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83-768: During the Romanesque period, the focus of major illumination in Western Europe moved from the Gospel Book to the Psalter and the Bible. The Winchester manuscript is one of the most lavish Bibles of this kind. The manuscript was probably commissioned by the Bishop of Winchester , Henry of Blois . The Bible contains 936 pages, as 468 leaves of calf-skin parchment , which equates to hides of about 250 calves. Originally consisting of two volumes,

166-810: A Byzantine territory in this period, also include important surviving decorative programs, especially Santa Maria Antiqua , Sant'Agnese fuori le mura , and the Chapel of San Venanzio in San Giovanni in Laterano . Byzantine mosaicists probably also contributed to the decoration of the early Umayyad monuments, including the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus . Important works of luxury art from this period include

249-658: A book, the Buildings , written by Justinian's court historian, Procopius . Justinian renovated, rebuilt, or founded anew countless churches within Constantinople, including Hagia Sophia , which had been destroyed during the Nika riots , the Church of the Holy Apostles , and the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus . Justinian also built a number of churches and fortifications outside of

332-621: A crisis in 1204 with the sacking of Constantinople by the Venetian and French knights of the Fourth Crusade , a disaster from which the Empire recovered in 1261 albeit in a severely weakened state. The destruction by sack or subsequent neglect of the city's secular architecture in particular has left us with an imperfect understanding of Byzantine art. Although the Byzantines regained the city in 1261,

415-502: A general lectionary gradually became more common for liturgical use, and other texts became most favoured for elaborate decoration. In current Roman Catholic usage, the Book of the Gospels or Evangeliary contains the full text of the passages from all four gospels that the deacon or priest is to read or chant at Mass in the course of the liturgical year . However, use of the Book of

498-501: A large group of Mystras churches). The icons, which became a favoured medium for artistic expression, were characterized by a less austere attitude, new appreciation for purely decorative qualities of painting and meticulous attention to details, earning the popular name of the Paleologan Mannerism for the period in general. Venice came to control Byzantine Crete by 1212, and Byzantine artistic traditions continued long after

581-628: A plate in the Cabinet des Médailles, Paris, depicts Hercules wrestling the Nemean lion . The Age of Justinian was followed by a political decline, since most of Justinian's conquests were lost and the Empire faced acute crisis with the invasions of the Avars , Slavs , Persians and Arabs in the 7th century. Constantinople was also wracked by religious and political conflict. The most significant surviving monumental projects of this period were undertaken outside of

664-469: A priest, removes the Book from the altar and processes with it to the ambo . If incense is used, the Book of the Gospels is censed by the deacon before the reading or chanting. An altar server or acolyte will swing the censer slowly during the reading or chanting. The Book of the Gospels remains on the ambo until the Mass concludes, unless it is taken to a bishop to be kissed, after which it may be placed on

747-429: A result of the pious and autocratic nature of Byzantine society, and partly a result of its economic structure: the wealth of the empire was concentrated in the hands of the church and the imperial office, which had the greatest opportunity to undertake monumental artistic commissions. Religious art was not, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art

830-535: A revival of the late antique technique of ivory carving. Many ornate ivory triptychs and diptychs survive, such as the Harbaville Triptych and a triptych at Luton Hoo , dating from the reign of Nicephorus Phocas . The Macedonian emperors were followed by the Komnenian dynasty , beginning with the reign of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081. Byzantium had recently suffered a period of severe dislocation following

913-540: A significant subject for illumination until the arrival of printing. The Evangelist portrait was a particular feature of their decoration. Most of the masterpieces of both Insular and Ottonian illumination are Gospel Books. But most Gospel Books were never illuminated at all, or only with decorated initials and other touches. They often contained, in addition to the text of the Gospels themselves, supporting texts including Canon Tables , summaries, glossaries, and other explanatory material. Latin books often include

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996-543: A subject of scholarly debate for centuries. Giorgio Vasari attributed it to a decline in artistic skills and standards, which had in turn been revived by his contemporaries in the Italian Renaissance . Although this point of view has been occasionally revived, most notably by Bernard Berenson , modern scholars tend to take a more positive view of the Byzantine aesthetic. Alois Riegl and Josef Strzygowski , writing in

