A pack is a social group of conspecific canines . The number of members in a pack and their social behavior varies from species to species. Social structure is very important in a pack. Canine packs are led by a breeding pair , consisting of the alpha male and alpha female .
123-675: African wild dogs ( Lycaon pictus ) live and hunt in packs . Males assist in raising the pups, and stay with their pack for life. The females leave their birth pack at approximately 2.5 years old to join another pack without females. Males outnumber the females in a pack. Typically, only one female is present to breed with all males. African wild dogs are not territorial , and hunt cooperatively in their packs. For example, they will run down large game and tear it apart with their pack. They also cooperate in caring for wounded, sick, and young pack members. Gray wolves ( Canis lupus ) tend to live in packs that consist of adult parents and their offspring of
246-442: A bacteriophage virus into the host cell) or GTA-mediated transduction (transfer by a virus-like element produced by a bacterium) . Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can incorporate genes from dead bacteria, exchange genes with living bacteria, and can exchange plasmids across species boundaries. "Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many genes among diverse species including across
369-471: A convergence zone of two biodiversity hotspots . This area largely consists of community lands inhabited by pastoralists. With the help of local people, a pilot study was launched confirming the presence of a population of wild dogs largely unknown to conservationists. Over the next 16 years, local ecological knowledge revealed this area to be a significant refuge for African wild dogs and an important wildlife corridor connecting Kenya's Tsavo National Parks with
492-643: A dead individual was found in June 1995 at 4,050 m (13,290 ft) on the Sanetti Plateau . A stable population comprising more than 370 individuals is present in Kruger National Park . The African wild dog have strong social bonds, stronger than those of sympatric lions and spotted hyenas; thus, solitary living and hunting are extremely rare in the species. It lives in permanent packs consisting of two to 27 adults and yearling pups. The typical pack size in
615-412: A departure, but departure becomes more likely when more individual dogs ‘sneeze’. These sneezes are characterized by a short, sharp exhale through the nostrils. When members of dominant mating pairs sneeze first, the group is much more likely to depart. If a dominant dog initiates, around three sneezes guarantee departure. When less dominant dogs sneeze first, if enough others also sneeze (about 10), then
738-407: A designation emphasizes not the animal's dominant status, which is trivial information, but its role as pack progenitor, which is critical information. The one use we may still want to reserve for alpha is in the relatively few large wolf packs comprised of multiple litters. ... In such cases, the older breeders are probably dominant to the younger breeders and perhaps can more appropriately be called
861-411: A fundamental characteristic of all social groups... But perhaps only we humans learn to use punishment primarily to gain for ourselves the reward of being dominant. Most leading veterinary and animal behaviour associations and most contemporary trainers would agree to advocate the use of rewards to teach commands and encourage good communication between owners and their pets. Many modern practices dictate
984-486: A higher proportion of males, second litters are half and half and subsequent litters biased towards females with this trend increasing as females get older. As a result, the earlier litters provide stable hunters whilst the higher ratio of dispersals amongst the females stops a pack from getting too big. Populations in the Okavango Delta have been observed ‘rallying’ before setting out to hunt. Not every rally results in
1107-613: A hunt, believing that doing so will give them the animal's boldness and agility. Nevertheless, the species does not figure prominently in San rock art , with the only notable example being a frieze in Mount Erongo showing a pack hunting two antelopes. The Ndebele have a story explaining why the African wild dog hunts in packs: in the beginning, when the first wild dog's wife was sick, the other animals were concerned. An impala went to hare , who
1230-516: A kill, solitary hyenas approach cautiously and attempt to take off with a piece of meat unnoticed, though they may be mobbed in the attempt. When operating in groups, spotted hyenas are more successful in pirating African wild dog kills, though the latter's greater tendency to assist each other puts them at an advantage against spotted hyenas, which rarely work cooperatively. Cases of African wild dogs scavenging from spotted hyenas are rare. Although African wild dog packs can easily repel solitary hyenas, on
1353-440: A kill, sometimes up to 90%. An analysis of 1,119 chases by a pack of six Okavango wild dogs showed that most were short distance uncoordinated chases, and the individual kill rate was only 15.5 percent. Because kills are shared, each dog enjoyed an efficient benefit–cost ratio . Small prey such as rodents , hares and birds are hunted singly, with dangerous prey such as cane rats and Old World porcupines being killed with
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#17328519715451476-560: A new pack family as the alphas. Within the wolf pack, the breeding pair or the dominant breeding pair (in packs with multiple breeders), often referred to in familiar language as the "alpha pair" or the "alpha wolves", are typically the members of the family unit which breed and produce offspring; they are the matriarch and patriarch of the family. It was previously believed to be common for an aging or sick alpha to be replaced by one of their offspring, but more recent studies have shown this incestuous behaviour to be very rare. The importance of
1599-421: A pursuit clocking at up to 66 km/h (41 mph) for 10–60 minutes. The average chase covers some 2 km (1.2 mi), during which the prey animal, if large, is repeatedly bitten on the legs, belly, and rump until it stops running, while smaller prey is simply pulled down and torn apart. African wild dogs adjust their hunting strategy to the particular prey species. They will rush at wildebeest to panic
1722-773: A quick and well-placed bite to avoid injury. Small prey is eaten entirely, while large animals are stripped of their meat and organs, leaving the skin, head, and skeleton intact. The African wild dog is a fast eater, with a pack being able to consume a Thomson's gazelle in 15 minutes. In the wild, the species' consumption is 1.2–5.9 kg (2.6–13.0 lb) per African wild dog a day, with one pack of 17–43 individuals in East Africa having been recorded to kill three animals per day on average. Unlike most social predators, African wild dogs will regurgitate food for other adults as well as young family members. Pups old enough to eat solid food are given first priority at kills, eating even before
