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132-528: Cloverleaf interchanges, viewed from overhead or on maps, resemble the leaves of a four-leaf clover or less often a 3-leaf clover. In the United States , cloverleaf interchanges existed long before the Interstate system . They were originally created for busier interchanges that the original diamond interchange system could not handle. Their chief advantage was that they were free-flowing and did not require

264-613: A Swiss person which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries, and land . The English adjective Swiss is a loanword from French Suisse , also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer , in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory , one of the Waldstätte cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy . The Swiss began to adopt

396-666: A diamond interchange was built instead. The first cloverleaf interchange built in the United States was the Woodbridge Cloverleaf at intersection of the Lincoln Highway ( Route 25 ) and Amboy —now St. Georges—Avenue ( Route 4 ) (now U.S. 1/9 and Route 35 ) in Woodbridge Township, New Jersey . It opened in 1929, although it has since been replaced with a partial cloverleaf interchange . Before

528-656: A lower house (the National Council , with representatives elected from across the country). Referendums were made mandatory for any amendments. This new constitution ended the legal power of nobility in Switzerland . A single system of weights and measures was introduced, and in 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency , complemented by the WIR franc in 1934. Article 11 of

660-665: A national personification of the Swiss confederacy in the 17th century in a 1672 play by Johann Caspar Weissenbach. The state of Switzerland took its present form with the adoption of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848. Switzerland's precursors established a defensive alliance in 1291, forming a loose confederation that persisted for centuries. The oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date to about 150,000 years ago. The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland, which were found at Gächlingen , date to around 5300 BC. The earliest known tribes formed

792-585: A "cloverleaf" and simply be referred to as a jughandle or parclo intersection. The first cloverleaf interchange patented in the US was by Arthur Hale , a civil engineer in Maryland , on February 29, 1916. A modified cloverleaf, with the adjacent ramps joined into a single two-way road, was planned in 1927 for the interchange between Lake Shore Drive ( US 41 ) and Irving Park Road ( ILL 19 ) in Chicago, Illinois , but

924-485: A busy arterial in free-flowing traffic where signals are still not desired. Not only are these ideas true for new interchanges, but they also hold when existing cloverleaf interchanges are upgraded. In Norfolk, Virginia , the interchange between US 13 and US 58 was originally a cloverleaf—it has since been converted to a SPUI . Also, many cloverleaf interchanges on California freeways, such as U.S. 101, are being converted to parclos . In Hampton, Virginia ,

1056-513: A change of policy following threats from Germany. Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned. Between 1940 and 1945, Switzerland was bombed by the Allies , causing fatalities and property damage. Among the cities and towns bombed were Basel , Brusio , Chiasso , Cornol , Geneva, Koblenz , Niederweningen , Rafz , Renens , Samedan , Schaffhausen , Stein am Rhein , Tägerwilen , Thayngen , Vals , and Zurich. Allied forces maintained that

1188-540: A cloverleaf interchange between Interstate 64 and Mercury Boulevard has been partially unwound into a partial stack interchange. During 2008 and 2009, four cloverleaf interchanges along I-64 / US 40 in St. Louis , Missouri , were replaced with SPUIs as part of a major highway-renovation project to upgrade the highway to Interstate standards. The original cloverleaf interchange in Delmont, Pennsylvania between Routes 22 and 66

1320-408: A decussate pattern, in which each node rotates by 1/4 (90°) as in the herb basil . The leaves of tricussate plants such as Nerium oleander form a triple helix. The leaves of some plants do not form helices. In some plants, the divergence angle changes as the plant grows. In orixate phyllotaxis, named after Orixa japonica , the divergence angle is not constant. Instead, it is periodic and follows

1452-403: A loop missing. Leaf A leaf ( pl. : leaves ) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant , usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis . Leaves are collectively called foliage , as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, flower, and fruit collectively form the shoot system. In most leaves, the primary photosynthetic tissue

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1584-504: A petiole like structure. Pseudopetioles occur in some monocotyledons including bananas , palms and bamboos . Stipules may be conspicuous (e.g. beans and roses ), soon falling or otherwise not obvious as in Moraceae or absent altogether as in the Magnoliaceae . A petiole may be absent (apetiolate), or the blade may not be laminar (flattened). The petiole mechanically links the leaf to

1716-463: A plant matures; as a case in point Eucalyptus species commonly have isobilateral, pendent leaves when mature and dominating their neighbors; however, such trees tend to have erect or horizontal dorsiventral leaves as seedlings, when their growth is limited by the available light. Other factors include the need to balance water loss at high temperature and low humidity against the need to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide. In most plants, leaves also are

1848-419: A regular organization at the cellular scale. Specialized cells that differ markedly from surrounding cells, and which often synthesize specialized products such as crystals, are termed idioblasts . The epidermis is the outer layer of cells covering the leaf. It is covered with a waxy cuticle which is impermeable to liquid water and water vapor and forms the boundary separating the plant's inner cells from

1980-666: A remarkable size, while hundreds of agricultural estates ( Villae rusticae ) were established in the countryside. Around 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to shelter near Roman fortresses, like

2112-475: A scaffolding matrix imparting mechanical rigidity to leaves. Leaves are normally extensively vascularized and typically have networks of vascular bundles containing xylem , which supplies water for photosynthesis , and phloem , which transports the sugars produced by photosynthesis. Many leaves are covered in trichomes (small hairs) which have diverse structures and functions. The major tissue systems present are These three tissue systems typically form

