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50-502: The selection of these places is based on criteria established by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency . They are not random choices. The applicable chart and Sailing Directions is given for each place listed. In order to present such a large amount of diversified data in a single volume of convenient size, a simple code is used to indicate certain types of information. The code symbols are explained at

100-517: A photomosaic that is "a composite photographic image of the ground," or more precisely, as a controlled photomosaic where "individual photographs are rectified for tilt and brought to a common scale (at least at certain control points)." Rectification of imagery is generally achieved by "fitting the projected images of each photograph to a set of four control points whose positions have been derived from an existing map or from ground measurements. When these rectified, scaled photographs are positioned on

150-402: A camera defines its location in space and its view direction. The inner orientation defines the geometric parameters of the imaging process. This is primarily the focal length of the lens, but can also include the description of lens distortions. Further additional observations play an important role: With scale bars , basically a known distance of two points in space, or known fix points ,

200-424: A grid of control points, a good correspondence can be achieved between them through skillful trimming and fitting and the use of the areas around the principal point where the relief displacements (which cannot be removed) are at a minimum." "It is quite reasonable to conclude that some form of photomap will become the standard general map of the future." They go on to suggest that, "photomapping would appear to be

250-720: A joint project of the CIA and DIA . NPIC was a component of the CIA's Directorate of Science and Technology (DDS&T) and its primary function was imagery analysis . NPIC became part of the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now NGA) in 1996. NPIC first identified the Soviet Union 's basing of missiles in Cuba in 1962. By exploiting images from U-2 overflights and film from canisters ejected by orbiting Corona satellites , NPIC analysts developed

300-709: A liaison team to NGA; that team's operations officer also acts as NGA's Commonwealth liaison. NGA is a member of the National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSG) and the larger Allied System for Geospatial Intelligence (ASG), which includes close allies Canada , the United Kingdom , Australia , and New Zealand . The U.S. and those four nations also form the Five Eyes intelligence alliance. NGA employs professionals in aeronautical analysis, cartography , geospatial analysis , imagery analysis , marine analysis ,

350-456: A major contributor to battlefield intelligence. Using stereo viewers, photo-interpreters reviewed thousands of images. Many of these were of the same target at different angles and times, giving rise to what became modern imagery analysis and mapmaking. The Engineer Reproduction Plant was the Army Corps of Engineers 's first attempt to centralize mapping production, printing, and distribution. It

400-708: A replacement or separated portion of the Analysis and Production Directorate. The deputy associate director of operations directly oversees NGA Operations Center (itself led by a director and deputy director) the Office of NGA Defense, the Office of Expeditionary Operations, and NGA leadership at the three National Reconnaissance Office Aerospace Data facilities. NGA contains NGA Support Teams (NST), which work with directorates, are detailed internationally, deploy with warfighters, or liaise with service branches. Multiple NGA Command NSTs also exist. NGA's western operations, such as

450-624: Is a combat support agency within the United States Department of Defense whose primary mission is collecting, analyzing, and distributing geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in support of national security . Initially known as the National Imagery and Mapping Agency ( NIMA ) from 1996 to 2003, it is a member of the United States Intelligence Community . NGA headquarters, also known as NGA Campus East or NCE,

500-494: Is also possible to create digital terrain models and thus 3D visualisations using pairs (or multiples) of aerial photographs or satellite (e.g. SPOT satellite imagery). Techniques such as adaptive least squares stereo matching are then used to produce a dense array of correspondences which are transformed through a camera model to produce a dense array of x, y, z data which can be used to produce digital terrain model and orthoimage products. Systems which use these techniques, e.g.

550-637: Is available from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency's World Port Index webpage. The text of this article originated from the preface of the World Port Index and section 413 of The American Practical Navigator . These documents are produced by the government of the United States of America and in the public domain. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency ( NGA )

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600-429: Is crash scene photographs taken by the police. Photogrammetry is used to determine how much the car in question was deformed, which relates to the amount of energy required to produce that deformation. The energy can then be used to determine important information about the crash (such as the velocity at time of impact). Photomapping is the process of making a map with "cartographic enhancements" that have been drawn from

650-401: Is currently reconsidering legislation to surround Next NGA St. Louis with a protection zone that would bar certain businesses, such as gas stations, hazardous material companies, and foreign government-supported enterprises, from building around the site for security purposes. NGA is headed by a director, currently Navy Vice Adm. Frank D. Whitworth ; the director is followed in precedence by

700-471: Is increasingly being used in maritime archaeology because of the relative ease of mapping sites compared to traditional methods, allowing the creation of 3D maps which can be rendered in virtual reality . A somewhat similar application is the scanning of objects to automatically make 3D models of them. Since photogrammetry relies on images, there are physical limitations when those images are of an object that has dark, shiny or clear surfaces. In those cases,