1079-399: A viewer "could look at something which was in twentieth-century terms purely abstract and find it representational." In any case, the debate is purely modern: it is clear that most Byzantine viewers did not consider their art to be abstract or unnaturalistic. As Cyril Mango has observed, "our own appreciation of Byzantine art stems largely from the fact that this art is not naturalistic; yet

1162-524: Is a fundamental artistic attitude held by the Byzantine Greeks who, like their ancient Greek predecessors, "were never satisfied with a play of forms alone, but stimulated by an innate rationalism, endowed forms with life by associating them with a meaningful content." Although the art produced in the Byzantine Empire was marked by periodic revivals of a classical aesthetic, it was above all marked by

1245-464: Is also attested in texts from the late seventh century. These developments mark the beginnings of a theology of icons . At the same time, the debate over the proper role of art in the decoration of churches intensified. Three canons of the Quinisext Council of 692 addressed controversies in this area: prohibition of the representation of the cross on church pavements (Canon 73), prohibition of

1328-462: The 740 earthquake . The interior of Hagia Eirene, which is dominated by a large mosaic cross in the apse, is one of the best-preserved examples of iconoclastic church decoration. The church of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki was also rebuilt in the late 8th century. Certain churches built outside of the empire during this period, but decorated in a figural, "Byzantine," style, may also bear witness to

1411-674: The Acheiropoietos Basilica ). A number of important illuminated manuscripts, both sacred and secular, survive from this early period. Classical authors, including Virgil (represented by the Vergilius Vaticanus and the Vergilius Romanus ) and Homer (represented by the Ambrosian Iliad ), were illustrated with narrative paintings. Illuminated biblical manuscripts of this period survive only in fragments: for example,

1494-582: The Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the subsequent loss of Asia Minor to the Turks. However, the Komnenoi brought stability to the empire (1081–1185) and during the course of the twelfth century their energetic campaigning did much to restore the fortunes of the empire. The Komnenoi were great patrons of the arts, and with their support Byzantine artists continued to move in the direction of greater humanism and emotion, of which

1577-628: The Daphni Monastery near Athens and Nea Moni on Chios . There was a revival of interest in the depiction of subjects from classical Greek mythology (as on the Veroli Casket) and in the use of a "classical" Hellenistic styles to depict religious, and particularly Old Testament, subjects (of which the Paris Psalter and the Joshua Roll are important examples). The Macedonian period also saw

1660-670: The Letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus where Jerome set out to the Pope the reasoning behind his new Vulgate translation and arrangement of the texts, and many Greek ones the Epistula ad Carpianum (Letter to Carpian) of Eusebius of Caesarea explaining the Eusebian Canons he had devised. Luxuriously illuminated gospel books were mainly a feature of the Early Middle Ages , as the evangeliary or

1743-571: The Ottoman Empire was often called "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece , Cyprus , Serbia , Bulgaria , Romania , Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. Byzantine art originated and evolved from the Christianized Greek culture of

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1826-648: The Quedlinburg Itala fragment is a small portion of what must have been a lavishly illustrated copy of 1 Kings . Early Byzantine art was also marked by the cultivation of ivory carving . Ivory diptychs , often elaborately decorated, were issued as gifts by newly appointed consuls . Silver plates were another important form of luxury art: among the most lavish from this period is the Missorium of Theodosius I . Sarcophagi continued to be produced in great numbers. Significant changes in Byzantine art coincided with

1909-735: The Rossano Gospels , and the Sinope Gospels . The Vienna Dioscurides is a lavishly illustrated botanical treatise, presented as a gift to the Byzantine aristocrat Julia Anicia . Important ivory sculptures of this period include the Barberini ivory , which probably depicts Justinian himself, and the Archangel ivory in the British Museum . Byzantine silver plate continued to be decorated with scenes drawn from classical mythology; for example,