2244-541: A severe dry season, some plants may shed their leaves until the dry season ends. In either case, the shed leaves may be expected to contribute their retained nutrients to the soil where they fall. In contrast, many other non-seasonal plants, such as palms and conifers, retain their leaves for long periods; Welwitschia retains its two main leaves throughout a lifetime that may exceed a thousand years. The leaf-like organs of bryophytes (e.g., mosses and liverworts ), known as phyllids , differ heavily morphologically from

2376-523: A sign of support. In September 2020, a referendum calling for a vote to end the pact that allowed a free movement of people from the European Union was introduced by the Swiss People's Party (SVP). However, voters rejected the attempt to retake control of immigration, defeating the motion by a roughly 63%–37% margin. On 9 February 2014, 50.3% of Swiss voters approved a ballot initiative launched by

2508-405: A significant impact on the psychology and society of Switzerland. The war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength. Swiss from all strata of society, whether Catholic or Protestant, from the liberal or conservative current, realised that the cantons would profit more from merging their economic and religious interests. Thus, while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings ,

2640-402: A single (sometimes more) primary vein in the centre of the leaf, referred to as the midrib or costa, which is continuous with the vasculature of the petiole. The secondary veins, also known as second order veins or lateral veins, branch off from the midrib and extend toward the leaf margins. These often terminate in a hydathode , a secretory organ, at the margin. In turn, smaller veins branch from

2772-573: A single leaf grows from each node, and when the stem is held straight, the leaves form a helix . The divergence angle is often represented as a fraction of a full rotation around the stem. A rotation fraction of 1/2 (a divergence angle of 180°) produces an alternate arrangement, such as in Gasteria or the fan-aloe Kumara plicatilis . Rotation fractions of 1/3 (divergence angles of 120°) occur in beech and hazel . Oak and apricot rotate by 2/5, sunflowers, poplar, and pear by 3/8, and in willow and almond

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2904-523: A single point. In evolutionary terms, early emerging taxa tend to have dichotomous branching with reticulate systems emerging later. Veins appeared in the Permian period (299–252 mya), prior to the appearance of angiosperms in the Triassic (252–201 mya), during which vein hierarchy appeared enabling higher function, larger leaf size and adaption to a wider variety of climatic conditions. Although it

3036-409: A small leaf. Stipules may be lasting and not be shed (a stipulate leaf, such as in roses and beans ), or be shed as the leaf expands, leaving a stipule scar on the twig (an exstipulate leaf). The situation, arrangement, and structure of the stipules is called the "stipulation". Veins (sometimes referred to as nerves) constitute one of the most visible features of leaves. The veins in a leaf represent

3168-405: A specialized cell group known as the stomatal complex. The opening and closing of the stomatal aperture is controlled by the stomatal complex and regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf. Stomata therefore play the important role in allowing photosynthesis without letting the leaf dry out. In a typical leaf, the stomata are more numerous over

3300-483: A variety of patterns (venation) and form cylindrical bundles, usually lying in the median plane of the mesophyll , between the two layers of epidermis . This pattern is often specific to taxa, and of which angiosperms possess two main types, parallel and reticulate (net like). In general, parallel venation is typical of monocots, while reticulate is more typical of eudicots and magnoliids (" dicots "), though there are many exceptions. The vein or veins entering

3432-547: A whole rather than being modified one amendment at a time. This need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution that followed led to calls to modify the constitution accordingly. The population rejected an early draft in 1872, but modifications led to its acceptance in 1874. It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level. It also established federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters. In 1891,

3564-455: Is called a stipe in ferns . The lamina is the expanded, flat component of the leaf which contains the chloroplasts . The sheath is a structure, typically at the base that fully or partially clasps the stem above the node, where the leaf is attached. Leaf sheathes typically occur in Poaceae (grasses) and Apiaceae (umbellifers). Between the sheath and the lamina, there may be a pseudopetiole ,

3696-463: Is considered the confederacy's founding document, even though similar alliances likely existed decades earlier. The document was agreed among the rural communes of Uri , Schwyz , and Unterwalden . By 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne , Zurich and Bern city-states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that obtained through

3828-419: Is fairly cohesive, being rooted in a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy , and Alpine symbolism. Swiss identity transcends language, ethnicity, and religion, leading to Switzerland being described as a Willensnation ("nation of volition") rather than a nation state . The English name Switzerland is a portmanteau of Switzer , an obsolete term for

3960-527: Is in Lakewood, Washington , at the interchange between Interstate 5 and Washington State Route 512 , where a visible ramp stub shows that one of the four leaves was removed, thus eliminating weave on I-5. In the future, the traffic signal will be replaced by a two-lane flyover, completing the freeway-to-freeway interchange once again. Cloverleaf interchanges also tend to occupy much more land than any other kind of interchange. Numerous cloverleaf intersections in

4092-560: Is now the interchange between the A ;9 and A 14 , and has a single flyover from the westbound A 14 to the southbound A 9. Kamener Kreuz was the first in continental Europe to open fully in 1937, at A 1 and A 2 near Dortmund , Germany . The primary drawback of the classic design of the cloverleaf is that vehicles merge onto the highway at the end of a loop immediately before other vehicles leave to go around another loop, creating conflict known as weaving . Weaving limits

