government , and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president will on occasion represent the president and the U.S. government at state funerals abroad, or at various events in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president. The vice president may also meet with other heads of state at times when
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6816-551: Is entitled to a number of electors equal to the size of its total delegation in both houses of Congress. Additionally, the Twenty-third Amendment provides that the District of Columbia is entitled to the number it would have if it were a state, but in no case more than that of the least populous state. Currently, all states and D.C. select their electors based on a popular election held on Election Day . In all but two states,
7029-452: Is not from their own state. Prior to the 2000 election , both George W. Bush and Dick Cheney lived in and voted in Texas. To avoid creating a potential problem for Texas's electors, Cheney changed his residency back to Wyoming prior to the campaign. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to
7242-453: Is offering vice presidency to the person who's in first place." Obama said the nomination process would have to be a choice between himself and Clinton, saying "I don't want anybody here thinking that 'Somehow, maybe I can get both ' ", by nominating Clinton and assuming he would be her running mate. Some suggested that it was a ploy by the Clinton campaign to denigrate Obama as less qualified for
7455-470: Is some cause to apprehend that accommodations are not now so complete as might be wished, yet there is great reason to believe that this inconvenience will cease with the present session." This would be the last annual message any president would personally deliver to Congress for the next 113 years. The following February, Congress approved the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 , which officially organized
7668-429: Is widely seen as an integral part of a president's administration. The presidential candidate selects the candidate for the vice presidency, as their running mate in the lead-up to the presidential election. While the exact nature of the role varies in each administration, since the vice president's service in office is by election, the president cannot dismiss the vice president, and the personal working-relationship with
7881-500: The 1796 presidential election . The only member of the Federalist Party to ever serve as president, his presidency ended after a single term following his defeat in the 1800 presidential election . He was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson of the opposition Democratic-Republican Party . When Adams entered office, the ongoing major European war between France and Great Britain was causing great difficulties for American merchants on
8094-539: The 1804 election . For much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. John Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many frustrated by the "complete insignificance" of the office. To his wife Abigail Adams he wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man ... or his imagination contrived or his imagination conceived; and as I can do neither good nor evil, I must be borne away by others and met
8307-540: The American Political Science Association ’s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Adams as the thirteenth best president. Vice President of the United States The vice president of the United States ( VPOTUS ) is the second-highest ranking office in the executive branch of the U.S. federal government , after the president of the United States , and ranks first in
8520-504: The Convention of 1800 , but the French refused to recognize the abdication of the Treaty of Alliance of 1778 , which had created a Franco-American alliance. The United States gained little from the settlement other than the suspension of hostilities with the French, but the timing of the agreement proved fortunate for the U.S., as the French would gain a temporary reprieve from war with Britain in
8733-558: The Democratic-Republicans for their pro-French stance, and Gerry (a nonpartisan at the time) for what they saw as his role in the commission's failure. In the wake of the 1789 French Revolution , relations between the new French Republic and U.S. federal government , originally friendly, became strained. In 1792, France and the rest of Europe went to war , a conflict in which President George Washington declared American neutrality. However, both France and Great Britain ,
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8946-462: The District of Columbia . In accordance with the Constitution, Congress became the district's governing authority . The U.S. became increasingly polarized by the Quasi-War, and Adams faced bitter attacks in the press. Many recent immigrants, including those from Ireland, looked favorably on the French and opposed the British. One Irish-American congressman, Matthew Lyon , engaged in a fist fight with
9159-602: The Electoral College votes, and then, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, opens the sealed votes. The votes are counted during a joint session of Congress as prescribed by the Electoral Count Act and the Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act . The former specifies that the president of the Senate presides over the joint session, and the latter clarifies
9372-795: The Naturalization Act , the Alien Friends Act, the Alien Enemies Act, and the Sedition Act. These statutes were designed to mitigate the threat of secessionists by disallowing their most extreme firebrands. The Naturalization Act increased to 14 years the period of residence required for an immigrant to attain American citizenship, partly because naturalized citizens tended to vote for the Democratic-Republicans. The Alien Friends Act and
9585-566: The Northwest Territory . Aside from the appointment process , the Constitution included only a passing reference to the operation of executive branch agencies . Late in Washington's first term, the term " cabinet " began to be applied to the heads of the executive branch departments, and Washington relied on his cabinet as an advisory council. While the Constitution made it clear that the people appointed to lead these agencies answered to
9798-489: The Second Continental Congress . On the eve of their inaugurations, they met briefly to discuss the possibility of sending Jefferson to France as part of a three-member delegation to calm the increasingly turbulent relations between the two countries. When they concluded that this would be an improper role for the vice president, they agreed on substituting Jefferson's political ally, James Madison . Shortly after
10011-569: The Twelfth Amendment meant that vice presidents were no longer the runners-up in the presidential election. The vice president's role began steadily growing in importance during the 1930s, with the Office of the Vice President being created in the executive branch in 1939, and has since grown much further. Due to its increase in power and prestige, the vice presidency is now often considered to be
10224-545: The US–Mexico border . The vice president is often an important liaison between the administration and Congress, especially in situations where the president has not previously served in Congress or served only briefly. Vice presidents are often selected as running mates in part due to their legislative relationships, notably including Richard Nixon, Lyndon Johnson, Walter Mondale, Dick Cheney, Joe Biden, and Mike Pence among others. In recent years, Dick Cheney held weekly meetings in
10437-463: The presidential line of succession . The vice president is also an officer in the legislative branch , as the president of the Senate . In this capacity, the vice president is empowered to preside over the United States Senate , but may not vote except to cast a tie-breaking vote . The vice president is indirectly elected at the same time as the president to a four-year term of office by
10650-481: The "precipitate nomination" of Murray, the pardoning of Fries, and the firing of Pickering. He also included a fair share of personal insults, vilifying the President's "disgusting egotism" and "ungovernable temper". Adams, he concluded, was "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest advisers, and generally unfit to be president." Strangely, it ended by saying that
10863-472: The 138 members of the Electoral College were counted during a joint session of Congress on February 8, 1797; the top three vote recipients were: Adams 71 votes, Jefferson 69, and Pinckney 59. The balance of the votes were dispersed among Burr and nine other candidates. Almost all of Adams's votes came from Northern electors, and almost all of Jefferson's votes came from Southern electors. As President of
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#173284477940911076-426: The 1790s (which the Constitution's framers had not contemplated) quickly frustrated the election plan in the original Constitution. In the election of 1796 , Federalist candidate John Adams won the presidency, but his bitter rival, Democratic-Republican candidate Thomas Jefferson, came second and thus won the vice presidency. As a result, the president and vice president were from opposing parties; and Jefferson used
11289-464: The 1800 presidential election. The prospects for peace between the U.S. and France were bolstered by the ascent of Napoleon in November 1799, as he viewed the Quasi-War as a distraction from the ongoing war in Europe . In the spring of 1800, the delegation sent by Adams began negotiating with the French delegation, led by Joseph Bonaparte . The war came to a close in September when both parties signed