1992-498: The Theotokos of Vladimir , the cycle of mosaics at Daphni , and the murals at Nerezi yield important examples. Ivory sculpture and other expensive mediums of art gradually gave way to frescoes and icons, which for the first time gained widespread popularity across the Empire. Apart from painted icons, there were other varieties - notably the mosaic and ceramic ones. Some of the finest Byzantine work of this period may be found outside

2075-467: The parchment required. Individual books or collections of books were produced for specific purposes. From the 4th century Gospel Books were produced for liturgical use, as well as private study and as "display books" for ceremonial and ornamental purposes. The Codex Washingtonianus (Freer gospels) is an early example of a book containing only the four gospels, in Greek, written in the 4th or 5th century. By

2158-709: The "Triumph of Orthodoxy." In 867, the installation of a new apse mosaic in Hagia Sophia depicting the Virgin and Child was celebrated by the Patriarch Photios in a famous homily as a victory over the evils of iconoclasm. Later in the same year, the Emperor Basil I , called "the Macedonian," acceded to the throne; as a result the following period of Byzantine art has sometimes been called the " Macedonian Renaissance ", although

2241-537: The 19th century onwards, when the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire prompted a renewed appreciation of Byzantium by artists and historians alike. Two events were of fundamental importance to the development of a unique, Byzantine art. First, the Edict of Milan , issued by the emperors Constantine I and Licinius in 313, allowed for public Christian worship, and led to the development of a monumental, Christian art. Second,

2324-622: The 7th century particular gospel texts were allocated to days in the liturgical calendar ; previously gospel readings had often worked through the books in sequence. Many of these volumes were elaborate; the Gospel Book was the most common form of heavily illuminated manuscript until about the 11th century, when the Romanesque Bible and Psalter largely superseded it in the West. In the East they remained

2407-630: The Bible was rebound in 1820, when it was divided into three volumes, and then divided into four volumes when it was conserved by Beatrice Forder in 1948. The Bible was conserved again between 2014 and 2019 at the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and bound in four volumes. The artwork of the Winchester Bible is incomplete. The illuminations throughout the manuscript appear in varying stages of completion, ranging from rough outlines and inked drawings to unpainted gilded images and figures complete in all but

2490-539: The Byzantine Empire and had also been a Byzantine territory until the 10th century with a large Greek-speaking population persisting into the 12th century. Other states having a Byzantine artistic tradition, had oscillated throughout the Middle Ages between being part of the Byzantine Empire and having periods of independence, such as Serbia and Bulgaria . After the fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in

2573-449: The Byzantine era, many continuing and adapting late Roman artistic practice though Byzantine silk production only began after they imported silkworms from China in the late sixth century. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery

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2656-817: The Byzantine style that was influential in Winchester, starting around 1130. The Master of the Morgan Leaf, the Amalekite Master, the Master of the Genesis Initial, and the Master of the Gothic Majesty all have varying styles derived from Byzantine influences and are precursors to the Early English Gothic Style . Close examination of the illustrations revealed that several artists would have worked together on

2739-478: The Byzantines themselves, judging by their extant statements, regarded it as being highly naturalistic and as being directly in the tradition of Phidias , Apelles , and Zeuxis ." The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. These preoccupations are partly

2822-628: The Eastern Roman Empire; content from both Christianity and classical Greek mythology were artistically expressed through Hellenistic modes of style and iconography. The art of Byzantium never lost sight of its classical heritage; the Byzantine capital, Constantinople , was adorned with a large number of classical sculptures, although they eventually became an object of some puzzlement for its inhabitants (however, Byzantine beholders showed no signs of puzzlement towards other forms of classical media such as wall paintings ). The basis of Byzantine art

2905-517: The Empire was thereafter a small and weak state confined to the Greek peninsula and the islands of the Aegean . During their half-century of exile, however, the last great flowing of Anatolian Hellenism began. As Nicaea emerged as the center of opposition under the Laskaris emperors, it spawned a renaissance, attracting scholars, poets, and artists from across the Byzantine world. A glittering court emerged as