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4224-718: Is that adjacent on and off ramps are shared together by single bidirectional carriageways. Examples include the Highway 62 and Highway 401 interchange in Belleville, Ontario , the Highway 4 and Highway 401 in London, Ontario , as well as the Lawrence Avenue and Don Valley Parkway interchange in Toronto. The Don Mills Road and Don Valley Parkway and the Highway 27 and Dixon Road are also other examples; however, one quadrant of each has

4356-562: Is that, frequently, large trucks exceeding the area speed limit roll over. Another problem is the merging of traffic ( see below ). For these reasons, cloverleaf interchanges have become a common point of traffic congestion at busy junctions. At-grade cloverleaf configurations with full four leaves and full outside slip ramps are extremely rare, though one exists in Toms River, New Jersey . Any other intersection with merely one, two, or three leaf ramps with outer ramps would not be designated

4488-442: Is the palisade mesophyll and is located on the upper side of the blade or lamina of the leaf but in some species, including the mature foliage of Eucalyptus , palisade mesophyll is present on both sides and the leaves are said to be isobilateral. Most leaves are flattened and have distinct upper ( adaxial ) and lower ( abaxial ) surfaces that differ in color, hairiness, the number of stomata (pores that intake and output gases),

4620-636: Is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4,478 m or 14,692 ft) is the best known. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais , on the border with Italy. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m or 13,642 ft) Eiger and Mönch peaks, and its many picturesque valleys. In

4752-406: Is the more complex pattern, branching veins appear to be plesiomorphic and in some form were present in ancient seed plants as long as 250 million years ago. A pseudo-reticulate venation that is actually a highly modified penniparallel one is an autapomorphy of some Melanthiaceae , which are monocots; e.g., Paris quadrifolia (True-lover's Knot). In leaves with reticulate venation, veins form

4884-675: Is unknown. The first cloverleaf west of the Mississippi River opened on August 20, 1931, at Watson Road and Lindbergh Boulevard near St. Louis, Missouri , as part of an upgrade of U.S. 66 . The first cloverleaf interchange in Canada opened in 1937 at the junction of the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW) and Provincial Highway 10 in Port Credit, Ontario (now a part of Mississauga, Ontario). As originally built, Highway 10 passed over

5016-534: The Axis and Allied powers. Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to Nazi Germany varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland (together with Liechtenstein ) entirely isolated from

5148-608: The Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defence at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes). At the end of the fourth century, the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept. The Swiss Plateau was finally open to Germanic tribes . In the Early Middle Ages , from the end of the fourth century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland

5280-548: The Congress of Vienna fully re-established Swiss independence, and the European powers recognised permanent Swiss neutrality. Swiss troops served foreign governments until 1860 when they fought in the siege of Gaeta . The treaty allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the cantons of Valais , Neuchâtel and Geneva . Switzerland's borders saw only minor adjustments thereafter. The restoration of power to

5412-840: The European Union (EU), the European Economic Area , or the eurozone ; however, it participates in the European single market and the Schengen Area . Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons , with federal authorities based in Bern . Switzerland is one of the world's most developed countries having the highest nominal wealth per adult , and the eighth-highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita . Switzerland performs highly on several international metrics , including economic competitiveness and democratic governance . Cities such as Zurich, Geneva and Basel rank among

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5544-654: The Federal Palace in 1902 and after 1948 used in the official seal (e.g., the ISO banking code "CHF" for the Swiss franc , the Swiss postage stamps ('HELVETIA') and the country top-level domain ".ch", are both taken from the state's Latin name). Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii , a Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss Plateau before the Roman era . Helvetia appeared as

5676-651: The First War of Villmergen , in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712. In 1798, the revolutionary French government invaded Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen left Switzerland and the Valtellina valley became part of the Cisalpine Republic . The new regime, known as

5808-562: The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel . La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC, possibly influenced by Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most prominent La Tène tribes were the Helvetii , who primarily occupied the Swiss Plateau , alongside the Rhaetians in

5940-597: The Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD. In the 10th century, as the rule of the Carolingians waned, Magyars destroyed Basel in 917 and St. Gallen in 926. In response, Henry the Fowler , the then ruler of East Francia, decreed the fortification of key settlements to defend against these invasions. Large villages and towns, including strategic locations like Zurich and St.Gallen, were fortified. This initiative led to

6072-592: The Late Middle Ages , following a series of military successes against Austria and Burgundy ; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the country's founding document. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognised in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality since the 16th century and has not fought an international war since 1815 . It joined

6204-580: The League of Nations , which was based in Geneva , after it was exempted from military requirements. During World War II , detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune, as larger events during the war intervened. General Henri Guisan , appointed

6336-542: The Lower Mainland of British Columbia, Canada, require the merging of traffic from the clover directly onto the collector/distributor lane. This requires the slowly moving driver coming around the loop ramp to merge with the quickly moving driver exiting on the collector/distributor lane with no opportunity to accelerate to match the flow of the oncoming driver. This speed differential in merging can be as great as 65 km/h (approx. 43 mph). The cloverleaf interchange

6468-559: The Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau, and the Jura mountains on the west. The Alps are a mountain range running across the central and south of the country, constituting about 60% of the country's area. The majority of the population live on the Swiss Plateau. The Swiss Alps host many glaciers, covering 1,063 square kilometres (410 sq mi). From these originate