11502-464: The 1802 Treaty of Amiens . News of the signing of the convention did not arrive in the United States until after the election. Overcoming the opposition of some Federalists, Adams was able to win Senate ratification of the convention in February 1801. Having concluded the war, Adams demobilized the emergency army. The U.S. and Spain had signed the Treaty of San Lorenzo in 1795, which set border with
11715-431: The 19th century and first half of the 20th century, several presidents experienced periods of severe illness, physical disability or injury, some lasting for weeks or months. During these times, even though the nation needed effective presidential leadership, no vice president wanted to seem like a usurper, and so power was never transferred. After President Dwight D. Eisenhower openly addressed his health issues and made it
11928-440: The 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention. At the start of the 21st century, Dick Cheney (2001–2009) held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without
12141-518: The 25th Amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers respectively. At the 1940 Democratic National Convention , Roosevelt selected his own running mate, Henry Wallace , instead of leaving the nomination to the convention, when he wanted Garner replaced. He then gave Wallace major responsibilities during World War II . However, after numerous policy disputes between Wallace and other Roosevelt Administration and Democratic Party officials, he
12354-554: The 6th Congress met for the first time in the Capitol building on November 17, 1800. On November 22, Adams delivered his fourth State of the Union Address to a joint session of Congress in the Senate chamber . He began his speech by congratulating members on their new seat of government and—pointedly—"on the prospect of a residence not to be changed." He added, optimistically, "Although there
12567-456: The Adams administration. An American diplomatic commission was sent to France in July 1797 to negotiate a solution to problems that were threatening to break out into war. The diplomats, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , John Marshall , and Elbridge Gerry , were approached through informal channels by agents of the French foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord , who demanded bribes and
12780-491: The Alien Enemies Act allowed the president to deport any foreigner whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedition Act made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials. Punishments included 2–5 years in prison and fines of up to $ 5,000. The acts became controversial due to the prosecution of a congressman and a number of newspaper editors. The Federalist administration initiated fourteen or more indictments under
12993-485: The Alien and Sedition Acts, he never advocated their passage nor personally implemented them, and he pardoned the instigators of Fries's Rebellion. "Seen in this light," observed historian C. James Taylor, "Adams's legacy is one of reason, moral leadership, the rule of law, compassion, and a cautious but active foreign policy that aimed both at securing the national interest and achieving an honorable peace." The election of 1796
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#173284477940913206-401: The American diplomats were in Europe, President Adams considered his options in the event of the commission's failure. His cabinet urged that the nation's military be strengthened, including the raising of a 20,000-man army and the acquisition or construction of ships of the line for the navy. He had no substantive word from the commissioners until March 1798, when the first dispatches revealing
13419-419: The Constitution does not specifically require it. However, whenever the president of the United States is on trial, the Constitution requires that the chief justice of the United States must preside. This stipulation was designed to avoid the possible conflict of interest in having the vice president preside over the trial for the removal of the one official standing between them and the presidency. In contrast,
13632-577: The Constitution expected that the vice -president would be elected by the Electoral College as the second wisest man in the country. The vice-presidentship being a sinecure, a second-rate man agreeable to the wire-pullers is always smuggled in. The chance of succession to the presidentship is too distant to be thought of." When the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor 's ticket, he replied "I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin." This
13845-414: The Constitution is silent about which federal official would preside were the vice president on trial by the Senate. No vice president has ever been impeached, thus leaving it unclear whether an impeached vice president could, as president of the Senate, preside at their own impeachment trial. The Twelfth Amendment provides that the vice president, in their capacity as the president of the Senate, receives
14058-496: The Democratic-Republicans and to his governmental duty as the Senate's presiding officer. President Adams filled three Supreme Court vacancies. In December 1798, the Senate confirmed Adams's nomination of Bushrod Washington , nephew of former President Washington, to succeed Associate Justice James Wilson . One year later, Alfred Moore succeeded Associate Justice James Iredell . Then, in January 1801, Adams named John Marshall as
14271-533: The Executive branch. In addition, the vice presidential nominee has always been an official resident of a different state than the presidential nominee. While nothing in the Constitution prohibits a presidential candidate and his or her running mate being from the same state, the "inhabitant clause" of the Twelfth Amendment does mandate that every presidential elector must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who
14484-518: The Federalist Adams administration. Vice President Thomas Jefferson , himself a republican , looked upon Federalists as monarchists who were linked to Britain and therefore hostile to American values. In late May 1797 Adams met with his cabinet to discuss the situation and to choose a special commission to France. Adams initially proposed that John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry join Pinckney on
14697-582: The Federalists appear divided and therefore helped Jefferson win, failed in its overall attempt to woo Federalist electors away from Adams. Ferling attributes Adams's defeat to five factors: the stronger organization of the Republicans; Federalist disunity; the controversy surrounding the Alien and Sedition Acts; the popularity of Jefferson in the South; and the effective politicking of Aaron Burr in New York . Analyzing
14910-449: The French demands and negotiating tactics arrived. The commission's apparent failure was duly reported to Congress, although Adams kept secret the mistreatment (lack of recognition and demand for a bribe) of the diplomats, seeking to minimize a warlike reaction. His cabinet was divided on how to react: the general tenor was one of hostility toward France, with Attorney General Charles Lee and Secretary of State Timothy Pickering arguing for
15123-582: The French nation. At the time he entered office, the country's population stood at around five million people, with two-thirds of those living within one hundred miles of the East Coast of the United States . The greatest population growth, however, was occurring in regions west of the Appalachian Mountains . By the end of his term, 500,000 people, principally from New England, Virginia , and Maryland , had migrated west into Kentucky , Tennessee , and
15336-448: The French. Democratic-Republicans were skeptical of the administration's account of what became known as the " XYZ affair ." Many of Jefferson's supporters would undermine and oppose Adams's efforts to defend against the French. Their main fear was that war with France would lead to an alliance with England, which in turn could allow the allegedly monarchist Adams to further his domestic agenda. For their part, many Federalists, particularly
15549-457: The House dais . Most recently, Vice President Mike Pence , on January 6, 2021, announced the election of his successor , Kamala Harris . Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 stipulates that the vice president takes over the "powers and duties" of the presidency in the event of a president's removal, death, resignation, or inability. Even so, it did not clearly state whether the vice president became president or simply acted as president in
15762-652: The OEOB has since been designated the "Ceremonial Office of the Vice President" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale , an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as president of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill. This change came about because Carter held
15975-428: The Sedition Act have been identified; Adams never signed a deportation order; and the sources of expressed furor over the acts were Democratic-Republicans. However, other historians have emphasized that the acts were used for political targeting from the outset, causing many aliens to leave the country. The acts also allowed for the prosecution of many who opposed the Federalists, even on the floor of Congress. Rejecting
16188-421: The Sedition Act, as well as suits against five of the six most prominent Democratic-Republican newspapers. According to biographer Ferling, the majority of the legal actions began in 1798 and 1799, and went to trial on the eve of the 1800 presidential election; the timing hardly appeared coincidental. Other historians have cited evidence that the Alien and Sedition Acts were rarely enforced: only 10 convictions under
