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64-532: Sir William Robert Grove , FRS FRSE (11 July 1811 – 1 August 1896) was a Welsh judge and physical scientist . He anticipated the general theory of the conservation of energy , and was a pioneer of fuel cell technology. He invented the Grove voltaic cell. Born in Swansea , Wales, Grove was the only child of John, a magistrate and deputy lieutenant of Glamorgan , and his wife, Anne (née Bevan). His early education

128-408: A heat spike (also called thermal spike), which essentially melts a small portion of the crystal. If that portion is close enough to its surface, large numbers of atoms may be ejected, due to liquid flowing to the surface and/or microexplosions. Heat spike sputtering is most important for heavy ions (e.g. Xe or Au or cluster ions) with energies in the keV–MeV range bombarding dense but soft metals with

192-574: A knighthood in 1872, he was given an honorary degree by Cambridge University in 1879 and became Privy Councillor in 1887. The lunar crater " Grove " is named in his honour. The Grove Fuel Cell Symposium and Exhibition is organised by Elsevier . Fellow of the Royal Society Fellowship of the Royal Society ( FRS , ForMemRS and HonFRS ) is an award granted by the Fellows of

256-469: A steam engine with the mass of zinc consumed in a Grove battery in performing a common quantity of mechanical work. Grove was certainly familiar with William Thomson 's theoretical analysis of Joule's experimental results and Thomson's immature suggestions of conservation of energy. Thomson's public champion, Peter Guthrie Tait was initially a supporter of Grove's ideas but later dismissed them with some coolness. Though Groves's ideas were forerunners of

320-679: A Chair (all of whom are Fellows of the Royal Society ). Members of the 10 Sectional Committees change every three years to mitigate in-group bias . Each Sectional Committee covers different specialist areas including: New Fellows are admitted to the Society at a formal admissions day ceremony held annually in July, when they sign the Charter Book and the Obligation which reads: "We who have hereunto subscribed, do hereby promise, that we will endeavour to promote

384-606: A Fellow of the Royal Society in 1840 Grove was a critic of the Society, deprecating its cronyism and the de facto rule of a few influential Council members. In 1843, he published an anonymous attack on the scientific establishment in Blackwood's Magazine and called for reform. In 1846 Grove was elected to the Council of the Royal Society , and was heavily involved in the campaign to modernise its charter, in addition to campaigning for

448-436: A constant rate. As the target is sputtered, the concentration and identity of sputtered atoms are measured using mass spectrometry . In this way the composition of the target material can be determined and even extremely low concentrations (20 μg/kg) of impurities detected. Furthermore, because the sputtering continually etches deeper into the sample, concentration profiles as a function of depth can be measured. Sputtering

512-459: A duality of conception, the mind cannot form an idea of them: thus motion cannot be perceived or probably imagined without parallax or relative change of position ... in all physical phenomena, the effects produced by motion are all in proportion to the relative motion. ... The question of whether there can be absolute motion, or indeed any absolute isolated force, is purely the metaphysical question of idealism or realism . As soon as he became

576-399: A low melting point (Ag, Au, Pb, etc.). The heat spike sputtering often increases nonlinearly with energy, and can for small cluster ions lead to dramatic sputtering yields per cluster of the order of 10,000. For animations of such a process see "Re: Displacement Cascade 1" in the external links section. Physical sputtering has a well-defined minimum energy threshold, equal to or larger than

640-571: A novel form of electric cell, the Grove cell , which used zinc and platinum electrodes exposed to two acids and separated by a porous ceramic pot. Grove announced the latter development to the Académie des Sciences in Paris in 1839. In 1840 Grove invented one of the first incandescent electric lights, which was later perfected by Thomas Edison . Later that year, he gave another account of his development at

704-407: A particular form of electronic sputtering can take place that has been termed potential sputtering . In these cases the potential energy stored in multiply charged ions (i.e., the energy necessary to produce an ion of this charge state from its neutral atom) is liberated when the ions recombine during impact on a solid surface (formation of hollow atoms ). This sputtering process is characterized by

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768-418: A role in reactive-ion etching (RIE), a plasma process carried out with chemically active ions and radicals, for which the sputtering yield may be enhanced significantly compared to pure physical sputtering. Reactive ions are frequently used in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) equipment to enhance the sputter rates. The mechanisms causing the sputtering enhancement are not always well understood, although

832-424: A strong dependence of the observed sputtering yields on the charge state of the impinging ion and can already take place at ion impact energies well below the physical sputtering threshold. Potential sputtering has only been observed for certain target species and requires a minimum potential energy. Removing atoms by sputtering with an inert gas is called ion milling or ion etching . Sputtering can also play