6600-590: The Swiss economy . During the Cold War , Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss nuclear bomb . Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of Technology Zurich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic possibility. In 1988, the Paul Scherrer Institute was founded in his name to explore the therapeutic uses of neutron scattering technologies. Financial problems with

6732-500: The commander-in-chief for the duration of the war ordered a general mobilisation of the armed forces. The Swiss military strategy changed from static defence at the borders to organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps, known as the Reduit . Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides and often mediated communications between

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6864-494: The diet of many animals . Correspondingly, leaves represent heavy investment on the part of the plants bearing them, and their retention or disposition are the subject of elaborate strategies for dealing with pest pressures, seasonal conditions, and protective measures such as the growth of thorns and the production of phytoliths , lignins , tannins and poisons . Deciduous plants in frigid or cold temperate regions typically shed their leaves in autumn, whereas in areas with

6996-424: The gymnosperms and angiosperms . Euphylls are also referred to as macrophylls or megaphylls (large leaves). A structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf stalk), a lamina (leaf blade), stipules (small structures located to either side of the base of the petiole) and a sheath. Not every species produces leaves with all of these structural components. The proximal stalk or petiole

7128-551: The phyllids of mosses and liverworts . Leaves are the most important organs of most vascular plants. Green plants are autotrophic , meaning that they do not obtain food from other living things but instead create their own food by photosynthesis . They capture the energy in sunlight and use it to make simple sugars , such as glucose and sucrose , from carbon dioxide and water. The sugars are then stored as starch , further processed by chemical synthesis into more complex organic molecules such as proteins or cellulose ,

7260-399: The plant shoots and roots . Vascular plants transport sucrose in a special tissue called the phloem . The phloem and xylem are parallel to each other, but the transport of materials is usually in opposite directions. Within the leaf these vascular systems branch (ramify) to form veins which supply as much of the leaf as possible, ensuring that cells carrying out photosynthesis are close to

7392-648: The Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries . The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire . In 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen joined the Old Swiss Confederacy. The Confederacy acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of

7524-651: The EU was attained that eliminated quotas on EU citizens, but still allowed favourable treatment of Swiss-based job applicants. On 27 September 2020, 62% of Swiss voters rejected the anti-free movement referendum by SVP. Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west -central Europe, Switzerland encompasses diverse landscapes and climates across its 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi). Switzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N , and longitudes 5° and 11° E . It contains three basic topographical areas:

7656-573: The French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The Act of Mediation was the result, which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government. In 1815

7788-519: The Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. An invading foreign army had imposed and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state . The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation. When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside

7920-472: The Helvetii were forced by Caesar to return to their original lands, where they were subjected to stringent restrictions on their autonomy and movements. In 15 BC, Tiberius (later the second Roman emperor) and his brother Drusus conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire . The area occupied by the Helvetii first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province. The eastern portion of modern Switzerland

8052-403: The Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality . During the Early Modern period of Swiss history, the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653 . In the background to this struggle, the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at

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8184-564: The QEW. In 1962, the interchange was rebuilt with sub-collector roads along the QEW, and the orientation was also changed so that Highway 10 then passed under the QEW. The interchange was further modified between 2008 and 2010 by removing all but one loop ramp, creating a partial cloverleaf/diamond hybrid. The cloverleaf was patented in Europe in Switzerland on October 15, 1928. The first cloverleaf in Europe opened in October 1935 at Slussen in central Stockholm , Sweden , followed in 1936 by Schkeuditzer Kreuz near Leipzig , Germany . This

8316-440: The Swiss Alps. 90% of Switzerland's 65,000-kilometre-long network of rivers and streams have been straightened, dammed, canalized or channeled underground, in an effort to prevent natural disasters such as flooding, landslides, and avalanches. 80% of all Swiss drinking water comes from groundwater sources. Forty-eight mountains are 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) or higher in height. At 4,634 m (15,203 ft), Monte Rosa

8448-407: The Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) to restrict immigration . This initiative was mostly backed by rural (57.6% approval) and suburban groups (51.2% approval), and isolated towns (51.3% approval) as well as by a strong majority (69.2% approval) in Ticino, while metropolitan centres (58.5% rejection) and the French-speaking part (58.5% rejection) rejected it. In December 2016, a political compromise with

8580-442: The Swiss drew up a constitution that provided for a federal layout , much of it inspired by the American example . This constitution provided central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States , two representatives per canton) and

8712-420: The United Nations only in 2002 but pursues an active foreign policy that includes frequent involvement in peace building . Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross and hosts the headquarters or offices of most major international institutions including the WTO , the WHO , the ILO , FIFA , the WEF , and the UN. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but not part of

8844-426: The abaxial (lower) epidermis than the adaxial (upper) epidermis and are more numerous in plants from cooler climates. Switzerland in Europe  (green and dark grey) Switzerland , officially the Swiss Confederation , is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe . It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to

8976-490: The amount and structure of epicuticular wax and other features. Leaves are mostly green in color due to the presence of a compound called chlorophyll which is essential for photosynthesis as it absorbs light energy from the sun . A leaf with lighter-colored or white patches or edges is called a variegated leaf . Leaves can have many different shapes, sizes, textures and colors. The broad, flat leaves with complex venation of flowering plants are known as megaphylls and