1845-415: A reflection of the relationships they present in the pack, reflecting any tension, cooperation, and competition present. Tensions are noted to become higher around breeding season. This is due to increased opportunities for reproduction. Individuals challenge the group hierarchy to gain better-quality mates. This leads to greater intraspecific competition and rising tensions. Female wolves are known for being
1968-455: A single long-term mate. As such, they usually hunt alone or in pairs. A pack consists of the breeding pair and their current young. They occasionally cooperate in larger packs to hunt big game, but rarely hunt animals larger than a small, young antelope . Black-backed jackals are not typically considered 'aggressive' towards larger animals but tend to be wary of humans. However, they will become aggressive if they feel threatened, in order to defend
2091-450: A species exist in small populations there is an increased risk of inbreeding and greater susceptibility to loss of diversity due to drift. These populations can benefit greatly from the introduction of unrelated individuals who can increase diversity and reduce the amount of inbreeding, and potentially increase population size. This was demonstrated in the lab with two bottleneck strains of Drosophila melanogaster , in which crosses between
2214-452: A specimen from the coast of Mozambique . He named the animal Hyaena picta , erroneously classifying it as a species of hyena. It was later recognised as a canid by Joshua Brookes in 1827 and renamed Lycaon tricolor . The root word of Lycaon is the Greek λυκαίος ( lykaios ), meaning ‘wolf-like’. The specific epithet pictus ( Latin for ‘painted’), which derived from the original picta ,
2337-520: A typically unrelated breeding pair also known as the alphas, their offspring, and occasionally a handful of other wolves which can be related or not. Membership may be fluid and is subject to change. Outside wolves may be shunned or, more rarely, accepted, depending on the specific circumstances. Genetic variability can become limited within such an interrelated group, and so conditions for gene flow must exist. Outside wolves can provide these opportunities. A pack may accept another wolf into their group if it
2460-401: Is < 0.25. This means there is some migration happening. Measures of population structure range from 0 to 1. When gene flow occurs via migration the deleterious effects of inbreeding can be ameliorated. F S T = 1 / ( 4 N e m + 1 ) {\displaystyle F_{ST}=1/(4N_{e}m+1)} The formula can be modified to solve for
2583-549: Is a distant relative, if reproduction rates are low due to the loss or infertility of an alpha, or if their numbers are significantly reduced. Characterisation of wolves into dominance hierarchies of alpha, beta, and omega was based on behavioural studies of unrelated wolves in captivity, and this assemblage largely does not apply to natural wolf packs, which are familial units. These singular outside wolves, often referred to as lone wolves, are vulnerable to food scarcity and territorial attacks and generally comprise less than 15% of
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#17328519715452706-470: Is a species that humans cannot tell is different without the use of genetics. Moreover, gene flow between hybrid and wild populations can result in loss of genetic diversity via genetic pollution , assortative mating and outbreeding . In human populations, genetic differentiation can also result from endogamy , due to differences in caste, ethnicity, customs and religion. Gene flow can also be used to assist species which are threatened with extinction. When
2829-867: Is an example of urban facilitation via opening up a corridor for gene flow. However, in the bobcat's southern range, an increase in roads and traffic is correlated with a decrease in forest cover, which hinders bobcat population gene flow through these areas. Somewhat ironically, the movement of bobcats northward is caused by human-driven global warming, but is also enabled by increased anthropogenic activity in northern ranges that make these habitats more suitable to bobcats. Consequences of urban facilitation vary from species to species. Positive effects of urban facilitation can occur when increased gene flow enables better adaptation and introduces beneficial alleles, and would ideally increase biodiversity. This has implications for conservation: for example, urban facilitation benefits an endangered species of tarantula and could help increase
2952-410: Is another mechanism by which southern-dwelling animals might be forced northward towards cooler temperatures, where they could come into contact with other populations not previously in their range. More directly, humans are known to introduce non-native species into new environments, which could lead to hybridization of similar species. This urban facilitation model was tested on a human health pest,
3075-539: Is blocked by physical barriers, this results in Allopatric speciation or a geographical isolation that does not allow populations of the same species to exchange genetic material. Physical barriers to gene flow are usually, but not always, natural. They may include impassable mountain ranges, oceans, or vast deserts. In some cases, they can be artificial, human-made barriers, such as the Great Wall of China , which has hindered
3198-420: Is granted by sheer number, and larger, more plentiful territory can be won and sustained. Care and protection of the young are shared, and knowledge can be passed down through generations, creating a unique culture within each group The pack is typically a nuclear family unit. It often consists of 5–10 (though in areas of high prey abundance can be up to 30) mostly related individuals, specifically consisting of
3321-451: Is high, with researchers citing that only roughly 30% survive their first year of life. Those who survive, however, grow up with the added advantage of being surrounded by numerous caretakers and teachers. There exists a culture within wolf packs, and this is passed on to the offspring by the elders of the group. Pups learn something from each member of the pack and attain the vital social skills required to create powerful bonds upon which
3444-533: Is impeded, there can be an increase in inbreeding , measured by the inbreeding coefficient (F) within a population. For example, many island populations have low rates of gene flow due to geographic isolation and small population sizes. The Black Footed Rock Wallaby has several inbred populations that live on various islands off the coast of Australia. The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding. The level of gene flow among populations can be estimated by observing
3567-584: Is known to have possessed a unique genotype , but these genotypes may be extinct. The African wild dog is the bulkiest and most solidly built of African canids. The species stands 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) at the shoulders, measures 71 to 112 cm (28 to 44 in) in head-and-body length and has a tail length of 29 to 41 cm (11 to 16 in). Adults have a weight range of 18 to 36 kg (40 to 79 lb). On average, dogs from East Africa weigh around 20–25 kg (44–55 lb). By body mass, they are only outsized amongst other extant canids by
