The Wilson Cycle is a model that describes the opening and closing of ocean basins and the subduction and divergence of tectonic plates during the assembly and disassembly of supercontinents . A classic example of the Wilson Cycle is the opening and closing of the Atlantic Ocean . It has been suggested that Wilson cycles on Earth started about 3 Ga in the Archean Eon . The Wilson Cycle model was a key development in the theory of plate tectonics during the Plate Tectonics Revolution .
52-428: The model is named after John Tuzo Wilson in recognition of his iconic observation that the present-day Atlantic Ocean appears along a former suture zone and his development in a classic 1968 paper of what was later named the "Wilson cycle" in 1975 by Kevin C. A. Burke , a colleague and friend of Wilson. The Wilson cycle theory is based upon the idea of an ongoing cycle of ocean closure, continental collision , and
104-791: A Ph.D. in geology in 1936 after completing a doctoral dissertation titled "The Geology of the Mill creek - Stillwater Area, Montana ." In 1936, Wilson joined the Geological Survey of Canada as a government geologist. This was interrupted by the Second World War during which he served with the Royal Canadian Engineers , serving in Europe and reaching the rank of Colonel. He was involved in Operation Musk Ox . For his wartime service, he
156-431: A formation of new ocean on the former suture zone. The Wilson Cycle can be described in six phases of tectonic plate motion: the separation of a continent (continental rift ), formation of a young ocean at the seafloor, formation of ocean basins during continental drift , initiation of subduction , closure of ocean basins due to oceanic lithospheric subduction, and finally, collision of two continents and closure of
208-592: A great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain , formed by volcanic activity over a hotspot in the Earth's mantle . The islands are about 1,860 miles (3,000 km) from the nearest continent and are part of the Polynesia subregion of Oceania . The U.S. state of Hawaii occupies the archipelago almost in its entirety (including the mostly uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands ), with
260-621: A total land area of 6,423.4 square miles (16,636.5 km ). Except for Midway, which is an unincorporated territory of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as Hawaii —the 50th state of the United States. The eight major islands of Hawaii (Windward Islands) are listed above. All except Kaho'olawe are inhabited. The state of Hawaii counts 137 "islands" in the Hawaiian chain. This number includes all minor islands (small islands), islets (even smaller islands) offshore of
312-642: Is also commemorated by a named memorial professorship and an eponymous annual public lecture delivered at the University of Toronto . He is one of the 2016 inductees into Legends Row: Mississauga Walk of Fame . Wilson was an avid traveller and took a large number of photographs during his travels to many destinations, including European countries, parts of the then USSR, China, the southern Pacific, Africa, and to both polar regions. Although many of his photos are geological—details of rocks and their structures or panoramas of large formations—the bulk of his photos are of
364-572: Is relatively fluid compared with magmas typically involved in more explosive eruptions, such as the andesitic magmas that produce some of the spectacular and dangerous eruptions around the margins of the Pacific basin. Hawaiʻi island (the Big Island) is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, built from five volcanoes. Mauna Loa , taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on
416-502: Is termed the Wilson Cycle, or the more encompassing Supercontinent Cycle, the tectonic episodicity identified by Tuzo Wilson in his 1966 paper defines a fundamental aspect of Earth's tectonic, climatic and biogeochemical evolution over much of its history." John Tuzo Wilson John Tuzo Wilson (October 24, 1908 – April 15, 1993) was a Canadian geophysicist and geologist who achieved worldwide acclaim for his contributions to
468-627: The Congo-Sao Francisco Craton around 112 Ma. Following the North Atlantic Igneous Province eruptions around 55 Ma, the northern Atlantic passive margins rifted to their present state. From the case of the Atlantic Ocean, Wilson Cycle plate margins can broadly be described as having the following attributes: A Wilson cycle is distinct from the supercontinent cycle , which is the break-up of one supercontinent and
520-517: The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory run by the USGS . Hawaii accounted for 7.3% of the United States' reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this time period, after Alaska and California . On October 15, 2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off
572-598: The North Pacific Ocean , extending some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) from the island of Hawaiʻi in the south to northernmost Kure Atoll . Formerly called the Sandwich Islands by Europeans (not by Kānaka Maoli , the people native to the islands), the present name for the archipelago is derived from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. The archipelago sits on the Pacific plate . The islands are exposed peaks of
SECTION 10
#1732837404841624-578: The Society Islands around 1025 to 1120 C.E., and in the Marquesas Islands sometime between 1100 and 1200 C.E. Polynesians arrived sometime between 940 and 1200 AD. Kamehameha I , the ruler of the island of Hawaii, conquered and unified the islands for the first time, establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1795. The kingdom became prosperous and important for its agriculture and strategic location in
676-543: The Supercontinent cycle ) bears his name, in recognition of his iconic observation that the present-day Atlantic Ocean appears along a former suture zone and his development in a classic 1968 paper of what was later named the "Wilson cycle" in 1975 by Kevin C. A. Burke , a colleague and friend of Wilson. His name was given to two young Canadian submarine volcanoes called the Tuzo Wilson Seamounts . Wilson