9108-679: The amount of light they absorb to avoid or mitigate excessive heat, ultraviolet damage, or desiccation, or to sacrifice light-absorption efficiency in favor of protection from herbivory. For xerophytes the major constraint is not light flux or intensity , but drought. Some window plants such as Fenestraria species and some Haworthia species such as Haworthia tesselata and Haworthia truncata are examples of xerophytes. and Bulbine mesembryanthemoides . Leaves also function to store chemical energy and water (especially in succulents ) and may become specialized organs serving other functions, such as tendrils of peas and other legumes,

9240-445: The area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. The Swiss German name of the country, Schwiiz , is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article ( d'Schwiiz for the Confederation, but simply Schwyz for

9372-583: The basic structural material in plant cell walls, or metabolized by cellular respiration to provide chemical energy to run cellular processes. The leaves draw water from the ground in the transpiration stream through a vascular conducting system known as xylem and obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by diffusion through openings called stomata in the outer covering layer of the leaf ( epidermis ), while leaves are orientated to maximize their exposure to sunlight. Once sugar has been synthesized, it needs to be transported to areas of active growth such as

9504-452: The blade attaches directly to the stem. Subpetiolate leaves are nearly petiolate or have an extremely short petiole and may appear to be sessile. In clasping or decurrent leaves, the blade partially surrounds the stem. When the leaf base completely surrounds the stem, the leaves are said to be perfoliate , such as in Eupatorium perfoliatum . In peltate leaves, the petiole attaches to

9636-406: The blade inside the blade margin. In some Acacia species, such as the koa tree ( Acacia koa ), the petioles are expanded or broadened and function like leaf blades; these are called phyllodes . There may or may not be normal pinnate leaves at the tip of the phyllode. A stipule , present on the leaves of many dicotyledons , is an appendage on each side at the base of the petiole, resembling

9768-488: The bombings, which violated the 96th Article of War , resulted from navigation errors, equipment failure, weather conditions, and pilot errors. The Swiss expressed fear and concern that the bombings were intended to put pressure on Switzerland to end economic cooperation and neutrality with Nazi Germany. Court-martial proceedings took place in England. The US paid SFR 62M for reparations. Switzerland's attitude towards refugees

9900-531: The canton and the town). The long [iː] of Swiss German is historically and still often today spelled ⟨y⟩ rather than ⟨ii⟩ , preserving the original identity of the two names even in writing. The Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was neologised and introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848, harking back to the Napoleonic Helvetic Republic . It appeared on coins from 1879, inscribed on

10032-543: The citizens, the membership application was withdrawn. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually changing to conform with that of the EU, and the government signed bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been surrounded by the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty , a result that EU commentators regarded as

10164-590: The cloverleaf was replaced in the late 2000s, it was judged eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places . Because of this, a commemorative film was made of the cloverleaf. The original cloverleaf interchange design was adapted by the Rudolph and Delano building firm from Philadelphia , from a photo Delano saw on a magazine cover about a highway in Buenos Aires , Argentina . The original inventor

10296-521: The confederation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano . This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli 's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 ( Wars of Kappel ). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia , European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from

10428-515: The constitution forbade sending troops to serve abroad, marking the end of foreign service. It came with the expectation of serving the Holy See , and the Swiss were still obliged to serve Francis II of the Two Sicilies with Swiss Guards present at the siege of Gaeta in 1860 . An important clause of the constitution was that it could be entirely rewritten, if necessary, thus enabling it to evolve as

10560-547: The constitution was revised with uncommonly strong elements of direct democracy , which remain unique today. Switzerland was not invaded during either of the world wars. During World War I , Switzerland was home to the revolutionary and founder of the Soviet Union Vladimir Illych Ulyanov ( Vladimir Lenin ) who remained there until 1917. Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the short-lived Grimm–Hoffmann affair in 1917. In 1920, Switzerland joined

10692-586: The defence budget and ethical considerations prevented the substantial funds from being allocated, and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative. Plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988. Switzerland joined the Council of Europe in 1963. Switzerland was the last Western republic (the Principality of Liechtenstein followed in 1984) to grant women

10824-527: The development of what were essentially early urban strongholds and city governments in Eastern Switzerland. By 1200, the Swiss Plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy , Zähringer , Habsburg , and Kyburg . Some regions ( Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , later known as Waldstätten ) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With

10956-595: The early Devonian lycopsid Baragwanathia , first evolved as enations, extensions of the stem. True leaves or euphylls of larger size and with more complex venation did not become widespread in other groups until the Devonian period , by which time the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere had dropped significantly. This occurred independently in several separate lineages of vascular plants, in progymnosperms like Archaeopteris , in Sphenopsida , ferns and later in

11088-413: The east. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Plateau , the Alps and the Jura ; the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, whereas most of the country's population of 9 million are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts its largest cities and economic centres, including Zurich , Geneva , and Basel . Switzerland originates from the Old Swiss Confederacy established in

11220-474: The eastern regions. Facing pressures from Germanic tribes, in 58 BC, the Helvetii, influenced by Orgetorix , a wealthy aristocrat, decided to abandon the Swiss Plateau for better opportunities in western Gallia. After Orgetorix's mysterious death, the tribe continued their migration but was decisively defeated by Julius Caesar's armies at the Battle of Bibracte , in present-day eastern France. Following their defeat,

