Plotinus ( / p l ɒ ˈ t aɪ n ə s / ; Ancient Greek : Πλωτῖνος , Plōtînos ; c. 204/5 – 270 CE ) was a Greek Platonist philosopher , born and raised in Roman Egypt . Plotinus is regarded by modern scholarship as the founder of Neoplatonism . His teacher was the self-taught philosopher Ammonius Saccas , who belonged to the Platonic tradition . Historians of the 19th century invented the term "neoplatonism" and applied it to refer to Plotinus and his philosophy, which was vastly influential during late antiquity , the Middle Ages , and the Renaissance . Much of the biographical information about Plotinus comes from Porphyry 's preface to his edition of Plotinus' most notable literary work, The Enneads . In his metaphysical writings, Plotinus described three fundamental principles: the One , the Intellect , and the Soul . His works have inspired centuries of pagan , Jewish , Christian , Gnostic , and early Islamic metaphysicians and mystics , including developing precepts that influence mainstream theological concepts within religions, such as his work on duality of the One in two metaphysical states.
107-577: World Soul may refer to: Anima mundi , the "world-soul" in Plato and derived traditions in Western philosophy Weltseele "world-soul" in German philosophy, see Weltgeist ("world-spirit") Atman (disambiguation) , a Sanskrit term sometimes equated with anima mundi World Soul (novel) , a 1964 novel by Mikhail Yemtsev and Yeremey Parnov Topics referred to by
214-442: A soul much like the human body. Rooted in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy , the idea holds that the world soul infuses the cosmos with life and intelligence. This notion has been influential across various systems of thought, including Stoicism , Gnosticism , Neoplatonism , and Hermeticism , shaping metaphysical and cosmological frameworks throughout history. In ancient philosophy, Plato 's dialogue Timaeus introduces
321-514: A doctor of Scythopolis ; and Serapion from Alexandria. He had students amongst the Roman Senate beside Castricius, such as Marcellus Orontius , Sabinillus , and Rogantianus . Women were also numbered amongst his students, including Gemina, in whose house he lived during his residence in Rome, and her daughter, also Gemina; and Amphiclea, the wife of Ariston, the son of Iamblichus . Finally, Plotinus
428-601: A flowing, ροη, out, απο), similar to the metaphysics of Creation, describes the absolute transcendence of the One or of the Divine, as the source of the Being of all things, but which remains transcendent of them in its own nature. The One is in no way affected or diminished by these emanations, just as the Christian God in no way is augmented or diminished by the act of Creation. Plotinus, using
535-486: A number of students. His innermost circle included Porphyry , Amelius Gentilianus of Tuscany , the Senator Castricius Firmus , and Eustochius of Alexandria , a doctor who devoted himself to learning from Plotinus and attending to him until his death. Other students included: Zethos , an Arab by ancestry who died before Plotinus, leaving him a legacy and some land; Zoticus , a critic and poet; Paulinus ,
642-465: A perfect universe, and invites moral depravity. He does, however, claim the stars and planets are ensouled , as witnessed by their movement . Plotinian concepts have been discussed in a cinematic context and relate Plotinus' theory of time as a transitory intelligible movement of the soul to Bergson’s and Deleuze’s time-image. The emperor Julian the Apostate was deeply influenced by neoplatonism, as
749-456: A sect of Gnostics that held anti-polytheistic and anti-daemon views, and that preached salvation was possible without struggle. At one point, Plotinus makes clear that his major grudge is the way Gnostics 'misused' Plato's teachings, and not their own teachings themselves: There are no hard feelings if they tell us in which respects they intend to disagree with Plato [...] Rather, whatever strikes them as their own distinct views in comparison with
856-534: A snake crept under the bed where Plotinus lay, and slipped away through a hole in the wall; at the same moment the philosopher died. Plotinus wrote the essays that became the Enneads (from Greek ἐννέα ( ennéa ), or group of nine) over a period of several years from c. 253 until a few months before his death seventeen years later. Porphyry makes note that the Enneads , before being compiled and arranged by himself, were merely
963-520: A tradition of thought begun by Plato himself. Plotinus's metaphysics, at least in broad outline, was therefore already familiar to the first generation of Plato's students. This confirms Plotinus' own view, for he considered himself not the inventor of a system but the faithful interpreter of Plato's doctrines. At least two modern conferences within Hellenic philosophy fields of study have been held in order to address what Plotinus stated in his tract Against
1070-483: A venerable analogy that would become crucial for the (largely neoplatonic) metaphysics of developed Christian thought, likens the One to the Sun which emanates light indiscriminately without thereby diminishing itself, or reflection in a mirror which in no way diminishes or otherwise alters the object being reflected. The first emanation is Nous (Divine Mind, Logos , Order, Thought, Reason), identified metaphorically with
1177-590: A vision of the cosmos that was both mystical and rational. Bruno's emphasis on the world soul can also be seen in his metaphysical poetry and dialogues, where he often depicted the universe as a divine, living organism animated by an internal spirit. This perspective was revolutionary, challenging the Aristotelian view of a finite, hierarchical cosmos and aligning more closely with the Hermetic and Neoplatonic traditions. Bruno’s radical ideas, including his support for