3690-416: Is not always clear-cut, for sometimes the hybrids may look identical to the original species phenotypically but upon testing the mtDNA it is apparent that hybridization has occurred. Differential hybridization also occurs because some traits and DNA are more readily exchanged than others, and this is a result of selective pressure or the absence thereof that allows for easier transaction. In instances in which
3813-478: Is not necessarily beneficial to an environment, as Western black widow spiders have highly toxic venom and therefore pose risks for human health. Another example of urban facilitation is that of migrating bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) in the northern US and southern Canada. A study by Marrote et al. sequenced fourteen different microsatellite loci in bobcats across the Great Lakes region, and found that longitude affected
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3936-465: Is occasionally sighted in other parts of Senegal , Guinea and Mali . Its distribution is patchy in East Africa. It inhabits mostly savannas and arid zones, generally avoiding forested areas. This preference is likely linked to its hunting habits, which require open areas that do not obstruct vision or impede pursuit. It travels through scrubland , woodland and montane areas in pursuit of prey. A forest-dwelling population has been identified in
4059-489: Is often a result of a reproductive barrier. For example, two palm species of Howea found on Lord Howe Island were found to have substantially different flowering times correlated with soil preference, resulting in a reproductive barrier inhibiting gene flow. Species can live in the same environment, yet show very limited gene flow due to reproductive barriers, fragmentation, specialist pollinators, or limited hybridization or hybridization yielding unfit hybrids. A cryptic species
4182-407: Is seen in coat colour, with northeastern African specimens tending to be predominantly black with small white and yellow patches, while southern African ones are more brightly coloured, sporting a mix of brown, black and white coats. Much of the species' coat patterning occurs on the trunk and legs. Little variation in facial markings occurs, with the muzzle being black, gradually shading into brown on
4305-427: Is strictly limited to the dominant female, which may kill the pups of subordinates. After giving birth, the mother stays close to the pups in the den, while the rest of the pack hunts. She typically drives away pack members approaching the pups until the latter are old enough to eat solid food at three to four weeks of age. The pups leave the den around the age of three weeks and are suckled outside. The pups are weaned at
4428-444: Is the transfer of genetic material from one population to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations will have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore can be considered a single effective population. It has been shown that it takes only "one migrant per generation" to prevent populations from diverging due to drift . Populations can diverge due to selection even when they are exchanging alleles, if
4551-531: The Harenna Forest , a wet montane forest up to an elevation of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia . At least one record exists of a pack being sighted on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro . In Zimbabwe, it has been recorded at the elevation of 1,800 m (5,900 ft). In Ethiopia, several packs were sighted at elevations of 1,900 to 2,800 m (6,200 to 9,200 ft), and
4674-440: The alphas . ... The point here is not so much the terminology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, force-based dominance hierarchy. One of the most persistent but disputed theories in dog training literature is the idea of the alpha wolf , an individual gray wolf who uses body language and, when needed, physical force to maintain dominance within the wolf pack. The idea was first reported in early wolf research. It
4797-455: The effective population size ( N e {\displaystyle N_{e}} ) and the net migration rate per generation (m). Using the approximation based on the Island model, the effect of migration can be calculated for a population in terms of the degree of genetic differentiation( F S T {\displaystyle F_{ST}} ). This formula accounts for
4920-433: The gray wolf species complex . Females are usually 3–7% smaller than males. Compared to members of the genus Canis , the African wild dog is comparatively lean and tall, with outsized ears and lacking dewclaws . The middle two toepads are usually fused. Its dentition differs from that of Canis by the degeneration of the last lower molar , the narrowness of the canines and proportionately large premolars , which are
5043-466: The martial eagle , when they venture out of their dens. The African wild dog is primarily threatened by habitat fragmentation , which results from human–wildlife conflict , transmission of infectious diseases and high mortality rates; it has been exterminated in large parts of North and West Africa, and its population has greatly reduced in Central Africa, Uganda and much of Kenya . Surveys in
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5166-558: The 1960s resulted in an increase in African wild dog sightings, only for their numbers to decline once the lions recovered. As with other large predators killed by lion prides, the dogs are usually killed and left uneaten by the lions, indicating the competitive rather than predatory nature of the lions' dominance. However, a few cases have been reported of old and wounded lions falling prey to African wild dogs. On occasion, packs of wild dogs have been observed defending pack members attacked by single lions, sometimes successfully. One pack in
5289-410: The African wild dog differs significantly from that of other canids, consisting entirely of stiff bristle-hairs with no underfur. Adults gradually lose their fur as it ages, with older individuals being almost naked. Colour variation is extreme, and may serve in visual identification, as African wild dogs can recognise each other at distances of 50–100 m (160–330 ft). Some geographic variation
5412-472: The African wild dog has been listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1990. The species is a specialised diurnal hunter of terrestrial ungulates , which it captures by using its stamina and cooperative hunting to exhaust them. Its natural competitors are lions and spotted hyenas : the former will kill the dogs where possible whilst the latter are frequent kleptoparasites . Like other canids,
5535-539: The African wild dog regurgitates food for its young but also extends this action to adults as a central part of the pack's social unit. The young have the privilege of feeding first on carcasses. The African wild dog has been revered in several hunter-gatherer societies, particularly those of the San people and Prehistoric Egypt . The English language has several names for the African wild dog, including African hunting dog, Cape hunting dog, painted hunting dog, painted dog, painted wolf, and painted lycaon. Though