896-437: A variety of sources—they can come from plasma , specially constructed ion sources , particle accelerators , outer space (e.g. solar wind ), or radioactive materials (e.g. alpha radiation ). A model for describing sputtering in the cascade regime for amorphous flat targets is Thompson's analytical model. An algorithm that simulates sputtering based on a quantum mechanical treatment including electrons stripping at high energy

960-495: Is a method of depositing thin films by sputtering that involves eroding material from a "target" source onto a "substrate", e.g. a silicon wafer , solar cell, optical component, or many other possibilities. Resputtering , in contrast, involves re-emission of the deposited material, e.g. SiO 2 during the deposition also by ion bombardment. Sputtered atoms are ejected into the gas phase but are not in their thermodynamic equilibrium state, and tend to deposit on all surfaces in

1024-675: Is confirmed by the Council in April, and a secret ballot of Fellows is held at a meeting in May. A candidate is elected if they secure two-thirds of votes of those Fellows voting. An indicative allocation of 18 Fellowships can be allocated to candidates from Physical Sciences and Biological Sciences; and up to 10 from Applied Sciences, Human Sciences and Joint Physical and Biological Sciences. A further maximum of six can be 'Honorary', 'General' or 'Royal' Fellows. Nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by Sectional Committees, each with at least 12 members and

1088-416: Is implemented in the program TRIM . Another mechanism of physical sputtering is called "heat spike sputtering". This can occur when the solid is dense enough, and the incoming ion heavy enough, that collisions occur very close to each other. In this case, the binary collision approximation is no longer valid, and the collisional process should be understood as a many-body process. The dense collisions induce

1152-414: Is lost in its progress through space – not lost absolutely, for that would be an annihilation of force – but converted into some other mode of motion. Grove also speculated that other forms of energy were yet to be discovered "as far certain as certain can be of any future event." The probability is that, if not all, the greater number of physical phenomena are, in one sense correlative, and that, without

1216-421: Is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society (a proposer and a seconder), who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, which was criticised for supposedly establishing an old boy network and elitist gentlemen's club . The certificate of election (see for example ) includes a statement of the principal grounds on which

1280-591: Is one of the forms of space weathering, a process that changes the physical and chemical properties of airless bodies, such as asteroids and the Moon . On icy moons, especially Europa , sputtering of photolyzed water from the surface leads to net loss of hydrogen and accumulation of oxygen-rich materials that may be important for life. Sputtering is also one of the possible ways that Mars has lost most of its atmosphere and that Mercury continually replenishes its tenuous surface-bounded exosphere . Due to its adaptability with

1344-407: Is used to etch the target. Sputter etching is chosen in cases where a high degree of etching anisotropy is needed and selectivity is not a concern. One major drawback of this technique is wafer damage and high voltage use. Another application of sputtering is to etch away the target material. One such example occurs in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), where the target sample is sputtered at

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1408-658: The British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in Birmingham , where it aroused the interest of Michael Faraday . On Faraday's invitation Grove presented his discoveries at the prestigious Royal Institution Friday Discourse on 13 March 1840. Grove's presentation made his reputation, and he was soon proposed for Fellowship of the Royal Society by such distinguished men as William Thomas Brande , William Snow Harris and Charles Wheatstone . Grove also attracted

1472-698: The Royal Institution and was a founder of the Swansea Literary and Philosophical Society , an organisation with which he maintained close links. In 1829, at the Royal Institution, Grove met Emma Maria Powles.. They married in 1837. The couple embarked on a tour of the continent for their honeymoon. This sabbatical offered Grove an opportunity to pursue his scientific interests and resulted in his first scientific paper suggesting some novel constructions for electric cells . During 1839, Grove developed

1536-1616: The Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a "substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge , including mathematics , engineering science , and medical science ". Fellowship of the Society, the oldest known scientific academy in continuous existence, is a significant honour. It has been awarded to many eminent scientists throughout history, including Isaac Newton (1672), Benjamin Franklin (1756), Charles Babbage (1816), Michael Faraday (1824), Charles Darwin (1839), Ernest Rutherford (1903), Srinivasa Ramanujan (1918), Jagadish Chandra Bose (1920), Albert Einstein (1921), Paul Dirac (1930), Winston Churchill (1941), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1944), Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (1945), Dorothy Hodgkin (1947), Alan Turing (1951), Lise Meitner (1955), Satyendra Nath Bose (1958), and Francis Crick (1959). More recently, fellowship has been awarded to Stephen Hawking (1974), David Attenborough (1983), Tim Hunt (1991), Elizabeth Blackburn (1992), Raghunath Mashelkar (1998), Tim Berners-Lee (2001), Venki Ramakrishnan (2003), Atta-ur-Rahman (2006), Andre Geim (2007), Bai Chunli (2014), James Dyson (2015), Ajay Kumar Sood (2015), Subhash Khot (2017), Elon Musk (2018), Elaine Fuchs (2019) and around 8,000 others in total, including over 280 Nobel Laureates since 1900. As of October 2018 , there are approximately 1,689 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members, of whom 85 are Nobel Laureates. Fellowship of