16401-493: The Senate's rules, practices, and precedent. With this position also comes the authority to cast a tie-breaking vote . In practice, the number of times vice presidents have exercised this right has varied greatly. Incumbent vice president Kamala Harris holds the record at 33 votes, followed by John C. Calhoun who had previously held the record at 31 votes; John Adams ranks third with 29. Nine vice presidents, most recently Joe Biden , did not cast any tie-breaking votes. As
16614-497: The Senate, it fell to Adams to announce himself as president-elect and his chief opponent, Jefferson, as vice president-elect. A week later he delivered an emotional farewell speech to the body whose deliberations he had presided over for eight years. The American two-party system came into being during the run-up to the 1796 election – the only election to date in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing parties. The rivalry between New England and
16827-595: The South, with the middle states holding the balance of power, began to germinate at this time as well. Adams was inaugurated as the nation's 2nd president on March 4, 1797, in the House of Representatives Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia . Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the oath of office , making Adams the first president to receive the oath from a Supreme Court chief justice. Adams began his inaugural address ( Full text [REDACTED] ) with
17040-570: The Spanish territory of Louisiana . Yet with war between France and the United States looming, Spain was slow to implement the terms of the treaty, which included the Spanish cession of the Yazoo lands and the disarmament of Spanish forts along the Mississippi River . Shortly after Adams took office, Senator William Blount 's plans to drive the Spanish out of Louisiana and Florida became public, causing
17253-502: The Supreme Court's fourth Chief Justice, replacing Oliver Ellsworth, who had retired due to ill health. Adams had initially nominated former Chief Justice John Jay , but Jay declined to return to his former position. Marshall, who was serving as Secretary of State at the time, was quickly confirmed by the Senate, and took office on February 4. He continued to serve as Secretary of State until Adams' term expired on March 4. Adams's term
17466-479: The United States for instructions, if the French would suspend their seizures of American shipping; the French negotiators refused. Not long after this standoff, Talleyrand sent Lucien Hauteval ("Z") to meet with Elbridge Gerry. The two men knew each other, having met in Boston in 1792. Hauteval assured Gerry of Talleyrand's sincerity in seeking peace, and encouraged him to keep the informal negotiations open. He reiterated
17679-590: The United States remained strong due to fear of Britain and memories of France's assistance during the Revolutionary War . Adams hoped to maintain friendly relations with France, and he sent a delegation to Paris, consisting of John Marshall, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry , to ask for compensation for the French attacks on American shipping. When the envoys arrived in October 1797, they were kept waiting for several days, and then finally granted only
17892-426: The United States. A former senator, she is the first African American , first Asian American and first female occupant of the office. Harris is the highest ranking female official in United States history. She assumed office on January 20, 2021. No mention of an office of vice president was made at the 1787 Constitutional Convention until near the end, when an eleven-member committee on "Leftover Business" proposed
18105-467: The Vice President's Room at the United States Capitol , Joe Biden played a key role in bipartisan budget negotiations, and Mike Pence often met with House and Senate Republicans. Kamala Harris, the current vice president, presided over a 50–50 split Senate during the 117th Congress , which provided her with a key role in passing legislation. Under the American system of government the president
18318-448: The above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of vice president under the following conditions: The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidate. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing
18531-473: The acquisition of twelve frigates , and made other appropriations to increase military readiness; it also, on July 7, 1798, voted to nullify the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France , and two days later authorized attacks on French warships. Federalists used the dispatches to question the loyalty of pro-French Democratic-Republicans; this attitude contributed to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts , restricting
18744-611: The administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president personally. Since 1949, the vice president has legally been a member of the National Security Council . Harry Truman , having not been told about any war or post-war plans during his vice presidency (notably the Manhattan Project ), recognized that upon assuming the presidency a vice president needed to be already informed on such issues. Modern vice presidents have also been included in
18957-511: The administration, and led to the founding of the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party . Washington's announcement that he would not be a candidate for a third term ignited an intense partisan struggle over the presidency. Like the previous two presidential elections, no candidates were put directly before the voters in 1796. The Constitution instead provided that each state selected presidential electors , and
19170-473: The agony of his defeat, Adams's son Charles, a long-time alcoholic, died on November 30. Anxious to rejoin Abigail, who had already left for Massachusetts, Adams departed the White House in the predawn hours of March 4, 1801, and did not attend Jefferson's inauguration . Since him, three other outgoing presidents of the United States have not attended the inaugurations of their successors. Adams wrote that he had left
19383-489: The arrangement of payment terms for financial matters. Marshall left for Europe in mid-July to join Pinckney, with Gerry following a few weeks later. The political divisions in the commission's makeup were reflected in their attitudes toward the negotiations: Marshall and Pinckney, both Federalists, distrusted the French, while Gerry (who was then opposed to political parties) was willing to be flexible and unhurried in dealing with them. The French Republic, established in 1792 at
19596-516: The balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver from Maryland becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon–Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia . During times in a presidential election cycle before the identity of
19809-537: The beginning of his term and who continued to seek peace with the French, particularly frustrated many Federalists. Hamilton's influence in the War Department also widened the rift between Federalist supporters of Adams and Hamilton. At the same time, the creation of a large standing army raised popular alarm and played into the hands of the Democratic-Republicans. In February 1799, Adams surprised many by announcing that he would send diplomat William Vans Murray on
20022-552: The best who served a single term. In a 2017 C-SPAN survey, 91 presidential historians ranked Adams 19th among the 43 former presidents, (down from 17th in 2009). His rankings in the various categories of this most recent poll were as follows: public persuasion (22), crisis leadership (17), economic management (15), moral authority (11), international relations (13), administrative skills (21), relations with congress (24), vision/setting an agenda (20), pursued equal justice for all (15), performance with context of times (19). A 2024 poll of
20235-497: The bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran John Fries , rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their republican liberties and to their churches. The tax revolt raised the specter of class warfare , and Hamilton led the army into the area to put down the revolt. The subsequent trial of Fries gained wide national attention. Adams pardoned Fries and two others after they were sentenced to be executed for treason. The rebellion,
20448-480: The breakdown of the negotiations. These bitterly harsh and partisan comments turned Gerry against the Federalists, and he eventually ended up joining with the Democratic-Republicans in 1800. When news reached France of the publication of the dispatches and the ensuing hostile reaction, the response was one of fury. Talleyrand was called to the Directory to account for his role in the affair. He denied all association with
20661-423: The business to immediately become known as the "XYZ Affair." The release of the dispatches produced exactly the response Adams feared. Federalists called for war, and Democratic-Republicans were left without an effective argument against them, having miscalculated the reason for Adams' secrecy. Despite those calls, Adams steadfastly refused to ask Congress for a formal war declaration. Congress nonetheless authorized
20874-408: The causes of the party's trouncing, Adams wrote, "No party that ever existed knew itself so little or so vainly overrated its own influence and popularity as ours. None ever understood so ill the causes of its own power, or so wantonly destroyed them." Stephen G. Kurtz argues that Hamilton and his supporters were primarily responsible for the destruction of the Federalist Party. They viewed the party as
21087-407: The chains which were forging and the rod of iron that was lifted up, but frankly cut asunder the ties which had bound them, and launched into an ocean of uncertainty. The 2,308-word speech included an eloquent tribute to George Washington, a call for political unity, and a pledge to support the development of institutions of learning. To the chagrin of some of his Federalist allies, Adams also praised