5658-750: The African wild dog's less hierarchical social structure. Furthermore, while elaborate facial expressions are important for wolves in re-establishing bonds after long periods of separation from their family groups, they are not as necessary to African wild dogs, which remain together for much longer periods. The species does have an extensive vocal repertoire consisting of twittering, whining, yelping, squealing, whispering, barking , growling , gurling, rumbling, moaning and hooing. African wild dog populations in East Africa appear to have no fixed breeding season , whereas those in Southern Africa usually breed during
5781-506: The African wild dog, as the Hunters Palette shows them wearing the animals' tails on their belts. By the dynastic period , African wild dog illustrations became much less represented, and the animal's symbolic role was largely taken over by the wolf. According to Enno Littmann , the people of Ethiopia 's Tigray Region believed that injuring a wild dog with a spear would result in the animal dipping its tail in its wounds and flicking
5904-524: The April–July period. During estrus , the female is closely accompanied by a single male, which keeps other members of the same sex at bay. The estrus period can last as long as 20 days. The copulatory tie characteristic of mating in most canids has been reported to be absent or very brief (less than one minute) in African wild dog, possibly an adaptation to the prevalence of larger predators in its environment. The gestation period lasts 69–73 days, with
6027-500: The Central African Republic's Chinko area revealed that the African wild dog population decreased from 160 individuals in 2012 to 26 individuals in 2017. At the same time, transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. The non-governmental organization African Wild Dog Conservancy began working in 2003 to conserve the African wild dog in northeastern and coastal Kenya,
6150-561: The Horn of Africa in an increasingly human-dominated landscape. This project has been identified as a wild dog conservation priority by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group. Depictions of African wild dogs are prominent on cosmetic palettes and other objects from Egypt 's predynastic period , likely symbolising order over chaos and the transition between the wild and the domestic dog. Predynastic hunters may have identified with
6273-566: The Kruger National Park and the Maasai Mara is four or five adults, while packs in Moremi and Selous Game Reserves contain eight or nine. However, larger packs have been observed and temporary aggregations of hundreds of individuals may have gathered in response to the seasonal migration of vast springbok herds in Southern Africa. Males and females have separate dominance hierarchies, with
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#17328519715456396-796: The Okavango in March 2016 was photographed by safari guides waging "an incredible fight" against a lioness that attacked a subadult dog at an impala kill, which forced the lioness to retreat, although the subadult dog died. A pack of four wild dogs was observed furiously defending an old adult male dog from a male lion that attacked it at a kill; the dog survived and rejoined the pack. African wild dogs commonly lose their kills to larger predators. Spotted hyenas are important kleptoparasites and follow packs of African wild dogs to appropriate their kills. They typically inspect areas where wild dogs have rested and eat any food remains they find. When approaching wild dogs at
6519-528: The Western black widow spider ( Latrodectus hesperus ). A study by Miles et al. collected genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism variation data in urban and rural spider populations and found evidence for increased gene flow in urban Western black widow spiders compared to rural populations. In addition, the genome of these spiders was more similar across rural populations than it was for urban populations, suggesting increased diversity, and therefore adaptation, in
6642-475: The abandonment of outdated "pack" methods. Some canine behaviourists suggest that kind, efficient training uses games to teach commands which can be utilised to benefit the owner's everyday life. African wild dogs The African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), also known as the painted dog or Cape hunting dog , is a wild canine native to sub-Saharan Africa . It is the largest wild canine in Africa, and
6765-514: The age of five weeks, when they are fed regurgitated meat by the other pack members. By seven weeks, the pups begin to take on an adult appearance, with noticeable lengthening in the legs, muzzle, and ears. Once the pups reach the age of eight to 10 weeks, the pack abandons the den and the young follow the adults during hunts. The youngest pack members are permitted to eat first on kills, a privilege which ends once they become yearlings. African wild dogs have an average lifespan of about 10 to 11 years in
6888-410: The alpha is rivalled only by that of the pups. The fundamental purpose of the pack is the successful production of offspring, and so raising the litter is a collaborative venture – all members contribute to their development. In times of scarcity, the breeding pair will often prioritise the care of the pups and preferentially feed the youngest wolves first. Despite this committed involvement, pup mortality
7011-423: The blood at its assailant, causing instant death. For this reason, Tigrean shepherds used to repel wild dog attacks with pebbles rather than with edged weapons. The African wild dog also plays a prominent role in the mythology of Southern Africa's San people . In one story, the wild dog is indirectly linked to the origin of death , as the hare is cursed by the moon to be forever hunted by African wild dogs after
7134-430: The boundaries of phylogenetic 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes." Biologist Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research". Biologists [should] instead use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use
7257-426: The boundaries of their territories. The Ethiopian wolf ( Canis simensis ) pack members hunt for rodents alone, and come together mainly to defend their territory from rival packs. Corsac foxes sometimes form packs, unlike some other fox species. Wolves are recognized for creating cooperative relationships within their pack structure, which significantly influence their interactions with one another, perhaps as
7380-456: The case of larger species such as kudu and wildebeest, calves are largely but not exclusively targeted. However, certain packs in the Serengeti specialized in hunting adult plains zebras weighing up to 240 kg (530 lb) quite frequently. Another study claimed that some prey taken by wild dogs could weigh up to 289 kg (637 lb). This includes African buffalo juveniles during
7503-529: The case of other wild canids, the alpha male may not have exclusive access to the alpha female; moreover, other pack members may guard the maternity den used by the alpha female; as with the African wild dog , Lycaon pictus . As dominant roles may be deemed normal among social species with extended parenting, it has been suggested that the additional term alpha is not required merely to describe dominance due to its ubiquity but should be reserved for where they are