1600-561: The gas voltaic battery ), which produced electrical energy by combining hydrogen and oxygen , and described it using his correlation theory. In developing the cell and showing that steam could be disassociated into oxygen and hydrogen, and the process reversed , he was the first person to demonstrate the thermal dissociation of molecules into their constituent atoms . The first demonstration of this effect, he gave privately to Faraday, Gassiot and Edward William Brayley , his scientific editor. His work also led him to early insights into

1664-432: The ion plating process. When the surfaces to be cleaned are large, a similar technique, plasma cleaning , can be used. Sputter cleaning has some potential problems such as overheating, gas incorporation in the surface region, bombardment (radiation) damage in the surface region, and the roughening of the surface, particularly if over done. It is important to have a clean plasma in order to not continually recontaminate

1728-426: The post-nominal letters FRS . Every year, fellows elect up to ten new foreign members. Like fellows, foreign members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 , there are around 165 foreign members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS . Honorary Fellowship is an honorary academic title awarded to candidates who have given distinguished service to

1792-455: The 14 MHz range. Surfaces of solids can be cleaned from contaminants by using physical sputtering in a vacuum . Sputter cleaning is often used in surface science , vacuum deposition and ion plating . In 1955 Farnsworth, Schlier, George, and Burger reported using sputter cleaning in an ultra-high-vacuum system to prepare ultra-clean surfaces for low-energy electron-diffraction (LEED) studies. Sputter cleaning became an integral part of

1856-442: The B component, thereby increasing the probability that B is sputtered such that the composition of the sputtered material will ultimately return to AB. The term electronic sputtering can mean either sputtering induced by energetic electrons (for example in a transmission electron microscope), or sputtering due to very high-energy or highly charged heavy ions that lose energy to the solid, mostly by electronic stopping power , where

1920-462: The Fermi level, caused by damage-related interface gap states, resulting in the formation of Schottky-barrier impeding carrier transport. Sputter damage can also impair the doping efficiency of materials and the lifetime of excess charge carriers in photoactive materials; in some cases, depending on its extent, such damage can even lead to a reduced shunt resistance. In the semiconductor industry sputtering

1984-439: The Royal Society has been described by The Guardian as "the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar " with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows (FRS), honorary (HonFRS) and foreign members (ForMemRS) are elected annually in late April or early May, from a pool of around 700 proposed candidates each year. New Fellows can only be nominated by existing Fellows for one of

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2048-655: The Society, we shall be free from this Obligation for the future". Since 2014, portraits of Fellows at the admissions ceremony have been published without copyright restrictions in Wikimedia Commons under a more permissive Creative Commons license which allows wider re-use. In addition to the main fellowships of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS & HonFRS), other fellowships are available which are applied for by individuals, rather than through election. These fellowships are research grant awards and holders are known as Royal Society Research Fellows . In addition to

2112-464: The attention of John Peter Gassiot , a relationship that resulted in Grove's becoming the first professor of experimental philosophy at the London Institution in 1841. Grove's inaugural lecture in 1842 was the first announcement of what Grove called the correlation of physical forces , in modern terms, the conservation of energy . In 1842, Grove developed the first fuel cell (which he called

2176-526: The award of Fellowship (FRS, HonFRS & ForMemRS) and the Research Fellowships described above, several other awards, lectures and medals of the Royal Society are also given. Sputtering When energetic ions collide with atoms of a target material, an exchange of momentum takes place between them. These ions, known as "incident ions", set off collision cascades in the target. Such cascades can take many paths; some recoil back toward

2240-437: The bar, his young family providing the financial motivation; and in 1853 became a QC . The bar provided him with the opportunity to combine his legal and scientific knowledge, in particular in patent law and in the unsuccessful defence of poisoner William Palmer in 1856. He was especially involved in the photography patent cases of Beard v. Egerton (1845–1849), on behalf of Egerton, and of Talbot v. Laroche (1854). In