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#17328521605011284-571: Is called soul ( World Soul ). Henosis for Plotinus was defined in his works as a reversing of the ontological process of consciousness via meditation (in the Western mind to un contemplate ) toward no thought ( Nous or demiurge ) and no division ( dyad ) within the individual (being). Plotinus words his teachings to reconcile not only Plato with Aristotle but also various World religions that he had personal contact with during his various travels. Plotinus' works have an ascetic character in that they reject matter as an illusion (non-existent). Matter
1391-405: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Anima mundi The concept of the anima mundi ( Latin ), world soul ( Ancient Greek : ψυχὴ κόσμου , psychḕ kósmou ), or soul of the world ( ψυχὴ τοῦ κόσμου , psychḕ toû kósmou ) posits an intrinsic connection between all living beings, suggesting that the world is animated by
1498-559: Is not an abstract, separate entity but a physical presence that interpenetrates the cosmos, providing it with structure and purpose. This physicalist interpretation reflects the Stoic commitment to the idea that only bodies can act and be acted upon. The Stoic concept of the world soul also has ethical implications. Since the logos governs the cosmos rationally, living in accordance with nature means aligning one's life with this rational order. The Stoics believed that by understanding and accepting
1605-406: Is one of Plotinus’ greatest imprints on Western thought, as he is one of the first to introduce the idea that eudaimonia (happiness) is attainable only within consciousness. The true human is an incorporeal contemplative capacity of the soul, and superior to all things corporeal. It then follows that real human happiness is independent of the physical world. Real happiness is, instead, dependent on
1712-420: Is possible any longer to distinguish between seer and seen, and not boldly to affirm that the two are one." Although Plotinus never mentions Christianity in any of his works, he seems to offer an alternative to the orthodox Christian notion of creation ex nihilo (out of nothing), though this is disputed. The metaphysics of emanation (ἀπορροή aporrhoe (ΙΙ.3.2) or ἀπόρροια aporrhoia (II.3.11)) (literally
1819-506: Is set always and only inward.” (Enneads I.4.11) Overall, happiness for Plotinus is "... a flight from this world's ways and things." (Theaet. 176) and a focus on the highest, i.e. Forms and the One. Plotinus regarded happiness as living in an interior way (interiority or self-sufficiency), and this being the obverse of attachment to the objects of embodied desires. Henosis is the word for mystical "oneness", "union", or "unity" in classical Greek. In Platonism , and especially neoplatonism ,
1926-520: Is the utilization of the most authentically human capacity of contemplation. Even in daily, physical action, the flourishing human’s “… Act is determined by the higher phase of the Soul.” (Enneads III.4.6) Even in the most dramatic arguments Plotinus considers (if the Proficient is subject to extreme physical torture, for example), he concludes this only strengthens his claim of true happiness being metaphysical, as
2033-575: The Demiurge in Plato's Timaeus . It is the first Will toward Good. From Nous proceeds the World Soul , which Plotinus subdivides into upper and lower, identifying the lower aspect of Soul with nature . From the world soul proceeds individual human souls, and finally, matter, at the lowest level of being and thus the least perfected level of the cosmos. Plotinus asserted the ultimately divine nature of material creation since it ultimately derives from
2140-530: The Enneads of Plotinus the Monad can be referred to as the Good above the demiurge. The Monad or dunamis (force) is of one singular expression (the will or the one which is the good); all is contained in the Monad and the Monad is all ( pantheism ). All division is reconciled in the one; the final stage before reaching singularity, called duality (dyad), is completely reconciled in the Monad, Source or One (see monism ). As
2247-470: The Enneads , but to clarify aspects of the works of Plato that he considered misrepresented or misunderstood. Plotinus does not claim to be an innovator, but rather a communicator of a tradition. Plotinus referred to tradition as a way to interpret Plato's intentions. Because the teachings of Plato were for members of the academy rather than the general public, it was easy for outsiders to misunderstand Plato's meaning. However, Plotinus attempted to clarify how
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#17328521605012354-565: The Middle Platonist philosophers Alexander of Aphrodisias and Numenius of Apamea , along with various Stoics and Neopythagoreans . After having spent eleven years in Alexandria, he then decided, at the age of around thirty-eight, to investigate the philosophical teachings of the Persian and Indian philosophers . In the pursuit of this endeavor he left Alexandria and joined the army of
2461-704: The Mutazilite Abbasids fused Greek concepts into sponsored state texts, and found great influence amongst the Ismaili Shia and Persian philosophers as well, such as Muhammad al-Nasafi and Abu Yaqub Sijistani . By the 11th century, neoplatonism was adopted by the Fatimid state of Egypt, and taught by their da'i . Neoplatonism was brought to the Fatimid court by Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani , although his teachings differed from Nasafi and Sijistani, who were more aligned with
2568-414: The demiurge , constructed to be self-identical and intelligible to reason, according to a rational pattern expressed in mathematical principles and Pythagorean ratios describing the structure of the cosmos, and particularly the motions of the seven classical planets . The living universe is also a god titled Ouranos and Kosmos , which shows, as scholars have argued, that Plato mediates between
2675-455: The logos ) for harmonizing the cosmos and ensuring its rational order. Chrysippus , another prominent Stoic, further developed the idea of the world soul, arguing that it is the animating principle that ensures the coherence and unity of the cosmos. The Stoic view of the world soul differs from Plato's in that it emphasizes the materiality of the pneuma . For the Stoics, the soul of the universe