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#17328519715457626-413: The cheeks and forehead. A black line extends up the forehead, turning blackish-brown on the back of the ears. A few specimens sport a brown teardrop-shaped mark below the eyes. The back of the head and neck are either brown or yellow. A white patch occasionally occurs behind the fore legs, with some specimens having completely white fore legs, chests and throats. The tail is usually white at the tip, black in
7749-531: The course of normal evolution, hybridization with or without introgression may threaten a rare species' existence. For example, the Mallard is an abundant species of duck that interbreeds readily with a wide range of other ducks and poses a threat to the integrity of some species. There are two main models for how urbanization affects gene flow of urban populations. The first is through habitat fragmentation , also called urban fragmentation, in which alterations to
7872-574: The dhole having existed in the Middle East or North Africa. As of 2005 , five subspecies are recognised by MSW3 : Although the species is genetically diverse, these subspecific designations are not universally accepted. East African and Southern African wild dog populations were once thought to be genetically distinct, based on a small number of samples. More recent studies with a larger number of samples showed that extensive intermixing has occurred between East African and Southern African populations in
7995-525: The dispersal of individuals and recording their reproductive success. This direct method is only suitable for some types of organisms, more often indirect methods are used that infer gene flow by comparing allele frequencies among population samples. The more genetically differentiated two populations are, the lower the estimate of gene flow, because gene flow has a homogenizing effect. Isolation of populations leads to divergence due to drift, while migration reduces divergence. Gene flow can be measured by using
8118-469: The dominant pair; subordinate adult dogs help feed and protect the pups. Lions dominate African wild dogs and are a major source of mortality for both adults and pups. Population densities are usually low in areas where lions are more abundant. One pack reintroduced into Etosha National Park was wiped out by lions. A population crash in lions in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area during
8241-683: The dry season when herds are small and calves less protected. Footage from Lower Zambezi National Park taken in 2021 showed a large pack of wild dogs hunting an adult, healthy buffalo, though this is apparently extremely rare. One pack was recorded to occasionally prey on bat-eared foxes , rolling on the carcasses before eating them. African wild dogs rarely scavenge, but have on occasion been observed to appropriate carcasses from spotted hyenas, leopards, cheetahs, lions, and animals caught in snares . Hunting success varies with prey type, vegetation cover and pack size, but African wild dogs tend to be very successful: often more than 60% of their chases end in
8364-482: The extinct Canis subgenus Xenocyon as ancestral to both the genus Lycaon and the genus Cuon , which lived throughout Eurasia and Africa from the Early Pleistocene to the early Middle Pleistocene . Others propose that Xenocyon should be reclassified as Lycaon . The species Canis ( Xenocyon ) falconeri shared the African wild dog's absent first metacarpal ( dewclaw ), though its dentition
8487-496: The gene flow of native plant populations. One of these native plants, Ulmus pumila , demonstrated a lower prevalence of genetic differentiation than the plants Vitex negundo, Ziziphus jujuba, Heteropappus hispidus, and Prunus armeniaca whose habitat is located on the opposite side of the Great Wall of China where Ulmus pumila grows. This is because Ulmus pumila has wind-pollination as its primary means of propagation and
8610-402: The gene pools of the groups, thus preventing the development of differences in genetic variation that would have led to differentiation and adaptation . In some cases dispersal resulting in gene flow may also result in the addition of novel genetic variants under positive selection to the gene pool of a species or population (adaptive introgression. ) There are a number of factors that affect
8733-457: The group will go hunting. Researchers assert that wild dogs in Botswana "use a specific vocalization (the sneeze) along with a variable quorum response mechanism in the decision-making process [to go hunting at a particular moment]". Because the African wild dog largely exists in fragmented, small populations, its existence is endangered. Inbreeding avoidance by mate selection is a characteristic of
8856-527: The hare rebuffs the moon's promise to allow all living things to be reborn after death. Another story has the god Cagn taking revenge on the other gods by sending a group of men transformed into African wild dogs to attack them, though who won the battle is never revealed. The San of Botswana see the African wild dog as the ultimate hunter and traditionally believe that shamans and medicine men can transform themselves into wild dogs. Some San hunters will smear African wild dog bodily fluids on their feet before
8979-402: The herd and isolate a vulnerable individual, but pursue territorial antelope species (which defend themselves by running in wide circles) by cutting across the arc to foil their escape. Medium-sized prey is often killed in 2–5 minutes, whereas larger prey such as wildebeest may take half an hour to pull down. Male wild dogs usually perform the task of grabbing dangerous prey, such as warthogs , by
9102-445: The idea of the alpha roll , a technique for punishing unwanted dog behaviours. Psychologist and dog trainer Stanley Coren wrote in the 2001 book How to Speak Dog , "You are the alpha dog... You must communicate that you are the pack leader and dominant". It has been suggested that the use of such techniques may have more to do with human psychology than with dog behavior; "dominance hierarchies and dominance disputes and testing are
9225-399: The impact of reduced numbers of suitable unrelated mates will likely have a severe demographic impact on the future viability of small wild dog populations. The African wild dog is a specialised pack hunter of common medium-sized antelopes . It and the cheetah are the only primarily diurnal African large predators. The African wild dog hunts by approaching prey silently, then chasing it in
9348-485: The interaction between anthropogenic landscape alterations and bobcat population gene flow. While rising global temperatures push bobcat populations into northern territory, increased human activity also enables bobcat migration northward. The increased human activity brings increased roads and traffic, but also increases road maintenance, plowing, and snow compaction, inadvertently clearing a path for bobcats to travel by. The anthropogenic influence on bobcat migration pathways