2304-410: The case of fluorine etching of Si has been modeled well theoretically. Sputtering observed to occur below the threshold energy of physical sputtering is also often called chemical sputtering. The mechanisms behind such sputtering are not always well understood, and may be hard to distinguish from chemical etching . At elevated temperatures, chemical sputtering of carbon can be understood to be due to

2368-597: The cause of science, but do not have the kind of scientific achievements required of Fellows or Foreign Members. Honorary Fellows include the World Health Organization's Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (2022), Bill Bryson (2013), Melvyn Bragg (2010), Robin Saxby (2015), David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville (2008), Onora O'Neill (2007), John Maddox (2000), Patrick Moore (2001) and Lisa Jardine (2015). Honorary Fellows are entitled to use

2432-438: The electronic excitations cause sputtering. Electronic sputtering produces high sputtering yields from insulators , as the electronic excitations that cause sputtering are not immediately quenched, as they would be in a conductor. One example of this is Jupiter's ice-covered moon Europa , where a MeV sulfur ion from Jupiter's magnetosphere can eject up to 10,000 H 2 O molecules. In the case of multiple charged projectile ions

2496-638: The establishment of Grove and his associates with domination of the Council. To celebrate, the reformers founded the Philosophical Club . Though the Philosophical Club succeeded in ensuring that William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse was appointed next President, they failed to get Grove appointed as Secretary. Grove continued to campaign for a single home for all the scientific institutions at Burlington House . From 1846 Grove started to reduce his scientific work in favour of his professional practice at

2560-515: The fellowships described below: Every year, up to 52 new fellows are elected from the United Kingdom, the rest of the Commonwealth of Nations , and Ireland, which make up around 90% of the society. Each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use

2624-520: The general theory of the conservation of energy that was more famously put forward in Hermann von Helmholtz ' Über die Erhaltung der Kraft ( On the Conservation of Force ) published the following year. His 1846 Bakerian lecture relied heavily on his theory. James Prescott Joule had been energized by his investigations into the mechanical equivalent of heat by comparing the mass of coal consumed in

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2688-530: The good of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, and to pursue the ends for which the same was founded; that we will carry out, as far as we are able, those actions requested of us in the name of the Council; and that we will observe the Statutes and Standing Orders of the said Society. Provided that, whensoever any of us shall signify to the President under our hands, that we desire to withdraw from

2752-603: The incoming ions weakening bonds in the sample, which then desorb by thermal activation. The hydrogen-induced sputtering of carbon-based materials observed at low temperatures has been explained by H ions entering between C-C bonds and thus breaking them, a mechanism dubbed swift chemical sputtering . Sputtering only happens when the kinetic energy of the incoming particles is much higher than conventional thermal energies ( ≫ 1 eV ). When done with direct current (DC sputtering), voltages of 3-5 kV are used. When done with alternating current ( RF sputtering), frequencies are around

2816-409: The ion energy at which the maximum energy transfer from the ion to a target atom equals the binding energy of a surface atom. That is to say, it can only happen when an ion is capable of transferring more energy into the target than is required for an atom to break free from its surface. This threshold is typically somewhere in the range of ten to a hundred eV . Preferential sputtering can occur at

2880-655: The latter case Grove appeared for William Fox Talbot in his unsuccessful attempt to assert his calotype patent. Grove served on a Royal Commission on patent law and on the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers . In 1871 he was made judge of the Court of Common Pleas , and was appointed to the Queen's Bench in 1880. He was to have presided at the Cornwall and Devon winter assizes of 1884, which would have entailed him trying

2944-418: The most abundant species in plasma in case of reactive deposition of oxides. However, energies of other ions/atoms (e.g., Ar , Ar , or In ) in the discharge may already be sufficient to dissociate surface bonds or etch soft layers in certain device technologies. In addition, the momentum transfer of high-energy particles from the plasma (Ar, oxygen ions) or sputtered from the target might impinge or even increase

3008-511: The most transient actions are rendered permanent, by which facts write their own annals in a language that can never be obsolete, forming documents which prove themselves, – must interweave itself not only with science but with history and legislature. In 1852, he discovered striae , dark bands that occur in electrical breakdown , and investigated their character, presenting his work in an 1858 Bakerian lecture. In 1846, Grove published On The Correlation of Physical Forces in which he anticipated

3072-601: The nature of ionisation . For observations made in Ref., Grove is credited for the discovery of sputtering . In the 1840s, he collaborated with Gassiot at the London Institution on photography and the Daguerreotype and calotype processes. Inspired by his legal practice, he presciently observed: It would be vain to attempt specifically to predict what may be the effect of Photography on future generations. A Process by which