2988-633: The Empire: in the mosaics of Gelati , Kiev , Torcello , Venice , Monreale , Cefalù and Palermo . For instance, Venice's Basilica of St Mark , begun in 1063, was based on the great Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, now destroyed, and is thus an echo of the age of Justinian. The acquisitive habits of the Venetians mean that the basilica is also a great museum of Byzantine artworks of all kinds (e.g., Pala d'Oro ). Centuries of continuous Roman political tradition and Hellenistic civilization underwent

3071-572: The Gospels ( Greek : Εὐαγγέλιον , Evangélion ) is a codex or bound volume containing one or more of the four Gospels of the Christian New Testament – normally all four – centering on the life of Jesus of Nazareth and the roots of the Christian faith. The term is also used for a liturgical book , also called the Evangeliary , from which are read the portions of the Gospels used in

3154-475: The Gospels is not mandatory, and the gospel readings are also included in the standard Lectionary . The Book of the Gospels, if used, is brought to the altar in the entrance procession, while the Lectionary may not be. When carried in procession, the Book of the Gospels is held slightly elevated, though not over the head. It is particularly proper for the deacon to carry the Book of the Gospels in procession, as

3237-638: The Mass and other services, arranged according to the order of the liturgical calendar . Liturgical use in churches of a distinct Gospel book remains normal, often compulsory, in Eastern Christianity , and very common in Roman Catholicism and some parts of Anglicanism and Lutheranism . In the Middle Ages , the production of copies of the Bible in its entirety was rare because of the huge expense of

3320-544: The Master of the Genesis Initial, the Master of the Amalekite, the Master of the Morgan Leaf, and the Master of the Gothic Majesty. The Apocrypha Drawings Master was likely trained in France or Normandy since his style of energetic and mannered poses more closely resembles French art at the time, more so than English . The Master of Leaping Figures is almost positively English. The dramatic poses and leaping movements are hallmarks of

3403-429: The Ottoman conquest of the last Byzantine successor state in 1461. The Cretan school , as it is today known, gradually introduced Italian Renaissance elements into its style, and exported large numbers of icons to Italy. The tradition's most famous artist was El Greco . The Byzantine Empire emerged from the Eastern Roman Empire in the 4th century AD, and its unique culture heavily influenced Western Europe during

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3486-485: The Psalms) and devotional or theological texts (such as the Ladder of Divine Ascent of John Climacus or the homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus ). Secular texts were also illuminated: important examples include the Alexander Romance and the history of John Skylitzes . The Byzantines inherited the Early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs , of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to

3569-736: The Winchester Bible Artists . London: Harvey, Miller and Medcalf. ISBN   0-8212-0497-1 . Oakeshott, Walter (1981). The Two Winchester Bibles . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-19-818235-X . Websites: Little, Charles T. “The Making of the Winchester Bible.” The Met 150 . The Metropolitan Museum of art. January 21, 2015. https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2014/winchester-bible/blog/posts/making-of-the-winchester-bible "The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture". Oxford Reference. The Oxford University Press. 2013. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195395365.001.0001/acref-9780195395365 Voelkle, William M. "The Morgan Leaf and

3652-402: The Winchester Bible is unique as it is one of three full-paged illuminations in the manuscript, and it is the only one that has been completed. This leaf shows scenes from the lives of Samuel on the recto and of King David on the verso . The Morgan Leaf was painted by the Master of the Morgan Leaf, and is why he was named as such. The Morgan Leaf is characterized by the bold emotion shown in

3735-495: The Winchester Bible." The Met 150. The Metropolitan Museum of art. February 10, 2015. https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2014/winchester-bible/blog/posts/the-morgan-leaf-and-the-winchester-bible Films Films for the Humanities & Sciences (Firm), and Films Media Group. 2011. Ancient Bibles . New York, N.Y.: Films Media Group. http://digital.films.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?aid=13753&xtid=55768 . Gospel Book A Gospel Book , Evangelion , or Book of

3818-401: The categories at bottom. Byzantine art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of the Americas Art of Oceania Byzantine art comprises the body of artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire , as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from

3901-427: The church. Also of note is the Euphrasian Basilica in Poreč . Recent archeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries unearthed a large group of Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East . The eastern provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire inherited a strong artistic tradition from Late Antiquity . Christian mosaic art flourished in this area from the 4th century onwards. The tradition of making mosaics