21300-535: The clause. The first two vice presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson , both of whom gained the office by virtue of being runners-up in presidential contests, presided regularly over Senate proceedings and did much to shape the role of Senate president. Several 19th-century vice presidents—such as George Dallas , Levi Morton , and Garret Hobart —followed their example and led effectively, while others were rarely present. The emergence of political parties and nationally coordinated election campaigns during
21513-428: The commission to Pierre Bellamy ("Y"), whom he represented as being a member of Talleyrand's inner circle. Bellamy expounded in detail on Talleyrand's demands, including the expectation that "you must pay a great deal of money". He even proposed a series of purchases (at inflated prices) of currency as a means by which such money could be clandestinely exchanged. The commissioners offered to send one of their number back to
21726-498: The commission, but his cabinet objected to the choice of Gerry because he was not a strong Federalist. Francis Dana was chosen instead of Gerry, but he declined to serve, and Adams, who considered Gerry one of the "two most impartial men in America" (he himself being the other), submitted his name to the United States Senate in Dana's stead without consulting his cabinet. Adams, in introducing
21939-417: The committee recommended that the nation's chief executive be elected by an Electoral College , with each state having a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that state's allocation of representatives and senators . Recognizing that loyalty to one's individual state outweighed loyalty to the new federation, the Constitution's framers assumed individual electors would be inclined to choose
22152-471: The common fate." Thomas R. Marshall , who served as vice president from 1913 to 1921 under President Woodrow Wilson , lamented: "Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again." His successor, Calvin Coolidge , was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and
22365-530: The conservative "ultra-Federalists," deeply feared the radical influence of the French Revolution. Economics also drove the divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, as Federalists sought financial ties with England, while many Democratic-Republicans feared the influence of English creditors. The president saw no advantage in joining the British-led alliance against France. He therefore pursued
22578-459: The constitutionality of the acts, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions , in which the governments of Kentucky and Virginia purportedly nullified the acts. As debate over the acts continued, the election of 1800 became a bitter and volatile contest, with each side expressing extraordinary fear of the other and its policies. After Democratic-Republicans prevailed in
22791-490: The country." Vice President Charles Curtis regularly attended Cabinet meetings on the invitation of President Herbert Hoover . In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner , broke with him over the " court-packing " issue early in his second term, and became Roosevelt's leading critic. At
23004-515: The date of the congressional joint session, Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie , the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations . The president pro tempore, Richard Russell , presided in his absence. On February 8, 1933, Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of his successor, House Speaker John Nance Garner , while Garner was seated next to him on
23217-755: The demand for a loan. Both sides prepared statements to be sent across the Atlantic stating their positions, and Marshall and Pinckney, frozen out of talks that Talleyrand would only conduct with Gerry, left France in April. Their departure was delayed due to a series of negotiations over the return of their passports; in order to obtain diplomatic advantage, Talleyrand sought to force Marshall and Pinckney to formally request their return (which would allow him to later claim that they broke off negotiations). Talleyrand eventually gave in, formally requesting their departure. Gerry, although he sought to maintain unity with his co-commissioners,
23430-486: The demands for a loan and bribe. A week later (notably after the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio , which ended the five-year War of the First Coalition between France and most of the other European powers), Hottinguer and Bellamy again met with the commission, and repeated their original demands, accompanied by threats of potential war, since France was at least momentarily at peace in Europe. Pinckney's response
23643-515: The deployment of the army, and the results of the trials alienated many in Pennsylvania and other states from the Federalist Party, damaging Adams's re-election hopes. From early in his presidency, Adams had advocated for the creation of new federal judgeships , but had been rebuffed by Congress. After the Federalists lost control of both houses of Congress and the presidency in the election of 1800, many previously opposed Federalists came to support
23856-465: The deteriorating state of French–American relations during a special session to be held that May. Popular opinion in the United States on relations with France was divided along largely political lines: Federalists took a hard line, favoring a defensive buildup but not necessarily advocating war, while Democratic-Republicans expressed solidarity with the republican ideals of the French revolutionaries and did not want to be seen as cooperating with
24069-422: The election, the electors convene in their respective states (and in Washington D.C.) to vote for president and, on a separate ballot, for vice president. The certified results are opened and counted during a joint session of Congress, held in the first week of January. A candidate who receives an absolute majority of electoral votes for vice president (currently 270 of 538) is declared the winner. If no candidate has
24282-465: The elections of 1800, they used the acts against Federalists before the laws finally expired. To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and the Federalists in Congress enacted the Direct Tax of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from excise taxes and tariffs . Though Washington had maintained
24495-632: The electors should support Adams and Pinckney equally. Thanks to Burr, who had covertly obtained a copy, the pamphlet became public knowledge and was distributed throughout the country by Republicans, who rejoiced in what it contained. The pamphlet destroyed the Federalist Party, ended Hamilton's political career, and helped ensure Adams's already-likely defeat. When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished in third place with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes (one New England Federalist elector voted for John Jay instead). Jefferson and Burr tied for first place with 73 votes each. Because of
24708-470: The electors, while the person with the second most electoral votes would become vice president. Voters chose the presidential electors in seven states. In the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature. Adams and Hamilton both wanted to lead the Federalist Party, but Vice President Adams was widely viewed as Washington's "heir apparent," and he consolidated support among his party's electors. The clear favorite of Democratic-Republicans
24921-460: The end of Washington's presidency in early 1797, the matter was reaching crisis proportions. Shortly after assuming office on March 4, 1797, President John Adams learned that Charles Cotesworth Pinckney had been refused as U.S. minister because of the escalating crisis, and that American merchant ships had been seized in the Caribbean . In response, he called upon Congress to meet and address
25134-470: The enemies of "all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion." They were said to be libertines and dangerous radicals who favored states' rights over the Union and would instigate anarchy and civil war. Jefferson's rumored affairs with slaves were used against him. Republicans, for their part, accused federalists of undermining republican principles through punitive federal laws, as well as of favoring Britain and
25347-419: The eventual end to diplomatic affairs and military hostilities. The failure of the commission caused a political firestorm in the United States when the commission's dispatches were published. It led to the undeclared Quasi-War (1798–1800). Federalists , who controlled both houses of Congress and held the presidency , took advantage of the national anger to build up the nation's military. They also attacked
25560-420: The executive branch—one isolated almost entirely from the legislative branch—is due in large part to the assignment of executive authority to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Nevertheless, many vice presidents have previously served in Congress, and are often tasked with helping to advance an administration's legislative priorities. Kamala Harris is the 49th and current vice president of
25773-555: The federal government. The Federalist majority argued that the bills strengthened national security during a time of conflict, while the Democratic-Republicans harshly criticized the laws. Opposition to the Quasi-War and the Alien and the Sedition Acts, as well as the intra-party rivalry between Adams and Alexander Hamilton , all contributed to Adams's loss to Jefferson in the 1800 election. Historians have difficulty assessing Adams's presidency. Samuel Eliot Morison has written that "he