9471-418: The interval between each pregnancy being 12–14 months typically. The African wild dog produces more pups than any other canid, with litters containing around six to 16 pups, with an average of 10, thus indicating that a single female can produce enough young to form a new pack every year. Because the amount of food necessary to feed more than two litters would be impossible to acquire by the average pack, breeding
9594-435: The introduced species begins to replace the native species, the native species becomes threatened and the biodiversity is reduced, thus making this phenomenon negative rather than a positive case of gene flow that augments genetic diversity. Introgression is the replacement of one species' alleles with that of the invader species. It is important to note that hybrids are sometime less "fit" than their parental generation, and as
9717-475: The landscape that disrupt or fragment the habitat decrease genetic diversity. The second is called the urban facilitation model, and suggests that in some populations, gene flow is enabled by anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Urban facilitation of gene flow connects populations, reduces isolation, and increases gene flow into an area which would otherwise not have this specific genome composition. Urban facilitation can occur in many different ways, but most of
9840-565: The largest relative to body size of any carnivore other than hyenas. The heel of the lower carnassial M1 is crested with a single, blade-like cusp, which enhances the shearing capacity of the teeth, thus the speed at which prey can be consumed. This feature, termed "trenchant heel", is shared with two other canids: the Asian dhole and the South American bush dog . The skull is relatively shorter and broader than those of other canids. The fur of
9963-419: The largest relative to body size of any living carnivoran with the exception of the spotted hyena . On the lower carnassials (first lower molars ), the talonid has evolved to become a cutting blade for flesh-slicing, with a reduction or loss of the post-carnassial molars. This adaptation also occurs in the two other hypercarnivorous canids – the dhole and the bush dog . The African wild dog exhibits one of
10086-535: The last two or three years. The adult parents are usually unrelated, and other unrelated wolves may sometimes join the pack. Wolves usually hunt in packs, but they hunt alone in the spring and summer months when plenty of prey is available. They are found in both Eurasia and North America . Black-backed jackals ( Canis mesomelas ) in Southern and Eastern Africa and coyotes ( Canis latrans ) in North America have
10209-585: The latter usually being led by the oldest female. Males may be led by the oldest male, but these can be supplanted by younger specimens; thus, some packs may contain elderly male former pack leaders. The dominant pair typically monopolises breeding. The species differs from most other social carnivorans in that males remain in the natal pack, while females disperse (a pattern also found in primates such as gorillas , chimpanzees , and red colobuses ). Furthermore, males in any given pack tend to outnumber females 3:1. Dispersing females join other packs and evict some of
10332-415: The latter-plants carry out pollination through insects. Samples of the same species which grow on either side have been shown to have developed genetic differences, because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the gene pools. Barriers to gene flow need not always be physical. Sympatric speciation happens when new species from the same ancestral species arise along the same range. This
10455-399: The main initiators of affiliative interactions, though a small percentage of males will initiate affiliative interactions. The omega male is not a target of any affiliative interaction. In other studies, researchers have separated the most dominant wolf from the most subordinate wolves. It was recorded that the dominant wolf spent less time sleeping and showed more behavioural stress compared to
10578-499: The mechanisms include bringing previously separated species into contact, either directly or indirectly. Altering a habitat through urbanization will cause habitat fragmentation, but could also potentially disrupt barriers and create a pathway, or corridor, that can connect two formerly separated species. The effectiveness of this depends on individual species’ dispersal abilities and adaptiveness to different environments to use anthropogenic structures to travel. Human-driven climate change
10701-437: The metaphor of an intertwined net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of horizontal gene transfer. "Using single genes as phylogenetic markers , it is difficult to trace organismal phylogeny in the presence of HGT. Combining the simple coalescence model of cladogenesis with rare HGT events suggest there was no single last common ancestor that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among
10824-681: The middle and brown at the base. Some specimens lack the white tip entirely, or may have black fur below the white tip. These coat patterns can be asymmetrical, with the left side of the body often having different markings from the right. The African wild dog occurs foremost in Southern and East Africa. It is rare in North Africa and mostly absent in West Africa, with the only potentially viable population occurring in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park . It
10947-446: The migration rate when F S T {\displaystyle F_{ST}} is known: N m = ( ( 1 / F S T ) − 1 ) / 4 = 1 − F S T 4 ∗ F S T {\displaystyle Nm=((1/F_{ST})-1)/4={\tfrac {1-F_{ST}}{4*F_{ST}}}} , Nm = number of migrants. When gene flow
11070-415: The most varied coat colours among mammals. Individuals differ in patterns and colours, indicating a diversity of the underlying genes . The purpose of these coat patterns may be an adaptation for communication, concealment or temperature regulation. In 2019 a study indicated that the lycaon lineage diverged from Cuon and Canis 1.7 million years ago through this suite of adaptations, and these occurred at
11193-699: The name African wild dog is widely used, 'wild dog' is thought by conservation groups to have negative connotations that could be detrimental to its image; one organisation promotes the name 'painted wolf', whilst the name 'painted dog' has been found to be the most likely to counteract negative perceptions. Domestic dog [REDACTED] Gray wolf [REDACTED] Coyote [REDACTED] African wolf [REDACTED] Golden jackal [REDACTED] Ethiopian wolf [REDACTED] Dhole [REDACTED] African wild dog [REDACTED] Side-striped jackal [REDACTED] Black-backed jackal [REDACTED] The earliest written reference for
11316-798: The nose. A species-wide study showed that by preference, where available, five prey species were the most regularly selected, namely the greater kudu , Thomson's gazelle , impala , Cape bushbuck and blue wildebeest . More specifically, in East Africa, its most common prey is the Thomson's gazelle, while in Central and Southern Africa, it targets impala , reedbuck , kob , lechwe and springbok , and smaller prey such as common duiker , dik-dik , hares , spring hares , insects and cane rats. Staple prey sizes are usually between 15 and 200 kg (33 and 441 lb), though some local studies put upper prey sizes as variously 90 to 135 kg (198 to 298 lb). In