750-553: Is located at Fort Belvoir North Area in Springfield, Virginia . The agency also operates major facilities in the St. Louis, Missouri area (referred to as NGA Campus West or NCW), as well as support and liaison offices worldwide. The NGA headquarters, at 2,300,000 square feet (210,000 m ), is the third-largest government building in the Washington metropolitan area after The Pentagon and

800-407: Is split into various directorates led by directors (D/XX) and associate deputy directors (ADD/XX) with "XX" standing in for each directorate's two-letter designation. Known directorates and leadership figures include but are not limited to the: An Analysis and Production Directorate (P or "Production" Directorate) existed in 2011, although NGA presently has a Directorate for Analysis which may be

850-500: Is the extraction of three-dimensional measurements from two-dimensional data (i.e. images); for example, the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the photographic image plane can be determined by measuring their distance on the image, if the scale of the image is known. Another is the extraction of accurate color ranges and values representing such quantities as albedo , specular reflection , metallicity , or ambient occlusion from photographs of materials for

900-605: Is the science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery and other phenomena. While the invention of the method is attributed to Aimé Laussedat , the term "photogrammetry" was coined by the German architect Albrecht Meydenbauer  [ de ] , which appeared in his 1867 article "Die Photometrographie." There are many variants of photogrammetry. One example

950-469: The Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm . A special case, called stereophotogrammetry , involves estimating the three-dimensional coordinates of points on an object employing measurements made in two or more photographic images taken from different positions (see stereoscopy ). Common points are identified on each image. A line of sight (or ray) can be constructed from the camera location to the point on

1000-656: The Ronald Reagan Building . In addition to using GEOINT for U.S. military and intelligence efforts, NGA provides assistance during natural and artificial disasters, aids in security planning for major events such as the Olympic Games , disseminates maritime safety information, and gathers data on climate change . The eighth and current director of the agency is Vice Admiral Frank D. Whitworth III . U.S. mapping and charting efforts remained relatively unchanged until World War I , when aerial photography became

1050-493: The 2005 BRAC process. The cost of the new center, as of March 2009, was expected to be $ 2.4 billion. The center's campus is approximately 2,400,000 square feet (220,000 m ) and was completed in September 2011. NGA is currently constructing a new facility in St. Louis, Missouri , Next NGA St. Louis, at a cost of $ 1.7 billion. The facility is expected to hold 3,000 employees and open by 2025. St. Louis' city legislature

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1100-632: The Army's remaining geographic intelligence organizations and the Engineer Technical Intelligence Division. AMS was redesignated the U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC) on September 1, 1968, and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it was merged into the new Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC) (see below). After the war, as airplane capacity and range improved,

1150-789: The DMA, the Central Imagery Office (CIO), and the Defense Dissemination Program Office (DDPO) in their entirety, and the mission and functions of the NPIC. Also merged into NIMA were the imagery exploitation, dissemination, and processing elements of the Defense Intelligence Agency , National Reconnaissance Office , and the Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office . NIMA's creation was clouded by

1200-615: The ITG system, were developed in the 1980s and 1990s but have since been supplanted by LiDAR and radar-based approaches, although these techniques may still be useful in deriving elevation models from old aerial photographs or satellite images. Photogrammetry is used in fields such as topographic mapping , architecture , filmmaking , engineering , manufacturing , quality control , police investigation, cultural heritage , and geology . Archaeologists use it to quickly produce plans of large or complex sites, and meteorologists use it to determine

1250-701: The U.S. Air Force's Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) and was located in St. Louis, Missouri. NIMA was established on October 1, 1996, by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1997. The creation of NIMA followed more than a year of study, debate, and planning by the defense, intelligence, and policy-making communities (as well as the Congress) and continuing consultations with customer organizations. The creation of NIMA centralized responsibility for imagery and mapping. NIMA combined

1300-411: The actual, 3D relative motions. From its beginning with the stereoplotters used to plot contour lines on topographic maps , it now has a very wide range of uses such as sonar , radar , and lidar . Photogrammetry uses methods from many disciplines, including optics and projective geometry . Digital image capturing and photogrammetric processing includes several well defined stages, which allow

1350-605: The area of GEOINT . As a part of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process, all major Washington, D.C.–area NGA facilities, including those in Bethesda, Maryland; Reston, Virginia ; and Washington, D.C., would be consolidated at a new facility at the Fort Belvoir proving grounds. This new facility, later known as NCE , houses several thousand people and is situated on the former Engineer Proving Ground site near Fort Belvoir. NGA facilities in St. Louis were not affected by