25986-696: The first Secretary of the Navy, and Stoddert emerged as one of Adams's most important advisers. As a split grew between Adams and the Hamiltonian wing of the Federalists during the second half of Adams's term, the president relied less on the advice of Pickering, McHenry, and Wolcott. Upon apprehending the scope of Hamilton's behind the scenes manipulations, Adams dismissed Pickering and McHenry in 1800, replacing them with John Marshall and Samuel Dexter , respectively. Adams and Jefferson started off cordially; they had become friends 20 years earlier, while serving together in
26199-475: The first hundred years of the United States' existence no fewer than seven proposals to abolish the office of vice president were advanced. The first such constitutional amendment was presented by Samuel W. Dana in 1800; it was defeated by a vote of 27 to 85 in the United States House of Representatives . The second, introduced by United States Senator James Hillhouse in 1808, was also defeated. During
26412-497: The first woman in U.S. history to have presidential powers and duties. Sections 3 and 4 were added because there was ambiguity in the Article II succession clause regarding a disabled president, including what constituted an " inability ", who determined the existence of an inability, and if a vice president became president for the rest of the presidential term in the case of an inability or became merely "acting president". During
26625-446: The forms of government to be instituted over the whole and over the parts of this extensive country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their cause, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under an overruling Providence which had so signally protected this country from the first, the representatives of this nation, then consisting of little more than half its present number, not only broke to pieces
26838-434: The framers of the Constitution anticipated that the vice president would not always be available to fulfill this responsibility, the Constitution provides that the Senate may elect a president pro tempore (or " president for a time ") in order to maintain the proper ordering of the legislative process. In practice, since the early 20th century, neither the president of the Senate nor the pro tempore regularly presides; instead,
27051-606: The height of the French Revolution , was by 1797 governed by a bicameral legislative assembly, with a five-member French Directory acting as the national executive. The Directory was undergoing both internal power struggles and struggles with the Council of Five Hundred , the lower chamber of the legislature. Ministerial changes took place in the first half of 1797, including the selection in July of Charles Maurice de Talleyrand as foreign minister . Talleyrand, who had recently spent
27264-470: The high seas and arousing intense partisanship among contending political parties nationwide. Attempts to negotiate with the French led to the XYZ Affair , in which French officials demanded bribes before they would assent to the beginning of negotiations. The XYZ Affair outraged the American public, and the United States and France engaged in an undeclared naval conflict known as the Quasi-War , which dominated
27477-561: The implementation of the Treaty of San Lorenzo. In 1790, Congress, through the Residence Act , had set the site for a permanent national capital along the Potomac River . December 1800 was set as the deadline for completion of government buildings in the new capital. The nascent city was named after President Washington, and the federal district surrounding it was named Columbia , which was
27690-526: The impression that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France. Meanwhile, Hamilton, desiring "a more pliant president than Adams," maneuvered to tip the election to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, who had pledged to vote for " favorite son " Pinckney, to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone, however, when several New England state electors heard of it, conferred, and agreed not to vote for Pinckney. The votes of
27903-434: The inauguration, Jefferson informed Adams that Madison was not interested in the diplomatic mission to France. Adams replied that, in any event, he would not have been able to select Madison because of pressure from within his cabinet to appoint a Federalist. That was the last time Adams consulted Jefferson on an issue of national significance. For his part, the vice president turned exclusively to his political role as leader of
28116-422: The informal negotiators, and enlisted the assistance of Gerry in exposing the agents whose names had been redacted, a charade Gerry agreed to participate in. In exchange Talleyrand confirmed privately to Gerry that the agents were in fact in his employ, and that he was, contrary to statements made to the Directory, interested in pursuing reconciliation. President Adams later wrote that Talleyrand's confession to Gerry
28329-505: The issue of whether to continue informal negotiations, with the Federalists Marshall and Pinckney opposed, and Gerry in favor. This division was eventually clear to Talleyrand, who told Gerry in January 1798 that he would no longer deal with Pinckney. In February, Talleyrand gained approval from the Directory for a new bargaining position, and he maneuvered to exclude Marshall from the negotiations as well. The change in strategy alarmed
28542-520: The judiciary as a co-equal branch of the federal government alongside the executive and legislative branches. Later, Adams reflected, "My gift of John Marshall to the people of the United States was the proudest act of my life." Throughout his entire life, Adams disliked slavery and refused to own any slaves. In 1800, the Slave Trade Act of 1800 restricted the international trade in slaves and Adams signed it into law on May 10, 1800. George Logan
28755-419: The knowledge of the president. This rapid growth led to Matthew Yglesias and Bruce Ackerman calling for the abolition of the vice presidency while 2008 's both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden , said they would reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Although delegates to the constitutional convention approved establishing
28968-412: The late 1860s and 1870s, five additional amendments were proposed. One advocate, James Mitchell Ashley , opined that the office of vice president was "superfluous" and dangerous. Garret Hobart , the first vice president under William McKinley , was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart
29181-404: The legislative branch role has contracted; for example, vice presidents now preside over the Senate only infrequently. The role of the vice presidency has changed dramatically since the office was created during the 1787 Constitutional Convention . Originally something of an afterthought, the vice presidency was considered an insignificant office for much of the nation's history, especially after
29394-577: The major American complaints against the British, including the ongoing British impressment of American sailors, and President Washington viewed the treaty as the best method of avoiding another war with the British. The French were outraged by the Jay Treaty and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. In the 1796 elections, the French supported Jefferson for president, and they became even more belligerent at his loss. Nevertheless, when Adams took office, pro-French sentiment in
29607-563: The major naval powers in the war, seized ships of neutral powers (including those of the United States) that traded with their enemies. With the Jay Treaty , ratified in 1795, the United States reached an agreement on the matter with Britain that angered members of the Directory that governed France. The French Navy consequently stepped up its efforts to interrupt American trade with Britain. By
29820-523: The matter to Congress, made a somewhat belligerent speech in which he called for a vigorous defense of the nation's neutrality and expansion of the United States Navy , but stopped short of calling for war against France. Congress approved this choice of commissioners, and Adams instructed them to negotiate similar terms to those that had been granted to Britain in the Jay Treaty. The commissioners were also instructed to refuse loans, but to be flexible in
30033-487: The most part, unorganized and sporadic, confined to newspaper attacks, pamphlets, and political rallies. Federalists attacked Jefferson as a Francophile and an atheist, while the Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an Anglophile and a monarchist . In early November, France's ambassador to the United States, Pierre Adet , inserted himself into the political debate on behalf of Jefferson, publishing statements designed to arouse anti-British sentiment and to leave
30246-464: The movements and actions of foreigners, and limiting speech critical of the government. Federalists were otherwise divided on the question of war, and the Democratic-Republicans painted hawkish Federalists as warmongers seeking to undermine the republic by military means. Elbridge Gerry was placed in a difficult position upon his return to the United States. Federalists, spurred by John Marshall's accounts of their disagreements, criticized him for abetting
30459-538: The names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination. In modern practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and since the mid 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. Prior to Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940, only two presidents—Andrew Jackson in 1832 and Abraham Lincoln in 1864 —had done so. In recent years, with
30672-496: The navy achieved several victories, including the capture of L'Insurgente , a powerful French warship. The navy also opened trade relations with Saint-Domingue (now known as Haiti ), a rebellious French colony in the Caribbean Sea . Over the opposition of many in his own party, Adams resisted the escalation of the war. The president's continued support for Elbridge Gerry, a Democratic-Republican who Adams had sent to France at