11352-617: The end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the confederation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains , and the University of Basel was founded (with a faculty of medicine) establishing a tradition of chemical and medical research. This increased after victories against the Habsburgs ( Battle of Sempach , Battle of Näfels ), over Charles

11484-553: The equivalents of the petioles and stipules of leaves. Because each leaflet can appear to be a simple leaf, it is important to recognize where the petiole occurs to identify a compound leaf. Compound leaves are a characteristic of some families of higher plants, such as the Fabaceae . The middle vein of a compound leaf or a frond , when it is present, is called a rachis . Leaves which have a petiole (leaf stalk) are said to be petiolate . Sessile (epetiolate) leaves have no petiole and

11616-657: The external world. The cuticle is in some cases thinner on the lower epidermis than on the upper epidermis, and is generally thicker on leaves from dry climates as compared with those from wet climates. The epidermis serves several functions: protection against water loss by way of transpiration , regulation of gas exchange and secretion of metabolic compounds. Most leaves show dorsoventral anatomy: The upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. The epidermis tissue includes several differentiated cell types; epidermal cells, epidermal hair cells ( trichomes ), cells in

11748-633: The extinction of its male line in 1263, the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264. The Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them, extending their territory to the eastern Swiss Plateau. The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps. The Confederacy was governed by nobles and patricians of various cantons who facilitated management of common interests and ensured peace on mountain trade routes. The Federal Charter of 1291

11880-406: The fraction is 5/13. These arrangements are periodic. The denominator of the rotation fraction indicates the number of leaves in one period, while the numerator indicates the number of complete turns or gyres made in one period. For example: Most divergence angles are related to the sequence of Fibonacci numbers F n . This sequence begins 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13; each term is the sum of

12012-866: The ground, they are referred to as prostrate . Perennial plants whose leaves are shed annually are said to have deciduous leaves, while leaves that remain through winter are evergreens . Leaves attached to stems by stalks (known as petioles ) are called petiolate, and if attached directly to the stem with no petiole they are called sessile. Dicot leaves have blades with pinnate venation (where major veins diverge from one large mid-vein and have smaller connecting networks between them). Less commonly, dicot leaf blades may have palmate venation (several large veins diverging from petiole to leaf edges). Finally, some exhibit parallel venation. Monocot leaves in temperate climates usually have narrow blades, and usually parallel venation converging at leaf tips or edges. Some also have pinnate venation. The arrangement of leaves on

12144-648: The headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine , Inn , Ticino and Rhône , which flow in the four cardinal directions, spreading across Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of fresh water in Central and Western Europe, among which are Lake Geneva (Lac Léman in French), Lake Constance (Bodensee in German) and Lake Maggiore . Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes and contains 6% of Europe's freshwater stock. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of

12276-413: The highest in terms of quality of life, albeit with some of the highest costs of living . Switzerland holds an international reputation for its established banking sector, alongside its distinctive recognition for their watchmaking and chocolate production. It has four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh . Although most Swiss are German-speaking, national identity

12408-597: The last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA but not the European Economic Area (EEA). An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but did not advance since rejecting the EEA in December 1992 when Switzerland conducted a referendum on the EEA. Several referendums on the EU issue ensued; due to opposition from

12540-443: The leaf from the petiole are called primary or first-order veins. The veins branching from these are secondary or second-order veins. These primary and secondary veins are considered major veins or lower order veins, though some authors include third order. Each subsequent branching is sequentially numbered, and these are the higher order veins, each branching being associated with a narrower vein diameter. In parallel veined leaves,

12672-523: The leaf veins form, and these have functional implications. Of these, angiosperms have the greatest diversity. Within these the major veins function as the support and distribution network for leaves and are correlated with leaf shape. For instance, the parallel venation found in most monocots correlates with their elongated leaf shape and wide leaf base, while reticulate venation is seen in simple entire leaves, while digitate leaves typically have venation in which three or more primary veins diverge radially from

12804-551: The leaves of vascular plants . In most cases, they lack vascular tissue, are only a single cell thick, and have no cuticle , stomata, or internal system of intercellular spaces. (The phyllids of the moss family Polytrichaceae are notable exceptions.) The phyllids of bryophytes are only present on the gametophytes , while in contrast the leaves of vascular plants are only present on the sporophytes . These can further develop into either vegetative or reproductive structures. Simple, vascularized leaves ( microphylls ), such as those of

12936-560: The name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for "Confederates", Eidgenossen (literally: comrades by oath ), used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland , CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica ( Helvetic Confederation ). The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes , perhaps related to swedan 'to burn' (cf. Old Norse svíða 'to singe, burn'), referring to

13068-738: The national territory. Lake Geneva is the largest lake and is shared with France. The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second largest and, like Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border with Austria and Germany. While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camargue region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam , about 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) apart, both springs are only about 22 kilometres (14 miles) apart in

13200-441: The number of lanes of turning traffic. Most road authorities have since been implementing new interchange designs with less-curved exit ramps that do not result in weaving. These interchanges include the diamond , parclo and single-point urban interchanges (SPUI) when connecting to an arterial road in non free-flowing traffic on the crossroad and the stack or clover and stack hybrids when connecting to another freeway or to

13332-562: The patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes, such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg ) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the Sonderbund ). The war lasted less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire . The Sonderbundskrieg had