3984-406: The continuing activities of Byzantine artists. Particularly important in this regard are the original mosaics of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (since either destroyed or heavily restored) and the frescoes in the Church of Maria foris portas in Castelseprio . The rulings of the Council of Hieria were reversed by a new church council in 843, celebrated to this day in the Eastern Orthodox Church as

4067-418: The credence table or another appropriate and dignified place. In the Lutheran Churches , the Book of the Gospels is "carried in procession". In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America the practice of using a Gospel Book was recovered with the 1979 Book of Common Prayer , which suggests that the lessons and gospel "be read from a book or books of appropriate size and dignity". See also

4150-407: The decoration of Constantinople, adorning its public spaces with ancient statuary, and building a forum dominated by a porphyry column that carried a statue of himself. Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son, Constantius II , included the original foundations of Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles . The next major building campaign in Constantinople

4233-439: The dedication of Constantinople in 330 created a great new artistic centre for the eastern half of the Empire, and a specifically Christian one. Other artistic traditions flourished in rival cities such as Alexandria , Antioch , and Rome , but it was not until all of these cities had fallen - the first two to the Arabs and Rome to the Goths - that Constantinople established its supremacy. Constantine devoted great effort to

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4316-413: The development of a new aesthetic defined by its salient "abstract", or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The nature and causes of this transformation, which largely took place during late antiquity , have been

4399-492: The dispossessed intelligentsia found in the Hellenic side of their traditions a pride and identity unsullied by association with the hated "latin" enemy. With the recapture of the capital under the new Palaeologan Dynasty , Byzantine artists developed a new interest in landscapes and pastoral scenes, and the traditional mosaic-work (of which the Chora Church in Constantinople is the finest extant example) gradually gave way to detailed cycles of narrative frescoes (as evidenced in

4482-506: The early 20th century, were above all responsible for the revaluation of late antique art. Riegl saw it as a natural development of pre-existing tendencies in Roman art, whereas Strzygowski viewed it as a product of "oriental" influences. Notable recent contributions to the debate include those of Ernst Kitzinger , who traced a "dialectic" between "abstract" and "Hellenistic" tendencies in late antiquity, and John Onians , who saw an "increase in visual response" in late antiquity, through which

4565-443: The empire's culture and art for centuries afterward. A number of contemporary states with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire were culturally influenced by it without actually being part of it (the " Byzantine commonwealth "). These included Kievan Rus' , as well as some non-Orthodox states like the Republic of Venice , which separated from the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, and the Kingdom of Sicily , which had close ties to

4648-409: The empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of western Rome and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Islamic states of the eastern Mediterranean , preserved many aspects of

4731-419: The fifth century. Due to subsequent rebuilding and destruction, relatively few Constantinopolitan monuments of this early period survive. However, the development of monumental early Byzantine art can still be traced through surviving structures in other cities. For example, important early churches are found in Rome (including Santa Sabina and Santa Maria Maggiore ), and in Thessaloniki (the Rotunda and

4814-447: The figures, with less attention paid to the details. The bold blues and reds also add to the emotional depth of the scene. The leaf was most likely removed during the rebinding process in 1820, and was sold to John Pierpont Morgan in 1912 for 30,000 francs. The first person to recognise the connection between the Morgan Leaf and the Winchester Bible was the British Museum's Keeper of Manuscripts, Eric Millar , in 1926. The identification

4897-442: The final details. In all, 48 of the major historiated initials that begin each book stand complete. The different books of the Bible are determined by large decorative first initials; three books were important enough to have full-paged scenes dedicated to them. I Samuel , Judith , and Maccabees all have full page frontispieces but only I Samuel's was actually completed; the other two were left only as drawings. The decoration of

4980-423: The games in the hippodrome) continued to be produced, and the few monuments that can be securely dated to the period (most notably the manuscript of Ptolemy's "Handy Tables" today held by the Vatican ) demonstrate that metropolitan artists maintained a high quality of production. Major churches dating to this period include Hagia Eirene in Constantinople, which was rebuilt in the 760s following its destruction by