30885-558: The newly created courts, and returning the federal court system to its earlier structure. After being swept out of power in 1800 by Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican Party, the Federalists focused their hopes for the survival of the republic on the federal judiciary . During Marshall's 34 years as chief justice, the Marshall Court played a major role in increasing the federal government's power and in establishing
31098-412: The next president a nation "with its coffers full" and "fair prospects of peace". The transfer of presidential power between Adams and Jefferson represented the first such transfer between two different political parties in U.S. history, and set the precedent for all subsequent inter-party transitions. The complications arising out of the 1796 and 1800 elections prompted Congress and the states to refine
31311-563: The next vacancy. This was done to deny Jefferson an opportunity to appoint a justice until two vacancies occurred. As Adams filled these new positions during the final days of his presidency, opposition newspapers and politicians soon began referring to the appointees as "midnight judges." Most of these judges lost their posts when the Democratic-Republican-dominated 7th Congress approved the Judiciary Act of 1802 , abolishing
31524-543: The office flows primarily from formal and informal delegations of authority from the president and Congress. These delegations can vary in significance; for example, the vice president is a statutory member of both the National Security Council and the board of regents of the Smithsonian Institution . The extent of the roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between
31737-462: The office, with both its executive and senatorial functions, not many understood the office, and so they gave the vice president few duties and little power. Only a few states had an analogous position. Among those that did, New York's constitution provided that "the lieutenant-governor shall, by virtue of his office, be president of the Senate, and, upon an equal division, have a casting voice in their decisions, but not vote on any other occasion". As
31950-560: The opposition Democratic-Republicans enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced a daunting reelection campaign . Even so, his position within the party was strong, bolstered by his enduring popularity in New England, the main Federalist base. In early 1800, Federalist members of Congress nominated Adams and Charles C. Pinckney for the presidency; the caucus did not explicitly indicate which individual
32163-465: The other coalition countries in their war with France in order to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values. Jefferson was portrayed as an apostle of liberty and man of the people, while Adams was labelled a monarchist. He was accused of insanity and marital infidelity. James T. Callender , a Republican propagandist secretly financed by Jefferson, launched strong attacks on Adams's character and accused him of attempting to make war with France. Callender
32376-503: The other commissioners. He extended a "social" dinner invitation to Gerry, which the latter, seeking to maintain communications, planned to attend. The matter heightened distrust of Gerry by Marshall and Pinckney, who sought guarantees that Gerry would limit any representations and agreements he might consider. Despite seeking to refuse informal negotiations, all of the commissioners ended up having private meetings with some of Talleyrand's negotiators. The commissioners eventually divided over
32589-450: The ousted cabinet secretaries and Wolcott. The letter was initially intended for only a few Federalist electors. Upon seeing a draft, several Federalists urged Hamilton not to send it. Wolcott wrote that "the poor old man" could do himself in without their help. But Hamilton did not heed their advice. On October 24, he sent a pamphlet strongly attacking Adams on a number of points. Hamilton denounced many of Adams's policy decisions, including
32802-492: The party whose presidential–vice presidential ticket receives a plurality of popular votes in the state has its entire slate of elector nominees chosen as the state's electors. Maine and Nebraska deviate from this winner-take-all practice, awarding two electors to the statewide winner and one to the winner in each congressional district . On the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after
33015-491: The people of the United States through the Electoral College , but the electoral votes are cast separately for these two offices. Following the passage in 1967 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the US Constitution, a vacancy in the office of vice president may be filled by presidential nomination and confirmation by a majority vote in both houses of Congress. The modern vice presidency is a position of significant power and
33228-440: The period 1884-2012, found that vice presidential candidates increased their tickets’ performance in their home states by 2.67 percentage points on average. The vice president is elected indirectly by the voters of each state and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College, a body of electors formed every four years for the sole purpose of electing the president and vice president to concurrent four-year terms. Each state
33441-504: The presidency (the state of Roosevelt's health had also been kept from Truman). At the time he said, "I felt like the moon, the stars and all the planets fell on me." Determined that no future vice president should be so uninformed upon unexpectedly becoming president, Truman made the vice president a member of the National Security Council , a participant in Cabinet meetings and a recipient of regular security briefings in 1949. The stature of
33654-605: The presidency intra-term. In addition to Tyler, they are Millard Fillmore , Andrew Johnson , Chester A. Arthur , Theodore Roosevelt , Calvin Coolidge , Harry S. Truman , Lyndon B. Johnson , and Gerald Ford . Four of them—Roosevelt, Coolidge, Truman, and Lyndon B. Johnson—were later elected to full terms of their own. Four sitting vice presidents have been elected president: John Adams in 1796 , Thomas Jefferson in 1800 , Martin Van Buren in 1836 , and George H. W. Bush in 1988 . Likewise, two former vice presidents have won
33867-509: The presidency, Richard Nixon in 1968 and Joe Biden in 2020 . Also, in recent decades four incumbent vice presidents lost a presidential election: Nixon in 1960 , Hubert Humphrey in 1968, Al Gore in 2000 , and Kamala Harris in 2024 . Additionally, former vice president Walter Mondale lost in 1984 . In total, 15 vice presidents have become president. Sections 3 and 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provide for situations where
34080-442: The presidency. Later, when Obama became the presumptive Democratic presidential nominee, former president Jimmy Carter cautioned against Clinton being picked as the vice presidential nominee on the ticket, saying "I think it would be the worst mistake that could be made. That would just accumulate the negative aspects of both candidates", citing opinion polls showing 50% of US voters with a negative view of Hillary Clinton. Though
34293-443: The presidency. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided it was an absolute majority of the whole number of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If there were a tie for first or for second place, or if no one won a majority of votes, the president and vice president would be selected by means of contingent elections protocols stated in
34506-595: The president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in these roles depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Most recent vice presidents have been viewed as important presidential advisors. Walter Mondale, unlike his immediate predecessors, did not want specific responsibilities to be delegated to him. Mondale believed, as he wrote President-elect Jimmy Carter
34719-649: The president found the public buildings "in a much greater forwardness of completion than expected." The north (Senate) wing of the Capitol was nearly completed, as was the White House . The president moved into the White House on November 1, and First Lady Abigail Adams arrived a few weeks later. Upon arriving, Adams wrote to her, "Before I end my letter, I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof." The Senate of
34932-595: The president is temporarily or permanently unable to lead, such as if the president has a surgical procedure, becomes seriously ill or injured, or is otherwise unable to discharge the powers or duties of the presidency. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity, and Section 4 addresses incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet. While Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked on four occasions by three presidents, first in 1985. When invoked on November 19, 2021, Kamala Harris became
35145-442: The president pro tempore usually delegates the task to other Senate members. Rule XIX , which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, Time magazine wrote in 1925, during
35358-489: The president varies, most modern vice presidents serve as a key presidential advisor, governing partner, and representative of the president. The vice president is also a statutory member of the United States Cabinet and United States National Security Council and thus plays a significant role in executive government and national security matters. As the vice president's role within the executive branch has expanded,