11439-542: The omega wolf. The dominant wolf was reported to rest in the section of his enclosure closest to his pack. Furthermore, researchers noted that younger, more subordinate wolves appear to have less attachment to their pack compared to their higher-ranking compatriots. Cooperation is essential for tasks such as hunting and protecting the young, though the level of attachment present in the pack is not necessarily equal. The majority of wolves are known for dispersing from their birth pack; this makes measuring attachment behavior within
11562-462: The only extant member of the genus Lycaon , which is distinguished from Canis by dentition highly specialised for a hypercarnivorous diet and by a lack of dewclaws . It is estimated that there are around 6,600 adults (including 1,400 mature individuals) living in 39 subpopulations, all threatened by habitat fragmentation , human persecution and outbreaks of disease. As the largest subpopulation probably consists of fewer than 250 individuals,
11685-447: The packs difficult. There are cases in which wolves leave their pack, typically when accompanying siblings of the same sex. This behaviour is suggested to be adaptive, which will benefit pack mates in future conflicts. All individuals benefit from being a member of the wolf pack; the weak are supported by the efforts of stronger wolves, and higher-ranking individuals enjoy better and larger kills than could be taken on their own. Protection
11808-490: The past. Some unique nuclear and mitochondrial alleles are found in Southern African and northeastern African populations, with a transition zone encompassing Botswana , Zimbabwe and southeastern Tanzania between the two. The West African wild dog population may possess a unique haplotype , thus possibly constituting a truly distinct subspecies. The original Serengeti and Maasai Mara population of painted dogs
11931-440: The population size. Negative effects would occur when increased gene flow is maladaptive and causes the loss of beneficial alleles. In the worst-case scenario, this would lead to genomic extinction through a hybrid swarm . It is also important to note that in the scheme of overall ecosystem health and biodiversity, urban facilitation is not necessarily beneficial, and generally applies to urban adapter pests. Examples of this include
12054-414: The predominant pack progenitor. For instance, wolf biologist L. David Mech stated: ...calling a wolf an alpha is usually no more appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an alpha . Any parent is dominant to its young offspring, so alpha adds no information. Why not refer to an alpha female as the female parent , the breeding female , the matriarch , or simply the mother ? Such
12177-525: The previously mentioned Western black widow spider, and also the cane toad , which was able to use roads by which to travel and overpopulate Australia. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to the transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction, either through transformation (direct uptake of genetic material by a cell from its surroundings), conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact), transduction (injection of foreign DNA by
12300-561: The proportion of total molecular marker variation among populations, averaged over loci . When there is one migrant per generation, the inbreeding coefficient ( F S T {\displaystyle F_{ST}} ) equals 0.2. However, when there is less than 1 migrant per generation (no migration), the inbreeding coefficient rises rapidly resulting in fixation and complete divergence ( F S T {\displaystyle F_{ST}} = 1). The most common F S T {\displaystyle F_{ST}}
12423-538: The rate of gene flow between different populations. Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population sizes. Mobility plays an important role in dispersal rate, as highly mobile individuals tend to have greater movement prospects. Although animals are thought to be more mobile than plants, pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals, water or wind. When gene flow
12546-426: The resident females related to the other pack members, thus preventing inbreeding and allowing the evicted individuals to find new packs of their own and breed. Males rarely disperse, and when they do, they are invariably rejected by other packs already containing males. Although arguably the most social canid, the species lacks the elaborate facial expressions and body language found in the gray wolf, likely because of
12669-412: The same adaptations to a hypercarnivorous diet. L. sekowei had not yet lost the first metacarpal absent in L. pictus and was more robust than the modern species, having 10% larger teeth. The African wild dog has 78 chromosomes, the same number as those of species in the genus Canis . In 2018 whole genome sequencing was used to compare the dhole ( Cuon alpinus ) with the African wild dog. There
12792-468: The same time as large ungulates (its prey) diversified. The findings also suggest that the African wild dog is largely isolated from gene transfer with other canid species. The oldest African wild dog fossil dates back to 200,000 years ago and was found in HaYonim Cave , Israel. The evolution of the African wild dog is poorly understood owing to the scarcity of fossil finds. Some authors consider
12915-532: The selection pressure is strong enough. Gene flow is an important mechanism for transferring genetic diversity among populations. Migrants change the distribution of genetic diversity among populations, by modifying allele frequencies (the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). High rates of gene flow can reduce the genetic differentiation between the two groups, increasing homogeneity. For this reason, gene flow has been thought to constrain speciation and prevent range expansion by combining
13038-426: The species and has important potential consequences for population persistence. Inbreeding is rare within natal packs. Inbreeding may have been selected against evolutionarily because it leads to the expression of recessive deleterious alleles. Computer simulations indicate that all populations continuing to avoid incestuous mating will become extinct within 100 years due to the unavailability of unrelated mates. Thus,
13161-417: The species appears to be from Oppian , who wrote of the thoa , a hybrid between the wolf and leopard, which resembles the former in shape and the latter in colour. Solinus 's Collea rerum memorabilium from the third century AD describes a multicoloured wolf-like animal with a mane native to Ethiopia . The African wild dog was scientifically described in 1820 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck after examining
13284-426: The species can cause a 'swamping' of the rarer species' gene pool, creating hybrids that supplant the native stock. This is a direct result of evolutionary forces such as natural selection, as well as genetic drift, which lead to the increasing prevalence of advantageous traits and homogenization. The extent of this phenomenon is not always apparent from outward appearance alone. While some degree of gene flow occurs in