2782-471: The macrocosm and microcosm , where the human body (microcosm) is a reflection of the larger universe (macrocosm). By studying the world soul's manifestations in nature, Paracelsus believed that alchemists and physicians could uncover the secrets of health and transformation. Giordano Bruno , a 16th-century Italian philosopher, theologian, and occultist, significantly contributed to the Renaissance revival of
2889-429: The "Sun", and lastly the Soul (Ψυχή, Psyche ) to the "Moon" whose light is merely a "derivative conglomeration of light from the 'Sun'". The first light could exist without any celestial body. The One, being beyond all attributes including being and non-being, is the source of the world—but not through any act of creation, since activity cannot be ascribed to the unchangeable, immutable One. Plotinus argues instead that
2996-663: The Christian, the Other World was the Kingdom of Heaven, to be enjoyed after death; to the Platonist, it was the eternal world of ideas, the real world as opposed to that of illusory appearance. Christian theologians combined these points of view, and embodied much of the philosophy of Plotinus. [...] Plotinus, accordingly, is historically important as an influence in moulding the Christianity of
3103-600: The Copernican model and his concept of an infinite universe with a pervasive world soul, led to his persecution by the Roman Catholic Church . He was tried for heresy and ultimately burned at the stake in 1600. Despite his tragic end, Bruno's ideas significantly influenced later thinkers and contributed to the development of modern cosmology and metaphysics. Another key figure in Hermeticism, Robert Fludd , elaborated on
3210-518: The Enneads , p. vii Authentic human happiness for Plotinus consists of the true human identifying with that which is the best in the universe. Because happiness is beyond anything physical, Plotinus stresses the point that worldly fortune does not control true human happiness, and thus “… there exists no single human being that does not either potentially or effectively possess this thing we hold to constitute happiness.” (Enneads I.4.4) The issue of happiness
3317-688: The Gnostics and to whom he was addressing it, in order to separate and clarify the events and persons involved in the origin of the term "Gnostic". From the dialogue, it appears that the word had an origin in the Platonic and Hellenistic tradition long before the group calling themselves "Gnostics"—or the group covered under the modern term "Gnosticism"—ever appeared. It would seem that this shift from Platonic to Gnostic usage has led many people to confusion. The strategy of sectarians taking Greek terms from philosophical contexts and re-applying them to religious contexts
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3424-427: The Gnostics despising the material world and its maker. For decades, Armstrong's was the only translation available of Plotinus. For this reason, his claims were authoritative. However, a modern translation by Lloyd P. Gerson doesn't necessarily support all of Armstrong's views. Unlike Armstrong, Gerson didn't find Plotinus to be so vitriolic against the Gnostics. According to Gerson: As Plotinus himself tells us, at
3531-451: The Greeks’, these views – as well as the views that contradict them – should be forthrightly set out on their own in a considerate and philosophical manner. The neoplatonic movement (though Plotinus would have simply referred to himself as a philosopher of Plato) seems to be motivated by the desire of Plotinus to revive the pagan philosophical tradition. Plotinus was not claiming to innovate with
3638-639: The Hermetic belief in the interconnection of all things, with the world soul as the binding principle that ensures the unity of the cosmos. His work reflects the Hermetic conviction that by attuning oneself to the world soul, one can achieve deeper knowledge and spiritual enlightenment. Although the concept of a world soul originated in classical antiquity , similar ideas can be found in the thoughts of later European philosophers such as those of Baruch Spinoza , Gottfried Leibniz , Immanuel Kant , Friedrich Schelling , and Georg W.F. Hegel (particularly in his concept of Weltgeist ). The concept of Anima Mundi, or
3745-469: The Hermetic tradition. His work is known for its bold integration of Hermeticism, Copernican heliocentrism, and an infinite universe theory, which brought the concept of the world soul into a new, expansive context. Bruno’s cosmology was groundbreaking in that it proposed an infinite universe populated by innumerable worlds. Central to this vision was the idea of the world soul, or anima mundi , which Bruno described as an immanent and animating force pervading
3852-760: The Hindu school of Advaita Vedanta ( advaita meaning "not two" or "non-dual"). M. Vasudevacharya says, "Though Plotinus never managed to reach India, his method shows an affinity to the 'method of negation' as taught in some of the Upanishads, such as the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, and also to the practice of yoga." Advaita Vedanta and neoplatonism have been compared by J. F. Staal , Frederick Copleston , Aldo Magris and Mario Piantelli, Radhakrishnan, Gwen Griffith-Dickson, and John Y. Fenton. The joint influence of Advaitin and neoplatonic ideas on Ralph Waldo Emerson
3959-612: The Middle Ages and of theology. The Eastern Orthodox position on energy, for example, is often contrasted with the position of the Roman Catholic Church , and in part this is attributed to varying interpretations of Aristotle and Plotinus, either through Thomas Aquinas for the Roman Catholics or Gregory Palamas for the Orthodox Christians. Neoplatonism and the ideas of Plotinus influenced medieval Islam as well, since
4066-502: The One (τὸ Ἕν, to hen ; V.6.6). Rather, if we insist on describing it further, we must call the One a sheer potentiality ( dynamis ) without which nothing could exist. (III.8.10) As Plotinus explains in both places and elsewhere (e.g. V.6.3), it is impossible for the One to be Being or a self-aware Creator God. At (V.6.4), Plotinus compared the One to "light", the Divine Intellect/ Nous (Νοῦς, Nous ; first will towards Good) to