1400-400: The connection to the basic measuring units is created. Each of the four main variables can be an input or an output of a photogrammetric method. Algorithms for photogrammetry typically attempt to minimize the sum of the squares of errors over the coordinates and relative displacements of the reference points. This minimization is known as bundle adjustment and is often performed using

1450-624: The construction of Next NGA St. Louis campus in St. Louis, Missouri , are headed by the NGA St. Louis executive (who can concurrently serve in other leadership roles). There is also an NGA Equality Executive. Other organizations present in NGA, which may or may not be components of directorates, include: Additionally, military Service GEOINT Offices (SGOs) liaise with NGA, but belong to their respective military service branches and represent their geospatial intelligence needs. The Canadian Armed Forces deploys

1500-511: The deputy director and chief of staff, currently Brett Markham. The holders of these three offices comprise NGA's executive leadership team. While NGA's director and deputy director oversee the agency as a whole, the Chief of Staff is tasked with overseeing NGA's executive support staff, administrative services, logistics, personnel security, human resources, employee training and development, corporate communications, and congressional engagement. NGA

1550-448: The edges of buildings when the point cloud footprint can not. It is beneficial to incorporate the advantages of both systems and integrate them to create a better product. A 3D visualization can be created by georeferencing the aerial photos and LiDAR data in the same reference frame, orthorectifying the aerial photos, and then draping the orthorectified images on top of the LiDAR grid. It

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1600-656: The existing ERP in May 1942. It was located at the Dalecarlia Site (including buildings now named for John C. Frémont and Charles H. Ruth ) on MacArthur Blvd., just outside Washington, D.C., in Montgomery County, Maryland, and adjacent to the Dalecarlia Reservoir . AMS was designated as an Engineer field activity, effective July 1, 1942, by General Order 22, OCE, June 19, 1942. The Army Map Service also combined many of

1650-427: The game Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice was derived from photogrammetric motion-capture models taken of actress Melina Juergens. Photogrammetry is also commonly employed in collision engineering, especially with automobiles. When litigation for a collision occurs and engineers need to determine the exact deformation present in the vehicle, it is common for several years to have passed and the only evidence that remains

1700-419: The generation of 2D or 3D digital models of the object as an end product. The data model on the right shows what type of information can go into and come out of photogrammetric methods. The 3D coordinates define the locations of object points in the 3D space . The image coordinates define the locations of the object points' images on the film or an electronic imaging device. The exterior orientation of

1750-668: The information necessary to inform U.S. policymakers and influence operations during the Cuban Missile Crisis . Their analysis garnered worldwide attention when the Kennedy Administration declassified and made public a portion of the images depicting the Soviet missiles on Cuban soil; Adlai Stevenson presented the images to the United Nations Security Council on October 25, 1962. The Defense Mapping Agency

1800-608: The military services. DMAHC was formed in 1972 when the Navy's Hydrographic Office split its two components: The charting component was attached to DMAHC, and the survey component moved to the Naval Oceanographic Office, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi , on the grounds of what is now the Stennis Space Center . DMAHC was responsible for creating terrestrial maps of coastal areas worldwide and hydrographic charts for DoD. DMAHC

1850-420: The natural reluctance of cultures to merge and the fear that their respective missions—mapping in support of defense activities versus intelligence production, principally in support of national policymakers—would be subordinated, each to the other. With the enactment of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 on November 24, 2003, NIMA was renamed NGA to better reflect its primary mission in

1900-569: The need for charts grew. The Army Air Corps established its map unit, which was renamed ACP in 1943 and was located in St. Louis, Missouri . ACP was known as the U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) from 1952 to 1972 (See DMAAC below). Shortly before leaving office in January 1961, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized the creation of the National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC),

1950-557: The object. It is the intersection of these rays ( triangulation ) that determines the three-dimensional location of the point. More sophisticated algorithms can exploit other information about the scene that is known a priori , for example symmetries , in some cases allowing reconstructions of 3D coordinates from only one camera position. Stereophotogrammetry is emerging as a robust non-contacting measurement technique to determine dynamic characteristics and mode shapes of non-rotating and rotating structures. The collection of images for

2000-1095: The only way to take reasonable advantage" of future data sources like high altitude aircraft and satellite imagery. Demonstrating the link between orthophotomapping and archaeology , historic airphotos photos were used to aid in developing a reconstruction of the Ventura mission that guided excavations of the structure's walls. Overhead photography has been widely applied for mapping surface remains and excavation exposures at archaeological sites. Suggested platforms for capturing these photographs has included: War Balloons from World War I; rubber meteorological balloons; kites ; wooden platforms, metal frameworks, constructed over an excavation exposure; ladders both alone and held together with poles or planks; three legged ladders; single and multi-section poles; bipods; tripods; tetrapods, and aerial bucket trucks ("cherry pickers"). Handheld, near-nadir, overhead digital photographs have been used with geographic information systems ( GIS ) to record excavation exposures. Photogrammetry