728-461: The Supercontinent cycle ) bears his name. One of the two large low-shear-velocity provinces was given the name Tuzo after him, the other being named Jason after W. Jason Morgan , who furthered Wilson's work into plume theory . Wilson was born in Ottawa on October 24, 1908, the son of John Armistead Wilson CBE , and his wife, Henrietta Tuzo. Wilson's father was of Scottish descent and his mother
780-549: The list of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands . As of 2009 , many of the remaining endemic species are considered endangered . On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush issued a public proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The Monument encompasses the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and surrounding waters, forming the largest marine wildlife reserve in
832-510: The trade winds on their north and east flanks (the windward side) as a result of orographic precipitation . Coastal areas in general and especially the south and west flanks, or leeward sides, tend to be drier. In general, the lowlands of Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September. The tropical storms , and occasional hurricanes , tend to occur from July through November. During
884-625: The 1820s based on a census conducted by American missionaries, 82,203 in the 1850 Hawaiian Kingdom census, 40,622 in the final Hawaiian Kingdom census of 1890, 39,504 in the sole census by the Republic of Hawaii in 1896, and 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900. Thereafter the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii increased with every census, reaching 680,442 in 2020 (including people of mixed heritage). In 1893 Queen Liliʻuokalani
936-657: The American Geophysical Union. He also served as the director general of the Ontario Science Centre from 1974 to 1985. Wilson and his plate tectonic theory are commemorated on the grounds of the Centre by a giant "immovable" spike that records the amount of plate movement since Wilson's birth. The J. Tuzo Wilson Medal of the Canadian Geophysical Union recognizes achievements in geophysics. He
988-489: The Big Island. The volcanoes on the remaining islands are extinct as they are no longer over the Hawaii hotspot. The Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount is an active submarine volcano that is expected to become the newest Hawaiian island when it rises above the ocean's surface in 10,000–100,000 years. Hazards from these volcanoes include lava flows that can destroy and bury the surrounding surface, volcanic gas emissions, earthquakes and tsunamis listed above, submarine eruptions affecting
1040-621: The Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles (4 km), from sea level to sea floor about 3.1 miles (5 km). The Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes , generally triggered by and related to volcanic activity. Seismic activity, as a result, is currently highest in the southern part of the chain. Both historical and modern earthquake databases have correlated higher magnitude earthquakes with flanks of active volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa and Kilauea. The combination of erosional forces, which cause slumping and landslides, with
1092-639: The Hawaiian Islands is a topic of continuing debate. Archaeological evidence seems to indicate a settlement as early as 124 AD. Captain James Cook , RN , visited the islands on January 18, 1778, and named them the "Sandwich Islands" in honor of The 4th Earl of Sandwich , who as the First Lord of the Admiralty was one of his sponsors. This name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name "Hawaii" gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have
SECTION 20
#17328374048411144-419: The Hawaiian Islands. Explosive volcanic activity can cause tsunamis. The island of Molokaʻi had a catastrophic collapse or debris avalanche over a million years ago; this underwater landslide likely caused tsunamis. The Hilina Slump on the island of Hawaiʻi is another potential place for a large landslide and resulting tsunami. The city of Hilo on the Big Island has been most affected by tsunamis, where
1196-625: The Pacific. Kamehameha was aided by European military technology that became available once an expedition led by British explorer James Cook reached the islands in 1778, the first sustained contact with Europeans. American immigration, led by Protestant missionaries , and Native Hawaiian emigration, mostly on whaling ships but also in high numbers as indentured servants and as forced labour, began almost immediately after Cook's arrival. Americans established plantations to grow crops for export. Their farming methods required substantial labor. Waves of permanent immigrants came from Japan , China , and
1248-606: The Philippines to work in the cane and pineapple fields. The government of Japan organized and gave special protection to its people, who comprised about 25 percent of the Hawaiian population by 1896. The Hawaiian monarchy encouraged this multi-ethnic society, initially establishing a constitutional monarchy in 1840 that promised equal voting rights regardless of race, gender, or wealth. The population of Native Hawaiians declined precipitously from an unknown number prior to 1778 (estimated to be around 300,000). It fell to around 142,000 in
1300-887: The Second World War, Wilson was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1946. In 1969, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to the rank of Companion of that order in 1974. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971 and the American Philosophical Society in 1971. Wilson was awarded the John J. Carty Award from the National Academy of Sciences , of which he