4173-459: The One, through the mediums of Nous and the world soul. It is by the Good or through beauty that we recognize the One, in material things and then in the Forms . (I.6.6 and I.6.9) The essentially devotional nature of Plotinus' philosophy may be further illustrated by his concept of attaining ecstatic union with the One ( henosis ). Porphyry relates that Plotinus attained such a union four times during
4280-573: The Roman emperor Gordian III as it marched on Persia (242–243). However, the campaign was a failure, and on Gordian's eventual death Plotinus found himself abandoned in a hostile land, and only with difficulty found his way back to safety in Antioch . At the age of forty, during the reign of Emperor Philip the Arab , he came to Rome , where he stayed for most of the remainder of his life. There he attracted
4387-457: The World Soul to mediate between the purely intellectual and the physical realms, ensuring the coherence and order of the universe. The Neoplatonists viewed the World Soul not only as a metaphysical principle but also as a means to achieve personal and cosmic harmony. By aligning one's soul with the World Soul, individuals could attain a higher state of being and participate in the divine order of
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4494-471: The World Soul, continues to resonate in contemporary philosophical, ecological, and spiritual discourse. Modern interpretations often explore the interconnectedness of life and the universe, reflecting ancient notions through new lenses. In contemporary environmental philosophy, the idea of Anima Mundi is often invoked to emphasize the intrinsic value of nature and the interconnectedness of all living things. Ecologists and environmentalists draw parallels between
4601-418: The ability of someone to be happy (presupposing happiness is contemplation) if they are mentally incapacitated or even asleep. Plotinus disregards this claim, as the soul and true human do not sleep or even exist in time, nor will a living human who has achieved eudaimonia suddenly stop using its greatest, most authentic capacity just because of the body’s discomfort in the physical realm. “… The Proficient’s will
4708-487: The ancient concept and modern holistic approaches to ecology. James Lovelock 's Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system, echoing the idea of the World Soul animating and organizing the cosmos. This holistic view suggests that recognizing the Earth as a living entity can foster a deeper environmental ethic and a sense of stewardship for the planet. Philosophers like David Abram have explored
4815-486: The cohesion and harmony of the cosmos, reflecting the Hermetic principle of the interconnectedness of all things. Bruno was deeply influenced by the Hermetic texts, particularly the Corpus Hermeticum , which he saw as containing profound truths about the nature of the universe and the divine. His philosophy integrated the Hermetic concept of the world soul with the revolutionary scientific ideas of his time, leading to
4922-435: The concept of 'Good' and the principle of 'Beauty'. (I.6.9) His "One" concept encompassed thinker and object. Even the self-contemplating intelligence (the noesis of the nous ) must contain duality . "Once you have uttered 'The Good,' add no further thought: by any addition, and in proportion to that addition, you introduce a deficiency." (III.8.11) Plotinus denies sentience , self-awareness or any other action ( ergon ) to
5029-404: The concept of the World Soul, highlighting the interconnection and interdependence of various components within ecological and social systems. The Anima Mundi also finds relevance in modern spiritual and New Age movements, where it is often associated with the idea of a living, conscious Earth. Practices such as Earth-centered spirituality, animism , and certain strands of neopaganism embrace
5136-426: The concept of the world soul in his extensive writings on cosmology and metaphysics. Fludd's works depict the world soul as the divine anima mundi that connects all levels of existence, from the highest spiritual realms to the material world. He emphasized the idea of cosmic harmony, where the world soul orchestrates the symphony of creation, maintaining balance and order. Fludd's illustrations and writings highlight
5243-615: The concept of the world soul into its cosmological framework. The Hermetic tradition, which flourished in the Hellenistic period and saw a revival during the Renaissance , views the world soul as a vital, animating force that permeates and unites the cosmos. Hermetic writings, particularly the Corpus Hermeticum and the Asclepius , emphasize the unity and interconnection of all things in
5350-412: The concept of the world soul into their cosmologies. Neoplatonism, flourishing in the 3rd century CE through philosophers like Plotinus and Proclus , proposed a hierarchical structure of existence with the World Soul acting as an intermediary between the intelligible realm and the material world, animating and organizing the cosmos. Hermeticism, based on writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus , views
5457-405: The cosmos. This process involves philosophical contemplation, ethical living, and the cultivation of virtues that reflect the harmonious nature of the World Soul. The influence of Neoplatonism extended beyond the classical period, significantly impacting early Christian, Islamic, and Renaissance thought. The integration of Platonic and Neoplatonic ideas into Christian theology, particularly through
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#17328521605015564-471: The covering ( integumentum ) of another name. As or immediately after Peter Abelard was condemned by Bernard of Clairvaux and the 1141 Council of Sens for doctrines similarly close to pantheism , William condemned his own writings on the subject and revised his De Philosophia Mundi to avoid its discussion. Hermeticism , a spiritual, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based primarily on writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus , integrates