2050-480: The physical sciences, geodesy, computer and telecommunication engineering, and photogrammetry , as well as those in the national security and law enforcement fields. This table lists all Directors of the NIMA and NGA and their term of office. The agency transitioned from NIMA to NGA during Lieutenant General King's directorship. NIMA / NGA has been involved in several controversies. Photogrammetry Photogrammetry

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2100-810: The produced model often still contains gaps, so additional cleanup with software like MeshLab , netfabb or MeshMixer is often still necessary. Alternatively, spray painting such objects with matte finish can remove any transparent or shiny qualities. Google Earth uses photogrammetry to create 3D imagery. There is also a project called Rekrei that uses photogrammetry to make 3D models of lost/stolen/broken artifacts that are then posted online. High-resolution 3D point clouds derived from UAV or ground-based photogrammetry can be used to automatically or semi-automatically extract rock mass properties such as discontinuity orientations, persistence, and spacing. There exist many software packages for photogrammetry; see comparison of photogrammetry software . Apple introduced

2150-699: The purpose of creating photogrammetric models can be called more properly, polyoscopy, after Pierre Seguin Photogrammetric data can be complemented with range data from other techniques. Photogrammetry is more accurate in the x and y direction while range data are generally more accurate in the z direction . This range data can be supplied by techniques like LiDAR , laser scanners (using time of flight , triangulation or interferometry ), white-light digitizers and any other technique that scans an area and returns x, y, z coordinates for multiple discrete points (commonly called " point clouds "). Photos can clearly define

2200-511: The purposes of physically based rendering . Close-range photogrammetry refers to the collection of photography from a lesser distance than traditional aerial (or orbital) photogrammetry. Photogrammetric analysis may be applied to one photograph, or may use high-speed photography and remote sensing to detect, measure and record complex 2D and 3D motion fields by feeding measurements and imagery analysis into computational models in an attempt to successively estimate, with increasing accuracy,

2250-533: The top of each page of text. This book is corrected by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency . In addition to the published text edition of the World Port Index, the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also makes the data available in tabular and spatial formats. This includes Microsoft Access database and Esri Shapefile formats. Archived publications are also available with past Access databases dating to 2000 and Shapefiles dating to 2010. The data

2300-553: The wind speed of tornadoes when objective weather data cannot be obtained. It is also used to combine live action with computer-generated imagery in movies post-production ; The Matrix is a good example of the use of photogrammetry in film (details are given in the DVD extras). Photogrammetry was used extensively to create photorealistic environmental assets for video games including The Vanishing of Ethan Carter as well as EA DICE 's Star Wars Battlefront . The main character of

2350-506: Was created on January 1, 1972, to consolidate all U.S. military mapping activities. DMA's "birth certificate", DoD Directive 5105.40, resulted from a formerly classified Presidential directive, "Organization and Management of the U.S. Foreign Intelligence Community" (November 5, 1971), which directed the consolidation of mapping functions previously dispersed among the military services. DMA became operational on July 1, 1972, pursuant to General Order 3, DMA (June 16, 1972). On October 1, 1996, DMA

2400-724: Was folded into the National Imagery and Mapping Agency – which later became NGA. DMA was first headquartered at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., then at Falls Church, Virginia . Its mostly civilian workforce was concentrated at production sites in Bethesda, Maryland , Northern Virginia, and St. Louis, Missouri . DMA was formed from the Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Division, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and from various mapping-related organizations of

2450-531: Was initially located in Suitland, Maryland , but later relocated to Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. DMATC was located in Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. It was responsible for creating topographic maps worldwide for DoD. DMATC's location in Bethesda, Maryland is the former site of NGA's headquarters. DMAHC and DMATC eventually merged to form DMAHTC, with offices in Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. DMAAC originated with

2500-827: Was located on the grounds of the Army War College in Washington, D.C. Previously, topographic mapping had largely been a function of individual field engineer units using field surveying techniques or copying existing or captured products. In addition, ERP assumed the "supervision and maintenance" of the War Department Map Collection, effective April 1, 1939. With the advent of the Second World War aviation, field surveys began giving way to photogrammetry , photo interpretation , and geodesy . During wartime, it became increasingly possible to compile maps with minimal field work. Out of this emerged AMS, which absorbed

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