1352-414: The absence of such predators. The growing population of humans, especially through European and American colonisation and development, has also led to deforestation , forest degradation , treeless grasslands, and environmental degradation . As a result, many species which depended on forest habitats and food became extinct—with many current species facing extinction. As humans cleared land for farming with
1404-500: The development of another and takes place on a global scale. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle. However, both supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were involved in the formation of Pangaea and of Rodinia . The 50-year retrospective in the Geological Society of London Special Paper 470 provides an excellent nuanced view of how these concepts fit together. They conclude, "Whether it
1456-664: The especially unpredictable nature of the forces that trigger earthquakes, and partially because these events occur at relatively shallow depths. Flank earthquakes typically occur at depths ranging from 5 to 20 km, increasing the hazard to local infrastructure and communities. Earthquakes and landslides on the island chain have also been known to cause tsunamis . Most of the early earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo , by missionaries Titus Coan and Sarah J. Lyman and her family. Between 1833 and 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year. Today, earthquakes are monitored by
1508-565: The high correlation of ages of large igneous provinces and the break-up age for these margins. A case study of the Wilson Cycle can be seen with the development of the Atlantic Ocean. Various parts of the modern day Atlantic Ocean opened at different times over the Mesozoic to Cenozoic periods following the Wilson Cycle. Seafloor spreading in the central Atlantic Ocean likely occurred around 134-126 Ma on Pan-African Orogenic and Rheic sutures. South Atlantic Ocean seafloor spreading began along
1560-468: The importation of industrialized farming practices through European and American encroachment, monocultural crop production replaced multi-species systems . The arrival of the Europeans had a more significant impact, with the promotion of large-scale single-species export agriculture and livestock grazing. This led to increased clearing of forests, and the development of towns, adding many more species to
1612-453: The in-rushing water is accentuated by the shape of Hilo Bay . Coastal cities have tsunami warning sirens. A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Chile hit the islands on February 27, 2010. It was relatively minor, but local emergency management officials utilized the latest technology and ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The Governor declared it a "good drill" for
Wilson Cycle - Misplaced Pages Continue
1664-534: The major islands (listed above), and individual islets in each atoll. These are just a few: Partial islands, atolls, reefs—those west of Niʻihau are uninhabited except Midway Atoll—form the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Leeward Islands): This chain of islands, or archipelago , developed as the Pacific plate slowly moved northwestward over a hotspot in the Earth's mantle at a rate of approximately 32 miles (51 km) per million years. Thus,
1716-482: The next major event. A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Japan hit the islands on March 11, 2011. It was relatively minor, but local officials ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The tsunami caused about $ 30.1 million in damages. Only the two Hawaiian islands furthest to the southeast have active volcanoes: Haleakalā on Maui, and Mauna Loa , Mauna Kea , Kilauea , and Hualalai , all on
1768-602: The northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, near the Kona area. The initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock . Minor to moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island. Several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu , Oahu, nearly 150 miles (240 km) from the epicenter . Power outages lasted for several hours to days. Several water mains ruptured. No deaths or life-threatening injuries were reported. On May 4, 2018, there
1820-463: The northwest over a fixed hotspot , spawning a long series of volcanoes . He also conceived of the transform fault , a major plate boundary where two plates move past each other horizontally ( e.g., the San Andreas Fault ). His name was given to two young Canadian submarine volcanoes called the Tuzo Wilson Seamounts . The Wilson cycle of seabed expansion and contraction (associated with
1872-578: The ocean basins. The first three stages (Embryonic, Young, Mature) describe the widening of the ocean and the last three stages (Declining, Terminal, and Relic Scar/Geosuture) describe the closing of the ocean and creation of mountain ranges like the Himalayas . In the 21st century, insights from seismic imaging and other techniques have led to updates to the Wilson Cycle to include relationships between activation of rifting and mantle plumes . Plume-induced rifting and rifting-induced mantle upwelling can explain
1924-473: The ocean, and the possibility of an explosive eruption. There is no definitive date for the Polynesian discovery of Hawaii . However, high-precision radiocarbon dating in Hawaii using chronometric hygiene analysis, and taxonomic identification selection of samples, puts the initial such settlement of the Hawaiian Islands sometime between 940-1250 C.E., originating from earlier settlements first established in
1976-522: The places, activities and people that he saw on his travels: landscapes, city views, monuments, sites, instruments, vehicles, flora and fauna, occupations and people. In 1938 he married Isabel Jean Dickson. He retired in 1986 and died in Toronto on April 15, 1993. Hawaiian Islands The Hawaiian Islands ( Hawaiian : Mokupuni Hawaiʻi ) are an archipelago of eight major volcanic islands , several atolls , and numerous smaller islets in