5671-445: The creation of the material world, which is seen as flawed and distant from the divine pleroma (fullness). In Gnostic systems, the concept of the world soul often carries significant ethical and soteriological implications. Gnostics believed that by acquiring esoteric knowledge and understanding their divine origin, individuals could transcend the material world and reunite with the divine. This process of gnosis involved recognizing
5778-537: The deep connection between mathematics and the structure of reality in Platonic thought. The motions of the seven classical planets (the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) are particularly significant, as they embody the harmony and order of the universe. Plato's identification of the cosmos as a god, titled Ouranos and Kosmos, reveals his synthesis of different philosophical traditions. The name Ouranos connects
5885-550: The editorial process, and turned the task to Porphyry, who polished and edited them into their modern form. Plotinus taught that there is a supreme, totally transcendent " One ", containing no division, multiplicity, or distinction; beyond all categories of being and non-being. His "One" "cannot be any existing thing", nor is it merely the sum of all things (compare the Stoic doctrine of disbelief in non-material existence), but "is prior to all existents". Plotinus identified his "One" with
5992-410: The enormous collection of notes and essays which Plotinus used in his lectures and debates, rather than a formal book. Plotinus was unable to revise his own work due to his poor eyesight, yet his writings required extensive editing, according to Porphyry: his master's handwriting was atrocious, he did not properly separate his words, and he cared little for niceties of spelling. Plotinus intensely disliked
6099-413: The entire cosmos. He argued that the world soul is the source of all motion, life, and intelligence in the universe, linking all parts of the cosmos into a single, living entity. In his work De la causa, principio et uno ( On Cause, Principle, and Unity ), Bruno articulated his belief in the unity of the universe and the presence of a single, universal spirit. This spirit, akin to the world soul, ensures
6206-457: The goal of henosis is union with what is fundamental in reality: the One ( τὸ Ἕν ), the Source, or Monad . As is specified in the writings of Plotinus on henology , one can reach a state of tabula rasa , blank state where the individual may grasp or merge with The One. This absolute simplicity means that the nous or the person is then dissolved, completely absorbed back into the Monad. Here within
6313-439: The ideas of the self-taught Platonist philosopher Ammonius Saccas . Upon hearing Ammonius' lecture, Plotinus declared to his friend: "this is the man I was looking for", began to study intently under his new instructor, and remained with him as his student for eleven years. Besides Ammonius, Plotinus was also influenced by the philosophical works of Aristotle , the pre-Socratic philosophers Empedocles and Heraclitus ,
6420-406: The life, order, and movement within the universe, acting in accordance with the divine will. The Hermetic worldview is deeply rooted in the idea that understanding and aligning oneself with the world soul can lead to spiritual enlightenment and union with the divine. The Renaissance alchemist and physician Paracelsus significantly contributed to the Hermetic tradition by integrating the concept of
6527-467: The logos, which organizes and animates the cosmos, functioning as its soul. Gnosticism, emerging in the early centuries of the Common Era, often associates the world soul with Sophia , who embodies divine wisdom and the descent into the material world. Gnostics believed that esoteric knowledge could transcend the material world and reunite with the divine. Neoplatonism and Hermeticism also incorporated
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#17328521605016634-476: The metaphysical and authentic human being found in this highest capacity of Reason. “For man, and especially the Proficient, is not the Couplement of Soul and body: the proof is that man can be disengaged from the body and disdain its nominal goods.” (Enneads I.4.14) The human who has achieved happiness will not be bothered by sickness, discomfort, etc., as his focus is on the greatest things. Authentic human happiness
6741-406: The motions of the seven classical planets reflecting the deep connection between mathematics and reality in Platonic thought. Stoicism and Gnosticism are two significant philosophical systems that elaborated on this concept. Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BCE, posited that the universe is a single, living entity permeated by the divine rational principle known as
6848-593: The multiple cannot exist without the simple. The "less perfect" must, of necessity, "emanate", or issue forth, from the "perfect" or "more perfect". Thus, all of "creation" emanates from the One in succeeding stages of lesser and lesser perfection. These stages are not temporally isolated, but occur throughout time as a constant process. The One is not just an intellectual concept but something that can be experienced, an experience where one goes beyond all multiplicity. Plotinus writes, "We ought not even to say that he will see , but he will be that which he sees, if indeed it
6955-417: The mystery of existence. Authors and artists draw on the symbolism of the World Soul to convey a sense of wonder and reverence for the natural world. This is evident in the works of poets like Mary Oliver , who often evoke the living essence of nature in their writings, and in the visual arts, where the interplay of life and the cosmos is a recurring theme. Plotinus Porphyry reported that Plotinus
7062-490: The neopythagoreans, to Plotinus and the neoplatonists. Thus Plotinus' philosophy was, he argued, 'not the starting-point of neoplatonism but its intellectual culmination.' Further research reinforced this view and by 1954 Merlan could say 'The present tendency is toward bridging rather than widening the gap separating Platonism from neoplatonism.' Since the 1950s, the Tübingen School of Plato interpretation has argued that