13407-509: The three domains of life . Each contemporary molecule has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule cenancestor . However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times." In some instances, when a species has a sister species and breeding capabilities are possible due to the removal of previous barriers or through introduction due to human intervention, species can hybridize and exchange genes and corresponding traits. This exchange
13530-503: The three species to warrant classifying them in a single subfamily. The African wild dog possesses the most specialized adaptations among the canids for coat colour and diet and for pursuing its prey through its cursorial (running) ability. It has a graceful skeleton, and the loss of the first digit on its forefeet increases its stride and speed. This adaptation allows it to pursue prey across open terrain for long distances. The teeth are generally carnassial -shaped and its premolars are
13653-408: The total wolf population. Lone wolves usually result from sexually mature offspring leaving their parental pack, though may also occur if harassed subordinates chose to disperse. In times of prey scarcity, low-ranking wolves may choose to go off on their own if the pack cannot supply sufficient food. These lone wolves may then attempt to join an existing wolf pack or, more commonly, find a mate and begin
13776-891: The two populations reversed the effects of inbreeding and led to greater chances of survival in not only one generation but two. Human activities such as movement of species and modification of landscape can result in genetic pollution, hybridization , introgression and genetic swamping. These processes can lead to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of introduced plant or animal. Nonnative species can threaten native plants and animals with extinction by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can be especially detrimental for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones which can occur between island and mainland species. Interbreeding between
13899-460: The urban populations of the Western black widow spider. Phenotypically, urban spiders are larger, darker, and more aggressive, which could lead to increased survival in urban environments. These findings demonstrate support for urban facilitation, as these spiders are actually able to spread and diversify faster across urban environments than they would in a rural one. However, it is also an example of how urban facilitation, despite increasing gene flow,
14022-480: The whole, the relationship between the two species is a one-sided benefit for the hyenas, with African wild dog densities being negatively correlated with high hyena populations. Beyond piracy, cases of interspecific killing of African wild dogs by spotted hyenas are documented. African wild dogs are apex predators , only fatally losing contests to larger social carnivores. When briefly unprotected, wild dog pups may occasionally be vulnerable to large eagles , such as
14145-401: The wild. When separated from the pack, an African wild dog becomes depressed and can die as a result of broken heart syndrome . Packs of African wild dogs have a high ratio of males to females. This is a consequence of the males mostly staying with the pack whilst female offspring disperse and is supported by a changing sex-ratio in consecutive litters. Those born to maiden females contain
14268-448: The wolf's societal structure relies. Animals that typically predominate over others are associated with the term alpha . Among pack-living wolves, alpha wolves are the genetic parents of most cubs in the pack. Such access to mating females creates strong selective pressure for intra-sex competition. Wolves show deference to the alpha pair in their pack by allowing them to allocate the distribution of food, typically preferentially feeding
14391-517: The youngest wolves. Wolves use eye contact and posture as an indicator of dominance or submission, which are largely age-based; these postures are rare except concerning food, as described previously. The smaller and more nuclear a pack is, the less status of alpha is likely to be obtained through fighting, and young wolves instead leave the pack to find a mate and produce offspring of their own. Larger or less-nuclear packs may operate differently and possess more complex and flexible social structures. In
14514-413: Was a medicine man. Hare gave Impala a calabash of medicine, warning him not to turn back on the way to Wild Dog's den. Impala was startled by the scent of a leopard and turned back, spilling the medicine. A zebra then went to Hare, who gave him the same medicine along with the same advice. On the way, Zebra turned back when he saw a black mamba , thus breaking the gourd. A moment later a terrible howling
14637-435: Was heard: Wild Dog's wife had died. Wild Dog went outside and saw Zebra standing over the broken gourd of medicine, so Wild Dog and his family chased Zebra and tore him to shreds. To this day, African wild dogs hunt zebras and impalas as revenge for their failure to deliver the medicine that could have saved Wild Dog's wife. Gene flow In population genetics , gene flow (also known as migration and allele flow )
14760-498: Was later returned to it, in conformity with the International Rules on Taxonomic Nomenclature. Paleontologist George G. Simpson placed the African wild dog, the dhole and the bush dog together in the subfamily Simocyoninae on the basis of all three species having similarly trenchant carnassials . This grouping was disputed by Juliet Clutton-Brock , who argued that other than dentition too many differences exist among
14883-675: Was still relatively unspecialised. This connection was rejected by one author because C . ( X .) falconeri ' s lack of the first metacarpal is a poor indication of phylogenetic closeness to the African wild dog, and the dentition was too different to imply ancestry. Another ancestral candidate is the Plio-Pleistocene Lycaon sekowei of South Africa on the basis of distinct accessory cusps on its premolars and anterior accessory cuspids on its lower premolars. These adaptions are found only in Lycaon among living canids, which shows
15006-567: Was strong evidence of ancient genetic admixture between the two species. Today their ranges are remote from each other; however during the Pleistocene era the dhole could be found as far west as Europe. The study proposes that the dhole's distribution may have once included the Middle East , from where it may have admixed with the African wild dog in North Africa . However, there is no evidence of
15129-400: Was subsequently adopted by dog trainers. Later research has disputed the theory, pointing out that it was based on the behaviour of captive packs consisting of unrelated individuals, while in nature a pack is usually made up of members of a family. The term alpha was popularised as early as 1976 in the dog training book How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend (Monks of New Skete), which introduced
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