2028-402: The pressure exerted by rising magma put a great amount of stress on the volcanic flanks. The stress is released when the slope fails, or slips, causing an earthquake. This type of seismicity is unique because the forces driving the system are not always consistent over time, since rates of volcanic activity fluctuate. Seismic hazard near active, seaward volcanic flanks is high, partially because of
2080-473: The sole exception of Midway Atoll (a United States Minor Outlying Island ). Hawaii is the only U.S. state that is situated entirely on an archipelago, and the only state not geographically connected with North America . The Northwestern islands (sometimes called the Leeward Islands) and surrounding seas are protected as a National Monument and World Heritage Site . The date of the first settlements of
2132-413: The southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, due to longer exposure to erosion . The age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods. From this study and others, it is estimated that the northwesternmost island, Kure Atoll , is the oldest at approximately 28 million years (Ma); while
Wilson Cycle - Misplaced Pages Continue
2184-406: The southeasternmost island, Hawaiʻi , is approximately 0.4 Ma (400,000 years). The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the southeastern island, Hawaiʻi, and on the submerged but growing volcano to the extreme southeast, Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Loʻihi). The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images and interpretations of
2236-534: The theory of plate tectonics . Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that the rigid outer layers of the Earth ( crust and part of the upper mantle ), the lithosphere , is broken up into around 13 pieces or "plates" that move independently over the weaker asthenosphere . Wilson maintained that the Hawaiian Islands were formed as a tectonic plate (extending across much of the Pacific Ocean ) shifted to
2288-523: The volcanism. Kīlauea had been erupting nearly continuously since 1983 when it stopped August 2018. Almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt , and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase . Nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. The majority of eruptions in Hawaiʻi are Hawaiian-type eruptions because basaltic magma
2340-468: The weaker asthenosphere . Wilson maintained that the Hawaiian Islands were created as a tectonic plate (extending across much of the Pacific Ocean ) shifted to the northwest over a fixed hotspot , spawning a long series of volcanoes . He also conceived of the transform fault , a major plate boundary where two plates move past each other horizontally ( e.g., the San Andreas Fault ). The Wilson cycle of seabed expansion and contraction (associated with
2392-420: The world. In August 2010, UNESCO 's World Heritage Committee added Papahānaumokuākea to its list of World Heritage Sites . On August 26, 2016, former President Barack Obama greatly expanded Papahānaumokuākea, quadrupling it from its original size. The Hawaiian Islands are tropical but experience many different climates, depending on altitude and surroundings. The islands receive most rainfall from
2444-522: Was a 6.9 earthquake in the zone of volcanic activity from Kīlauea . Earthquakes are monitored by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory run by the USGS . The Hawaiian Islands are subject to tsunamis , great waves that strike the shore. Tsunamis are most often caused by earthquakes somewhere in the Pacific. The waves produced by the earthquakes travel at speeds of 400–500 miles per hour (600–800 km/h) and can affect coastal regions thousands of miles (kilometers) away. Tsunamis may also originate from
2496-449: Was a third-generation Canadian of French descent. He became one of the first people in Canada to receive a degree in geophysics , graduating from Trinity College at the University of Toronto in 1930. He obtained a second (BA) degree from St. John's College, Cambridge in 1932 and then a doctorate (ScD). He then pursued further graduate studies as Princeton University , where he received
2548-672: Was already a member, in 1975. In 1978, he was awarded the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London and a Gold Medal by the Royal Canadian Geographical Society . He also served as honorary vice president of the RCGS. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society , the Royal Society of Canada , and of the Royal Society of Edinburgh . He was elected president-elect (1978–1980) and president (1980–1982) of
2600-438: Was appointed an OBE . In 1946 he was appointed the first Professor of Geophysics at the University of Toronto . He made significant contributions to the theory of Plate tectonics, adding a concept of hot spots. Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that the rigid outer layers of the Earth ( crust and part of the upper mantle ), the lithosphere , is broken up into around 13 pieces or "plates" that move independently over
2652-779: Was illegally deposed and placed under house arrest by businessmen (who included members of the Dole family ) with help from the U.S. Marines . The Republic of Hawaii governed for a short time until Hawaii was annexed by the United States in 1898 as the Territory of Hawaii . In 1959, the islands became the 50th American state . The islands are home to a multitude of endemic species. Since human settlement, first by Polynesians , non native trees, plants, and animals were introduced. These included species such as rats and pigs, that have preyed on native birds and invertebrates that initially evolved in
SECTION 50
#17328374048412704-545: Was president (1957–1960) of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). In 1967 he became principal of Erindale College , now known as University of Toronto Mississauga. In 1974 he left to become the Director General of the Ontario Science Centre . In 1983 he became Chancellor of York University, Toronto . He was the host of the television series The Planet of Man . For his service during
#840159