7169-456: The notion of the World Soul as a guiding principle for living in harmony with nature. These movements emphasize rituals, meditations, and practices aimed at connecting with the spirit of the Earth and recognizing the sacredness of all life. The influence of the Anima Mundi extends into contemporary literature and the arts, serving as a metaphor for exploring themes of unity, interconnection, and
7276-510: The one source or substance of all things, the Monad is all encompassing. As infinite and indeterminate all is reconciled in the dunamis or one. It is the demiurge or second emanation that is the nous in Plotinus. It is the demiurge (creator, action, energy) or nous that "perceives" and therefore causes the force (potential or One) to manifest as energy, or the dyad called the material world. Nous as being; being and perception (intellect) manifest what
7383-438: The original teachings of Plotinus. The teachings of Kirmani in turn influenced philosophers such as Nasir Khusraw of Persia. As with Islam and Christianity, neoplatonism in general and Plotinus in particular influenced speculative thought. Notable thinkers expressing neoplatonist themes are Solomon ibn Gabirol (Latin: Avicebron) and Moses ben Maimon (Latin: Maimonides ). As with Islam and Christianity, apophatic theology and
7490-452: The phenomenological aspects of Anima Mundi in the context of sensory experience and perception. Abram's work emphasizes the animate qualities of the natural world, suggesting that recognizing the Earth's sentience can foster a deeper ecological awareness and a sense of kinship with all forms of life. Additionally, systems thinking and complexity theory in science reflect a renewed interest in holistic and integrative approaches that resonate with
7597-495: The philosophers of the academy had not arrived at the same conclusions (such as misotheism or dystheism of the creator God as an answer to the problem of evil ) as the targets of his criticism. Plotinus seems to be one of the first to have argued against the then popular notion of causal astrology . In the late tractate 2.3, "Are the stars causes?", Plotinus makes the argument that specific stars influencing one's fortune (a common Hellenistic theme) attributes irrationality to
7704-554: The pinnacle of this hierarchy is the One, an ineffable and transcendent principle from which all reality emanates. The One generates the Nous (Divine Mind), which in turn produces the World Soul . The World Soul in Neoplatonism functions as an intermediary between the intelligible realm (the realm of the Forms) and the sensible world (the material universe). Plotinus describes the World Soul as
7811-443: The poetic and presocratic traditions. In Timaeus , Plato presents the cosmos as a single, living organism that possesses a soul and intelligence. The demiurge, a divine craftsman, creates the universe by imposing order on pre-existing chaotic matter. This creation is not ex nihilo but rather a process of organizing the cosmos according to the eternal Forms, which are perfect, immutable archetypes of all things. Plato explains that
7918-466: The privative nature of evil are two prominent themes that such thinkers picked up from either Plotinus or his successors. In the Renaissance the philosopher Marsilio Ficino set up an Academy under the patronage of Cosimo de Medici in Florence , mirroring that of Plato. His work was of great importance in reconciling the philosophy of Plato directly with Christianity. One of his most distinguished pupils
8025-462: The same reasons of dislike. Likewise, Plotinus never discussed his ancestry, childhood, or his place or date of birth. From all accounts his personal and social life exhibited the highest moral and spiritual standards. Plotinus took up the study of philosophy at the age of twenty-eight, around the year 232 and travelled to Alexandria to study. There he was dissatisfied with every teacher he encountered, until an acquaintance suggested he listen to
8132-417: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title World Soul . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_Soul&oldid=1187279655 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
8239-401: The sensible universe and its contents, and as a Platonist, Plotinus must share this critical attitude to some extent. But here he makes his case that the proper understanding of the highest principles and emanation forces us to respect the sensible world as the best possible imitation of the intelligible world. Plotinus seems to direct his attacks at a very specific sect of Gnostics, most notably
8346-594: The so-called 'unwritten doctrines' of Plato debated by Aristotle and the Old Academy strongly resemble Plotinus's metaphysics. In this case, the neoplatonic reading of Plato would be, at least in this central area, historically justified. This implies that neoplatonism is less of an innovation than it appears without the recognition of Plato's unwritten doctrines. Advocates of the Tübingen School emphasize this advantage of their interpretation. They see Plotinus as advancing
8453-439: The time of this treatise’s composition some of his friends were ‘attached’ to Gnostic doctrine, and he believed that this attachment was harmful. So he sets out here a number of objections and corrections. Some of these are directed at very specific tenets of Gnosticism, e.g. the introduction of a ‘new earth’ or a principle of ‘Wisdom’, but the general thrust of this treatise has a much broader scope. The Gnostics are very critical of
8560-460: The time. Plato described the universe as a living being in his dialogue Timaeus (30b–d): Thus, then, in accordance with the likely account, we must declare that this Cosmos has verily come into existence as a Living Creature endowed with soul and reason [...] a Living Creature, one and visible, containing within itself all the living creatures which are by nature akin to itself. Plato's Timaeus describes this living cosmos as being built by