35571-568: The president's daily intelligence briefings and frequently participate in meetings in the Situation Room with the president. To be constitutionally eligible to serve as the nation's vice president, a person must, according to the Twelfth Amendment, meet the eligibility requirements to become president (which are stated in Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 ). Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must: A person who meets
35784-483: The president, and often actively worked against Adams's proposals. "The Hamiltonians by whom he is surrounded," wrote Jefferson in a May 1797 letter, "are only a little less hostile to him than to me." The other holdover from the Washington administration, Attorney General Charles Lee , worked well with Adams and remained in the cabinet for the duration of Adams's presidency. In 1798, Benjamin Stoddert of Maryland became
35997-678: The president, it was silent on termination of cabinet appointments. When Adams became president, there was no precedent regarding the continued service of the previous president's top officials. Rather than seize the opportunity to use patronage to build a loyal group of advisors, Adams retained Washington's cabinet, although none of its members had ever been close to him. Three cabinet members, Timothy Pickering , James McHenry , and Oliver Wolcott Jr. , were devoted to Hamilton and referred every major policy question to him in New York. These cabinet members, in turn, presented Hamilton's recommendations to
36210-408: The presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The most recent presidential nominee not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention,
36423-525: The presidential nominee is clear, including cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan , who was trailing President Gerald Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Pennsylvania Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. Reagan
36636-446: The presumptive Republican nominee. Obama rejected the offer outright, saying, "I want everybody to be absolutely clear. I'm not running for vice president. I'm running for president of the United States of America," adding, "With all due respect. I won twice as many states as Senator Clinton. I've won more of the popular vote than Senator Clinton. I have more delegates than Senator Clinton. So, I don't know how somebody who's in second place
36849-491: The process whereby the Electoral College elects a president and a vice president. The new procedure was enacted through the 12th Amendment, which became a part of the Constitution in June 1804 and first took effect in the 1804 presidential election . Historian Stephen Kurtz has argued: Polls of historians and political scientists rank Adams toward the top of the middle third of presidents. Historian George Herring argues that Adams
37062-412: The proposal, as the expansion of the courts would allow for the appointment of numerous Federalists to life-tenured government positions. The lame-duck session of the 6th Congress approved the Judiciary Act of 1801 , which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court. It also reduced the size of the Supreme Court from six justices to five, to take effect upon
37275-467: The remainder of Adams's presidency. Adams presided over an expansion of the army and the navy, and the navy won several successes in the Quasi-War. The increased expenditures associated with these actions required greater federal revenue, and Congress passed the Direct Tax of 1798. The war and its associated taxation provoked domestic unrest, resulting in incidents such as Fries's Rebellion . In response to
37488-439: The room" when a big decision was made; later, as president himself, Biden adopted this model with his own vice president, Kamala Harris. Recent vice presidents have been delegated authority by presidents to handle significant issue areas independently. Joe Biden (who has held the office of President and Vice President of the United States) has observed that the presidency is "too big anymore for any one man or woman". Dick Cheney
37701-728: The solely ministerial role the president of the Senate serves in the process. The next such joint session will next take place following the 2024 presidential election , on January 6, 2025 (unless Congress sets a different date by law). In this capacity, four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, in 1797, Thomas Jefferson , in 1801, Martin Van Buren , in 1837 and George H. W. Bush , in 1989. Conversely, John C. Breckinridge , in 1861, Richard Nixon , in 1961, and Al Gore , in 2001, all had to announce their opponent's election. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have done so as well, following his 1968 loss to Richard Nixon; however, on
37914-411: The start of that term, on January 20, 1937 , Garner had been the first vice president to be sworn into office on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald Ford and Nelson Rockefeller , who were each appointed to the office under the terms of
38127-409: The tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes , "once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor." In their capacity as president of the Senate, the vice president may preside over most impeachment trials of federal officers , although
38340-444: The tie, the election devolved upon the House of Representatives. As specified by the Constitution, each state's delegation voted en bloc , with each state having a single vote; an absolute majority (nine, as there were 16 states at the time) was required for victory. On February 17, 1801 – on the 36th ballot – Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained). It is noteworthy that Hamilton's scheme, although it made
38553-526: The time, "Hamilton I know to be a proud Spirited, conceited, aspiring Mortal always pretending to Morality," he wrote, but "with as debauched Morals as old Franklin who is more his Model than anyone I know." Due to his support for the expansion of the navy and the creation of the United States Department of the Navy , Adams is "often called the father of the American Navy". During the quasi-war,
38766-421: The unrest, both foreign and domestic, the 5th Congress passed four bills, collectively known as the Alien and Sedition Acts . Signed into law by the president, these acts made it more difficult for immigrants to become U.S. citizens , allowed the president to imprison and deport non-citizens who were deemed dangerous or who were from a hostile nation, and criminalized making false statements that were critical of
38979-491: The vice presidency grew again while Richard Nixon was in office (1953–1961). He attracted the attention of the media and the Republican Party, when Dwight Eisenhower authorized him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence and to assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957. Nixon
39192-423: The vice presidency to frustrate the president's policies. Then, four years later, in the election of 1800 , Jefferson and fellow Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr each received 73 electoral votes. In the contingent election that followed, Jefferson finally won the presidency on the 36th ballot, leaving Burr the vice presidency. Afterward, the system was overhauled through the Twelfth Amendment in time to be used in
39405-405: The vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States senators or representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former governor, a high-ranking former military officer (active military officers being prohibited under US law from holding political office), or a holder of a major position within
39618-408: The vice presidential nominee representing regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial. Historically, the vice presidential nominee was usually
39831-430: The view that the office of the vice presidency had historically been a wasted asset and wished to have his vice president involved in the decision-making process. Carter pointedly considered, according to Joel Goldstein, the way Roosevelt treated Truman as "immoral". Another factor behind the rise in prestige of the vice presidency was the expanded use of presidential preference primaries for choosing party nominees during
40044-411: Was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy . At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during
40257-444: Was Thomas Jefferson, though he was reluctant to run. The Democratic-Republicans in Congress held a nominating caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their presidential choices. Jefferson at first declined the nomination, but he finally agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their presidential candidates. The campaign, was, for
40470-513: Was a Senator who secretly negotiated with France in 1798. Many were outraged that an average citizen went to Paris to negotiate with a foreign power and so they passed the Logan Act in response. John Adams signed the bill. The intent behind the Act is to prevent unauthorized negotiations from undermining the government's position. With the Federalist Party deeply split over his negotiations with France, and
40683-555: Was also visible on the world stage during his time in office. Until 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill , a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building . Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to also be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building . The former Navy Secretary's office in
40896-476: Was arrested and jailed under the Sedition Act, which only further inflamed Republican passions. At times, opposition from the Federalist Party was equally intense. Some, including Pickering, accused Adams of colluding with Jefferson so that he would end up either president or vice president. Hamilton was hard at work, attempting to sabotage the President's reelection. In planning an indictment of Adams' character, he requested and received private documents from both