5063-518: The imperial capital, including Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt , Basilica of Saint Sofia in Sofia and the Basilica of St. John in Ephesus . Several major churches of this period were built in the provinces by local bishops in imitation of the new Constantinopolitan foundations. The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , was built by Bishop Maximianus . The decoration of San Vitale includes important mosaics of Justinian and his empress, Theodora , although neither ever visited

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5146-446: The imperial capital. The church of Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki was rebuilt after a fire in the mid-seventh century. The new sections include mosaics executed in a remarkably abstract style. The church of the Koimesis in Nicaea (present-day Iznik ), destroyed in the early 20th century but documented through photographs, demonstrates the simultaneous survival of a more classical style of church decoration. The churches of Rome, still

5229-474: The last page of the previous book. The text also includes many abbreviations and shortened versions of words. This unusual system was thought to have been used to save space and money because the materials were so expensive. Due to the large size of the Bible, it had to be organized into many quires of four bi-folios. Each bi-folium would have been pricked for ruling to ensure the pages and lines of text were arranged properly. Ruling lines were lightly scored into

5312-456: The manufacture of icons of Christ. This inaugurated the Iconoclastic period , which lasted, with interruptions, until 843. While iconoclasm severely restricted the role of religious art, and led to the removal of some earlier apse mosaics and (possibly) the sporadic destruction of portable icons, it never constituted a total ban on the production of figural art. Ample literary sources indicate that secular art (i.e. hunting scenes and depictions of

5395-410: The manuscript is thought to have involved six different artists with particular styles, both figural and decorative. The presence of various styles makes it hard to determine the exact date of the Bible. The different styles could point towards two different periods in which the Bible was worked on, one earlier and one later. However, it could also imply that both traditional and ground-breaking artists of

5478-467: The medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as the Veroli casket , hardstone carvings , enamels , glass , jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout

5561-405: The parchment, which the scribe would use as guides like the lines of a notebook. Unlike other manuscripts of this size, the Winchester Bible was written by the hand of one scribe with a goose feather quill. It is thought that the scribe would have been an accomplished member of the Winchester's Priory of St Swithun , and the work has been estimated to have taken at least four years to complete. After

5644-493: The part of local bishops are attested in Asia Minor during the 720s. In 726, an underwater earthquake between the islands of Thera and Therasia was interpreted by Emperor Leo III as a sign of God's anger, and may have led Leo to remove a famous icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate outside the imperial palace. However, iconoclasm probably did not become imperial policy until the reign of Leo's son, Constantine V . The Council of Hieria , convened under Constantine in 754, proscribed

5727-422: The reading of the gospel is his particular province. When there is no deacon, the Book may be carried by a lector . Upon reaching the altar , the deacon or lector bows in veneration of the altar, then places the Book upon the altar, where it remains until the Alleluia . During the singing of the Alleluia, the deacon (who before proclaiming the gospel receives the presiding priest's blessing), or in his absence,

5810-408: The reign of Justinian I (527–565). Justinian devoted much of his reign to reconquering Italy, North Africa and Spain. He also laid the foundations of the imperial absolutism of the Byzantine state, codifying its laws and imposing his religious views on all his subjects by law. A significant component of Justinian's project of imperial renovation was a massive building program, which was described in

5893-400: The representation of Christ as a lamb (Canon 82), and a general injunction against "pictures, whether they are in paintings or in what way so ever, which attract the eye and corrupt the mind, and incite it to the enkindling of base pleasures" (Canon 100). Intense debate over the role of art in worship led eventually to the period of " Byzantine iconoclasm ." Sporadic outbreaks of iconoclasm on

5976-626: The restoration of the icons in 843 and culminates in the Fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders in 1204; the Late period includes the eclectic osmosis between Western European and traditional Byzantine elements in art and architecture, and ends with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The term post-Byzantine is then used for later years, whereas "Neo-Byzantine" is used for art and architecture from