8667-468: The truly happy human being would understand that which is being tortured is merely a body, not the conscious self, and happiness could persist. Plotinus offers a comprehensive description of his conception of a person who has achieved eudaimonia . “The perfect life” involves a man who commands reason and contemplation. (Enneads I.4.4) A happy person will not sway between happy and sad, as many of Plotinus' contemporaries believed. Stoics, for example, question
8774-399: The unity and divinity of the cosmos and its connection to the One , the ultimate source of all existence. Neoplatonism, which flourished in the 3rd century CE, is a philosophical system that builds upon the teachings of Plato and incorporates metaphysical elements. Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism, articulated a vision of reality that centers on a hierarchical structure of existence. At
8881-417: The universe as a living creature endowed with a soul and reason, constructed by the demiurge according to a rational pattern expressed through mathematical principles. Plato describes the world soul as a mixture of sameness and difference, forming a unified, harmonious entity that permeates the cosmos. This soul animates the universe, ensuring its rational structure and function according to a divine plan, with
8988-427: The universe, making the cosmos a living, rational organism. The Stoics identified the world soul with the concept of pneuma , a life-giving force that pervades and sustains all things. Pneuma is a mixture of air and fire, elements considered active and capable of bestowing life and motion. The Stoic philosopher Cleanthes described the world soul in his "Hymn to Zeus", where he praises Zeus (a personification of
9095-409: The universe. These texts describe the cosmos as a living being imbued with a divine spirit or soul. The world soul is seen as the intermediary between the divine intellect ( Nous ) and the material world, ensuring the harmonious functioning of the cosmos. In the Corpus Hermeticum , the world soul is often depicted as an emanation of the divine that sustains all creation. This soul is responsible for
9202-453: The vital force that animates and organizes the cosmos, imbuing it with life and intelligence. It is both one and many, maintaining unity while simultaneously generating individual souls and entities within the cosmos. Proclus, a prominent later Neoplatonist, further developed these ideas. He posited a more elaborate structure, with the World Soul divided into a higher, more divine aspect and a lower, more material aspect. This dual nature allows
9309-588: The works of Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius , demonstrates the enduring legacy of the concept of the World Soul. During the 12th-Century Renaissance of the High Middle Ages , the analysis of Plato's Timaeus by members of the School of Chartres like William of Conches and Bernardus Silvestris led them to interpret the world soul as possibly or certainly the same as the Christian Holy Spirit under
9416-493: The world soul as a vital force uniting the cosmos. Hermetic texts describe the cosmos as a living being imbued with a divine spirit, emphasizing the unity and interconnection of all things. Aligning oneself with the world soul is seen as a path to spiritual enlightenment and union with the divine, a belief that experienced a resurgence during the Renaissance when Hermeticism was revived and integrated into Renaissance thought, influencing various intellectual and spiritual movements of
9523-458: The world soul into his medical and alchemical theories. Paracelsus believed that the world soul, which he referred to as the Archeus , was the vital force that governed the processes of nature and the human body. He posited that health and disease were influenced by the balance and interaction of this vital force within individuals. Paracelsus' view of the world soul extended to his understanding of
9630-463: The world soul is a mixture of the same and the different, woven together to form a unified, harmonious entity. This soul permeates the entire cosmos, animating it and endowing it with life and intelligence. The world soul is responsible for the rational structure of the universe, ensuring that everything functions according to a divine plan. The rational pattern of the cosmos is expressed through mathematical principles and Pythagorean ratios, reflecting
9737-496: The world soul often played a crucial role in bridging the divine and material realms. In Gnostic thought, the world soul is often associated with the figure of Sophia (Wisdom) , who embodies both the divine wisdom and the tragic descent into the material world. Sophia's fall and subsequent redemption are central themes in many Gnostic texts. According to the Apocryphon of John , a key Gnostic scripture, Sophia's emanation resulted in
9844-413: The world soul to the ancient Greek personification of the sky, while Kosmos signifies order and beauty. By mediating between poetic and presocratic traditions, Plato integrates mythological and philosophical elements into a coherent cosmological vision. The Stoic school of philosophy , founded by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BCE, significantly contributed to the development of the concept of
9951-535: The world soul's entrapment in the material realm and working towards its liberation. In Manichaeism , a major Gnostic religion founded by the prophet Mani in the 3rd century CE, the world soul was also called the Light Soul and the Living Soul ( Middle Persian : grīw zīndag ), contrasting it with matter, which was associated with lifelessness and death and within which the world soul was imprisoned. The world soul
10058-519: The world soul. In Mandaean cosmology, the soul's journey through the material world and its eventual return to the World of Light is a central narrative. The soul's purification and ascent are facilitated by esoteric knowledge and ritual practices. The concept of the world soul continued to influence later philosophical thought, particularly in the development of Neoplatonism . Neoplatonists such as Plotinus and Proclus expanded on Plato's ideas, emphasizing