41109-419: Was by temperament unsuited for the presidency. He did know more than any other American, even James Madison , about political science; but as an administrator he was uneasy." Nonetheless, Adams was able to avoid war with France, arguing that war should be a last resort to diplomacy. In this argument, he won the nation the respect of its most powerful adversaries. Although Adams was fiercely criticized for signing
41322-648: Was called "Assistant President". However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet . This precedent was broken by Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles . President Warren G. Harding also invited Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes , did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that "the precedent might prove injurious to
41535-443: Was considered to hold a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the president. Biden was assigned by Barack Obama to oversee Iraq policy; Obama was said to have said, "Joe, you do Iraq." In February 2020, Donald Trump appointed Mike Pence to lead his response to COVID-19 and, upon his ascension to the presidency, Biden put Kamala Harris in charge of controlling migration at
41748-482: Was denied re-nomination at the 1944 Democratic National Convention . Harry Truman was selected instead. During his 82-day vice presidency, Truman was never informed about any war or post-war plans, including the Manhattan Project . Truman had no visible role in the Roosevelt administration outside of his congressional responsibilities and met with the president only a few times during his tenure as vice president. Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, and Truman succeeded to
41961-399: Was famous: "No, no, not a sixpence !" The commissioners decided on November 1 to refuse further negotiations by informal channels. Publication of dispatches describing this series of meetings would form the basis for the later political debates in the United States. The commissioners soon discovered that only unofficial channels were open to them. Over the next several months, Talleyrand sent
42174-435: Was favored for the presidency or the vice presidency. The Democratic-Republicans, meanwhile, nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election, but designated Jefferson as the party's first choice. The campaign was bitter and marked by malicious insults from both sides' partisan press. The Federalists claimed that the Republicans were radicals who would ruin the country through revolution. Republicans were
42387-467: Was first tested in 1841, following the death of President William Henry Harrison , only 31 days into his term. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler , asserted that under the Constitution, he had succeeded to the presidency, not just to its powers and duties. He had himself sworn in as president and assumed full presidential powers, refusing to acknowledge documents referring to him as "Acting President". Although some in Congress denounced Tyler's claim as
42600-558: Was fought primarily in the Caribbean) convinced Talleyrand that he had miscalculated in his dealings with the commissioners. In response to the diplomatic overtures he made to William Vans Murray in The Hague, President Adams sent negotiators to France in 1799 who eventually negotiated an end to hostilities with the Convention of 1800 (whose negotiations were managed in part by Marshall, then Secretary of State ) in September 1800. This agreement
42813-593: Was held a week later. Talleyrand sought from the commissioners an explanation for the speech Adams had made in May, which had angered Directory members; his motivation was to determine how favorably the commissioners were disposed to the negotiations. If they responded in an unfavorable manner, the Directory would refuse to accept their credentials. The commissioners first learned of Talleyrand's expected demand on October 14 through an indirect channel. They decided that no explanation would be given for Adams' speech. What followed were
43026-449: Was later identified as "X") relayed a series of French demands, which included a large loan to the French government and the payment of a £50,000 bribe to Talleyrand. Pinckney relayed these demands to the other commissioners, and Hottinguer repeated them to the entire commission, which curtly refused the demands, even though it was widely known that diplomats from other nations had paid bribes to deal with Talleyrand. Hottinguer then introduced
43239-609: Was made with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte , who had overthrown the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799, and it was ratified by the United States Senate in December 1801 . Presidency of John Adams The presidency of John Adams , began on March 4, 1797, when John Adams was inaugurated as the second president of the United States , and ended on March 4, 1801. Adams, who had served as vice president under George Washington , took office as president after winning
43452-439: Was marked by disputes concerning the country's role in the expanding conflict in Europe, where Britain and France and their respective allies were at war . Hamilton and the Federalists supported Britain, while Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans favored France. The intense battle over the Jay Treaty in 1795 had previously polarized politics throughout the nation and alienated the French. The Jay Treaty had resolved some of
43665-460: Was significant danger of war. In part based on advice imparted to French diplomats by Jefferson, Talleyrand decided to adopt a measured, slow pace to the negotiations. The American commission arrived in Paris in early October, and immediately requested a meeting with Talleyrand. After an initial brief meeting (in which Talleyrand only provisionally accepted the commissioners' credentials), a longer meeting
43878-420: Was significant in his decision to continue efforts to maintain peace. Gerry, in his private report on the affair to Adams in 1799, claimed credit for maintaining the peace, and for influencing significant changes in French policy that lessened the hostilities and eventually brought a peace treaty. The warlike attitude of the United States and the start of the Quasi-War (a naval war between the two countries that
44091-429: Was so pleased with the outcome that he had it engraved on his tombstone. Historian Ralph Adams Brown argues that, by keeping the United States out of war with France, Adams allowed the fledgling nation to grow and prosper into the transcontinental nation it eventually became in the 19th century. Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked Adams as an average or above-average president, and one of
44304-525: Was specified that the first runner-up would become vice president. The resultant method of electing the president and vice president, spelled out in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 , allocated to each state a number of electors equal to the combined total of its Senate and House of Representatives membership. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for president (rather than for both president and vice president), but could not differentiate between their first and second choice for
44517-403: Was the first contested American presidential election. George Washington had been elected to office unanimously in the first two presidential elections. However, during his presidency , deep philosophical differences manifested between the two leading figures in the administration— Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Their competing visions of domestic and foreign policy caused a rift within
44730-450: Was the first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention. Reagan's supporters then unsuccessfully sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering
44943-877: Was the most independent-minded of the founders. Though he aligned with the Federalists, he was somewhat a party unto himself, disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Jeffersonian Republicans. He was often described as "prickly", but his tenacity was fed by good decisions made in the face of universal opposition. Adams was often combative, which diminished presidential decorum, as Adams himself admitted in his old age: "[As president] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore." Adams' resolve to advance peace with France, rather than to continue hostilities, especially reduced his popularity. This played an important role in his reelection defeat, however he
45156-506: Was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time candidate would have become president had he accepted either. Since presidents rarely die in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State , in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore. In
45369-877: Was told by Talleyrand that if he left France the Directory would declare war. Gerry remained behind, protesting the "impropriety of permitting a foreign government to [choose] the person who should negotiate." He however remained optimistic that war was unrealistic, writing to William Vans Murray , the American minister to The Netherlands , that "nothing but madness" would cause the French to declare war. Gerry resolutely refused to engage in further substantive negotiations with Talleyrand, agreeing only to stay until someone with more authority could replace him, and wrote to President Adams requesting assistance in securing his departure from Paris. Talleyrand eventually sent representatives to The Hague to reopen negotiations with William Vans Murray, and Gerry finally returned home in October 1798. While
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