6059-531: The same piece within the manuscript. First a dry point drawing would be traced by one artist, then another would apply gilding or silver accents, and then another artist would add coloured paint. Pigments were sourced from plants, animals, and minerals. The most expensive pigment to produce was not the silver or gold gilding, but the bright blue ultramarine which could only be sourced from lapis lazuli from Afghanistan . Forty-eight illuminated letters were completed, and many more were left unfinished. This page of

6142-542: The silver David Plates , produced during the reign of Emperor Heraclius , and depicting scenes from the life of the Hebrew king David . The most notable surviving manuscripts are Syriac gospel books, such as the so-called Syriac Bible of Paris . However, the London Canon Tables bear witness to the continuing production of lavish gospel books in Greek. The period between Justinian and iconoclasm saw major changes in

6225-496: The social and religious roles of images within Byzantium. The veneration of acheiropoieta , or holy images "not made by human hands," became a significant phenomenon, and in some instances these images were credited with saving cities from military assault. By the end of the seventh century, certain images of saints had come to be viewed as "windows" through which one could communicate with the figure depicted. Proskynesis before images

6308-567: The term is doubly problematic (it was neither " Macedonian ", nor, strictly speaking, a " Renaissance "). In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Empire's military situation improved, and patronage of art and architecture increased. New churches were commissioned, and the standard architectural form (the " cross-in-square ") and decorative scheme of the Middle Byzantine church were standardised. Major surviving examples include Hosios Loukas in Boeotia ,

6391-529: The text was written it was reviewed by a monk, and then colour was added to important words and letters. The illuminations reflect the work of at least six different hands, and was worked on for 25 years between 1150 and 1175. The art historian Walter Oakeshott first identified and named these artists in 1945, referring to them as the Master of the Leaping Figures, the Master of the Apocrypha Drawings,

6474-596: The time worked on the piece during the same period. Although many of the illuminations remain unfinished, the Latin text itself is complete. The Bible consists of the entire Vulgate , comprising both Old and New Testaments , two versions of the Psalms , and the Apocrypha , and is written in the Latin of St Jerome . Interestingly, the books of the Bible are all started on the same page as

6557-609: Was carried on in the Umayyad era until the end of the 8th century. The most important surviving examples are the Madaba Map , the mosaics of Mount Nebo , Saint Catherine's Monastery and the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (now Umm ar-Rasas ). The first fully preserved illuminated biblical manuscripts date to the first half of the sixth century, most notably the Vienna Genesis ,

6640-848: Was later supported by other art historians, and supported by the evidence that the original drawing of the Morgan Leaf was also done by the same hand that did the underdrawings of the Winchester Bible, the Master of the Apocrypha Drawings. This was proven by comparison of the underdrawings of the Morgan Leaf to the incomplete illuminations of the Winchester Bible. Books: Donovan, Claire (1993). The Winchester Bible . Winchester: Winchester Cathedral. ISBN   0-7123-0303-0 . Donovan, Claire (2021). "Bishop Henry's Bible" in Henry of Blois: New Interpretations, edited by William Kynan-Wilson and John Munns . London: Boydell & Brewer. Oakeshott, Walter (1972). Sigena: Romanesque Painting in Spain &

6723-496: Was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off Byzantine silver . Byzantine art and architecture is divided into four periods by convention: the Early period, commencing with the Edict of Milan (when Christian worship was legitimized) and the transfer of the imperial seat to Constantinople, extends to AD 842, with the conclusion of Iconoclasm ; the Middle, or high period, begins with

6806-593: Was sponsored by Theodosius I . The most important surviving monument of this period is the obelisk and base erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome which, with the large silver dish called the Missorium of Theodosius I , represents the classic examples of what is sometimes called the "Theodosian Renaissance". The earliest surviving church in Constantinople is the Basilica of St. John at the Stoudios Monastery, built in

6889-634: Was the icon , an image of Christ, the Virgin, or a saint, used as an object of veneration in Orthodox churches and private homes alike. Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature: especially after the end of iconoclasm, they were understood to manifest the unique "presence" of the figure depicted by means of a "likeness" to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation. Byzantine illuminated manuscripts were another major genre of Byzantine art. The most commonly illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself (particularly

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