10165-407: The world soul. Stoicism posits that the universe is a single, living entity permeated by a divine rational principle known as the logos . This principle organizes and animates the cosmos, functioning as its soul. Central to Stoic cosmology is the belief that the logos operates as the rational structure underlying all existence. This rational principle is equated with God, nature, and the soul of
10272-443: The world's rational structure, individuals could achieve a state of tranquility and virtue. Gnosticism , a diverse and syncretic religious movement that emerged in the early centuries of the Common Era, also incorporated the concept of the world soul into its cosmological and theological framework. Gnostic systems generally posited a dualistic worldview, contrasting the material world with a higher, spiritual reality. In this context,
10379-430: The years he knew him. This may be related to enlightenment , liberation , and other concepts of mysticism common to many Eastern traditions. The philosophy of Plotinus has always exerted a peculiar fascination upon those whose discontent with things as they are has led them to seek the realities behind what they took to be merely the appearances of the sense. The philosophy of Plotinus: representative books from
10486-434: Was Greek . Plotinus had an inherent distrust of materiality (an attitude common to Platonism ), holding to the view that phenomena were a poor image or mimicry ( mimesis ) of something "higher and intelligible" (VI.I) which was the "truer part of genuine Being". This distrust extended to the body , including his own; it is reported by Porphyry that at one point he refused to have his portrait painted, presumably for much
10593-564: Was Hypatia of Alexandria . Neoplatonism influenced many Christians as well, including Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite . St. Augustine , though often referred to as a "Platonist", acquired his Platonist philosophy through the mediation of the Neoplatonist teachings of Plotinus. Plotinus' philosophy had an influence on the development of Christian theology . In A History of Western Philosophy , philosopher Bertrand Russell wrote that: To
10700-662: Was Pico della Mirandola , author of An Oration on the Dignity of Man . In Great Britain, Plotinus was the cardinal influence on the 17th-century school of the Cambridge Platonists , and on numerous writers from Samuel Taylor Coleridge to W. B. Yeats and Kathleen Raine . Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Ananda Coomaraswamy used the writing of Plotinus in their own texts as a superlative elaboration upon Indian monism , specifically Upanishadic and Advaita Vedantic thought. Coomaraswamy has compared Plotinus' teachings to
10807-410: Was "almost certainly" a Greek. A.H. Armstrong , one of the foremost authorities on the philosophical teachings of Plotinus, writes that: "All that can be said with reasonable certainty is that Greek was his normal language and that he had a Greek education ". Plotinus himself was said to have had little interest in his ancestry, birthplace, or that of anyone else for that matter. His native language
10914-566: Was a correspondent of the philosopher Cassius Longinus . While in Rome, Plotinus also gained the respect of the Emperor Gallienus and his wife Salonina . At one point Plotinus attempted to interest Gallienus in rebuilding an abandoned settlement in Campania , known as the 'City of Philosophers', where the inhabitants would live under the constitution set out in Plato 's Laws . An Imperial subsidy
11021-520: Was never granted, for reasons unknown to Porphyry, who reports the incident. Plotinus subsequently went to live in Sicily . He spent his final days in seclusion on an estate in Campania which his friend Zethos had bequeathed him. According to the account of Eustochius, who attended him at the end, Plotinus' final words were: "Try to raise the divine in yourselves to the divine in the all." Eustochius records that
11128-532: Was personified as the Suffering Jesus ( Jesus patibilis ) who, like the historical Jesus , was depicted as being crucified in the world. This mystica cruxificio was present in all parts of the world, including the skies, soil, and trees, as expressed in the Coptic Manichaean psalms . Mandaeism , another Gnostic tradition that has survived to the present day, also incorporates a concept akin to
11235-939: Was popular in Christianity , the Cult of Isis and other ancient religious contexts including Hermetic ones (see Alexander of Abonutichus for an example). According to A. H. Armstrong, Plotinus and the neoplatonists viewed Gnosticism as a form of heresy or sectarianism to the Pythagorean and Platonic philosophy of the Mediterranean and Middle East. Also according to Armstrong, Plotinus accused them of using senseless jargon and being overly dramatic and insolent in their distortion of Plato's ontology." Armstrong argues that Plotinus attacks his opponents as untraditional, irrational and immoral and arrogant. Armstrong believed that Plotinus also attacks them as elitist and blasphemous to Plato for
11342-707: Was sixty-six years old when he died in 270 CE , the second year of the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius II , thus giving us the year of his birth as around 204. Eunapius reported that Plotinus was born in Lyco, which could either refer to the modern Asyut in Upper Egypt or Deltaic Lycopolis , in Lower Egypt . This has led to speculations that his family was either ( Hellenized ) Egyptian , Greek , or Roman . Historian Lloyd P. Gerson states that Plotinus
11449-604: Was strictly treated as immanent , with matter as essential to its being, having no true or transcendential character or essence, substance or ousia (οὐσία). This approach is called philosophical Idealism . For several centuries after the Protestant Reformation , neoplatonism was condemned as a decadent and 'oriental' distortion of Platonism. In a 1929 essay, E. R. Dodds showed that key conceptions of neoplatonism could be traced from their origin in Plato's dialogues, through his immediate followers (e.g., Speusippus ) and
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