13464-404: The photosynthetic organelles , the chloroplasts , to light and to increase the absorption of carbon dioxide while at the same time controlling water loss. Their surfaces are waterproofed by the plant cuticle and gas exchange between the mesophyll cells and the atmosphere is controlled by minute (length and width measured in tens of μm) openings called stomata which open or close to regulate

13596-412: The plant and provides the route for transfer of water and sugars to and from the leaf. The lamina is typically the location of the majority of photosynthesis. The upper ( adaxial ) angle between a leaf and a stem is known as the axil of the leaf. It is often the location of a bud . Structures located there are called "axillary". External leaf characteristics, such as shape, margin, hairs, the petiole, and

13728-434: The presence of stipules and glands, are frequently important for identifying plants to family, genus or species levels, and botanists have developed a rich terminology for describing leaf characteristics. Leaves almost always have determinate growth. They grow to a specific pattern and shape and then stop. Other plant parts like stems or roots have non-determinate growth, and will usually continue to grow as long as they have

13860-410: The previous two. Rotation fractions are often quotients F n / F n + 2 of a Fibonacci number by the number two terms later in the sequence. This is the case for the fractions 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8, and 5/13. The ratio between successive Fibonacci numbers tends to the golden ratio φ = (1 + √5)/2 . When a circle is divided into two arcs whose lengths are in the ratio 1:φ , the angle formed by

13992-465: The primary organs responsible for transpiration and guttation (beads of fluid forming at leaf margins). Leaves can also store food and water , and are modified accordingly to meet these functions, for example in the leaves of succulent plants and in bulb scales. The concentration of photosynthetic structures in leaves requires that they be richer in protein , minerals , and sugars than, say, woody stem tissues. Accordingly, leaves are prominent in

14124-429: The primary veins run parallel and equidistant to each other for most of the length of the leaf and then converge or fuse (anastomose) towards the apex. Usually, many smaller minor veins interconnect these primary veins, but may terminate with very fine vein endings in the mesophyll. Minor veins are more typical of angiosperms, which may have as many as four higher orders. In contrast, leaves with reticulate venation have

14256-416: The products of photosynthesis (photosynthate) from the cells where it takes place, while major veins are responsible for its transport outside of the leaf. At the same time water is being transported in the opposite direction. The number of vein endings is very variable, as is whether second order veins end at the margin, or link back to other veins. There are many elaborate variations on the patterns that

14388-429: The protective spines of cacti and the insect traps in carnivorous plants such as Nepenthes and Sarracenia . Leaves are the fundamental structural units from which cones are constructed in gymnosperms (each cone scale is a modified megaphyll leaf known as a sporophyll) and from which flowers are constructed in flowering plants . The internal organization of most kinds of leaves has evolved to maximize exposure of

14520-714: The rate exchange of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ) and water vapor into and out of the internal intercellular space system. Stomatal opening is controlled by the turgor pressure in a pair of guard cells that surround the stomatal aperture. In any square centimeter of a plant leaf, there may be from 1,000 to 100,000 stomata. The shape and structure of leaves vary considerably from species to species of plant, depending largely on their adaptation to climate and available light, but also to other factors such as grazing animals (such as deer), available nutrients, and ecological competition from other plants. Considerable changes in leaf type occur within species, too, for example as

14652-531: The resources to do so. The type of leaf is usually characteristic of a species (monomorphic), although some species produce more than one type of leaf (dimorphic or polymorphic ). The longest leaves are those of the Raffia palm , R. regalis which may be up to 25 m (82 ft) long and 3 m (9.8 ft) wide. The terminology associated with the description of leaf morphology is presented, in illustrated form, at Wikibooks . Where leaves are basal, and lie on

14784-414: The right to vote . Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level, it was achieved in 1971 and, after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde , along with Glarus ) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance. The first woman on the seven-member Federal Council executive

14916-509: The road. A few cloverleaf interchanges in California have been rebuilt to eliminate weaving on the freeway while keeping all four loop ramps, by adding bridges, similar to braided ramps. Several cloverleaf interchanges have been eliminated by adding traffic lights on the non-freeway route. Sometimes, this is even done at the intersection of two freeways, particularly when one freeway terminates at an interchange with another. An example of this

15048-446: The secondary veins, known as tertiary or third order (or higher order) veins, forming a dense reticulate pattern. The areas or islands of mesophyll lying between the higher order veins, are called areoles . Some of the smallest veins (veinlets) may have their endings in the areoles, a process known as areolation. These minor veins act as the sites of exchange between the mesophyll and the plant's vascular system. Thus, minor veins collect

15180-455: The sequence 180°, 90°, 180°, 270°. Two basic forms of leaves can be described considering the way the blade (lamina) is divided. A simple leaf has an undivided blade. However, the leaf may be dissected to form lobes, but the gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein. A compound leaf has a fully subdivided blade, each leaflet of the blade being separated along a main or secondary vein. The leaflets may have petiolules and stipels,

15312-756: The sixth century, following Clovis I 's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians. Throughout the rest of the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony ( Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties) but after its extension under Charlemagne , the Frankish Empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The territories of present-day Switzerland became divided into Middle Francia and East Francia until they were reunified under

15444-454: The smaller arc is the golden angle , which is 1/φ × 360° ≈ 137.5° . Because of this, many divergence angles are approximately 137.5° . In plants where a pair of opposite leaves grows from each node, the leaves form a double helix. If the nodes do not rotate (a rotation fraction of zero and a divergence angle of 0°), the two helices become a pair of parallel lines, creating a distichous arrangement as in maple or olive trees. More common in

15576-953: The species that bear them, the majority, as broad-leaved or megaphyllous plants, which also include acrogymnosperms and ferns . In the lycopods , with different evolutionary origins, the leaves are simple (with only a single vein) and are known as microphylls . Some leaves, such as bulb scales, are not above ground. In many aquatic species, the leaves are submerged in water. Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls and spines . Furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called phylloclades and cladodes , and flattened leaf stems called phyllodes which differ from leaves both in their structure and origin. Some structures of non-vascular plants look and function much like leaves. Examples include

15708-421: The stem is known as phyllotaxis . A large variety of phyllotactic patterns occur in nature: In the simplest mathematical models of phyllotaxis , the apex of the stem is represented as a circle. Each new node is formed at the apex, and it is rotated by a constant angle from the previous node. This angle is called the divergence angle . The number of leaves that grow from a node depends on the plant species. When

15840-547: The stomatal complex; guard cells and subsidiary cells. The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and least specialized and form the majority of the epidermis. They are typically more elongated in the leaves of monocots than in those of dicots . Chloroplasts are generally absent in epidermal cells, the exception being the guard cells of the stomata . The stomatal pores perforate the epidermis and are surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts, forming

15972-511: The surrounding air , promoting cooling. Functionally, in addition to carrying out photosynthesis, the leaf is the principal site of transpiration , providing the energy required to draw the transpiration stream up from the roots, and guttation . Many conifers have thin needle-like or scale-like leaves that can be advantageous in cold climates with frequent snow and frost. These are interpreted as reduced from megaphyllous leaves of their Devonian ancestors. Some leaf forms are adapted to modulate

16104-632: The transportation system. Typically leaves are broad, flat and thin (dorsiventrally flattened), thereby maximising the surface area directly exposed to light and enabling the light to penetrate the tissues and reach the chloroplasts , thus promoting photosynthesis. They are arranged on the plant so as to expose their surfaces to light as efficiently as possible without shading each other, but there are many exceptions and complications. For instance, plants adapted to windy conditions may have pendent leaves, such as in many willows and eucalypts . The flat, or laminar, shape also maximizes thermal contact with

16236-482: The use of such devices as traffic signals . This not only made them a viable option for interchanges between freeways (where such devices are typically not an option), but they could also be used for very busy arterials where signals could present congestion problems. They are common in the United States and have been used for over 40 years as the Interstate Highway System expanded rapidly. One problem

16368-462: The vascular structure of the organ, extending into the leaf via the petiole and providing transportation of water and nutrients between leaf and stem, and play a crucial role in the maintenance of leaf water status and photosynthetic capacity. They also play a role in the mechanical support of the leaf. Within the lamina of the leaf, while some vascular plants possess only a single vein, in most this vasculature generally divides (ramifies) according to

16500-674: The wider world by Axis-controlled territory. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees aided by the International Red Cross , based in Geneva. Strict immigration and asylum policies and the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, only at the end of the 20th century. During the war, the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides, shooting down 11 intruding Luftwaffe planes in May and June 1940, then forcing down other intruders after

16632-548: Was Elisabeth Kopp , who served from 1984 to 1989, and the first female president was Ruth Dreifuss in 1999. In 1979 areas from the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new canton of Jura . On 18 April 1999, the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution . In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving Vatican City as

16764-505: Was redesigned in 2019 to remove one of the loops. In Ireland , partial cloverleaf set-ups exist at the interchanges of the main roads out of Dublin and the M50, allowing free-flow movements in all directions. The Red Cow Interchange is an example. Most cloverleaf interchanges have been phased out in Ontario, but some close variants do remain with similar traffic flows. The main difference however

16896-575: Was also converted to an SPUI . A compromise is to add a collector/distributor road next to the freeway; this does not eliminate weaving but moves it off the main lanes of the freeway. An example of this is the State Highway 23 / Interstate 43 interchange in Sheboygan, Wisconsin , where the exit/entrance roads on and off Highway 23 are two lanes next to the main I-43 freeway on the north and southbound sides of

17028-557: Was complicated and controversial; over the course of the war, it admitted as many as 300,000 refugees while refusing tens of thousands more, including Jews persecuted by the Nazis. After the war, the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable fund known as the Schweizerspende and donated to the Marshall Plan to help Europe's recovery, efforts that ultimately benefited

17160-503: Was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia . Sometime around the start of the Common Era , the Romans maintained a large camp called Vindonissa , now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch . The first and second century AD was an age of prosperity on the Swiss Plateau. Towns such as Aventicum , Iulia Equestris and Augusta Raurica reached

17292-682: Was not implemented in great numbers in the United Kingdom , because of these performance problems. There were originally three, one in Redditch and two in Livingston . One of the Livingston examples was remodeled in the mid-2000s as part of a public transport project. The Girton interchange near Cambridge was a "half"-cloverleaf interchange that regularly experienced peak-time congestion due to A14 westbound traffic weaving with M11 traffic. This interchange

17424-450: Was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians , who introduced the French language to the area. The Alemanni settled the Swiss Plateau in the fifth century and the valleys of the Alps in the eighth century, forming Alemannia . Modern-day Switzerland was then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy . The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in

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