3136-563: The notorious survival cannibalism case of R v. Dudley and Stephens . However, at the last minute he was substituted by Baron Huddleston , possibly because Huddleston was seen as more reliable in ensuring the guilty verdict that the judiciary required. Grove did sit as one of five judges on the final determination of the case in a divisional court of the Queen's Bench . Grove was a careful, painstaking and accurate judge, courageous and not afraid to assert an independent judicial opinion. However, he

3200-509: The post nominal letters HonFRS . Statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough (1983) and John Palmer, 4th Earl of Selborne (1991). The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British royal family for election as Royal Fellow of the Royal Society . As of 2023 there are four royal fellows: Elizabeth II

3264-450: The process and the representative energies can be listed as (values taken from ): As seen in the list above, negative ions (e.g., O and In for ITO sputtering) formed at the target surface and accelerated toward the substrate acquire the largest energy, which is determined by the potential between target and plasma potentials. Although the flux of the energetic particles is an important parameter, high-energy negative O ions are additionally

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3328-546: The proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations made each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The Council of the Royal Society oversees the selection process and appoints 10 subject area committees, known as Sectional Committees, to recommend the strongest candidates for election to the Fellowship. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates

3392-428: The public funding of science. A charter committee had already been established, and Grove joined it. Groves's fellow campaigners included Gassiot, Leonard Horner and Edward Sabine . Their principal objectives were for the number of new Fellows to be subject to an annual limit, and limitation of the power of nomination to the Council. The reformers' success in 1847 led to the resignation of several key conservatives and

3456-405: The start when a multicomponent solid target is bombarded and there is no solid state diffusion. If the energy transfer is more efficient to one of the target components, or it is less strongly bound to the solid, it will sputter more efficiently than the other. If in an AB alloy the component A is sputtered preferentially, the surface of the solid will, during prolonged bombardment, become enriched in

3520-440: The substrate temperature sufficiently to trigger physical (e.g., etching) or thermal degradation of sensitive substrate layers (e.g. thin film metal halide perovskites). This can affect the functional properties of underlying charge transport and passivation layers and photoactive absorbers or emitters, eroding device performance. For instance, due to sputter damage, there may be inevitable interfacial consequences such as pinning of

3584-410: The surface during sputter cleaning. Redeposition of sputtered material on the substrate can also give problems, especially at high sputtering pressures. Sputtering of the surface of a compound or alloy material can result in the surface composition being changed. Often the species with the least mass or the highest vapor pressure is the one preferentially sputtered from the surface. Sputter deposition

3648-472: The surface of the target. If a collision cascade reaches the surface of the target, and its remaining energy is greater than the target's surface binding energy , an atom will be ejected. This process is known as "sputtering". If the target is thin (on an atomic scale), the collision cascade can reach through to its back side; the atoms ejected in this fashion are said to escape the surface binding energy "in transmission". The average number of atoms ejected from

3712-463: The target per incident ion is called the "sputter yield". The sputter yield depends on several things: the angle at which ions collide with the surface of the material, how much energy they strike it with, their masses, the masses of the target atoms, and the target's surface binding energy. If the target possesses a crystal structure, the orientation of its axes with respect to the surface is an important factor. The ions that cause sputtering come from

3776-446: The theory of the conservation of energy, they were qualitative, unlike the quantitative investigations of Joule or Julius Robert von Mayer . His ideas also shaded into broader speculation, such as the nature of Olbers's paradox , which he may have discovered for himself rather than through a direct knowledge. ... it is difficult to understand why we get so little light at night from the stellar universe, without assuming that some light

3840-449: The vacuum chamber. A substrate (such as a wafer) placed in the chamber will be coated with a thin film. Sputtering deposition usually uses an argon plasma because argon, a noble gas, will not react with the target material. Sputter damage is usually defined during transparent electrode deposition on optoelectronic devices, which is usually originated from the substrate's bombardment by highly energetic species. The main species involved in

3904-651: Was fallible in patent cases, where he was prone to become overinterested in the technology in question and to be distracted by questioning the litigants as to potential improvements in their devices, even going so far as to suggest his own innovations. He retired from the bench in 1887. His portrait was painted by Helen Donald-Smith in the 1890s. Grove married Emma Maria Powles, daughter of John Diston Powles , in 1837, and had several children, including Major-General Sir Coleridge Grove . Groves's daughter, Imogen Emily (died 1886), married William Edward Hall in 1866. His daughter Anna married Herbert Augustus Hills (1837–1907) and

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3968-458: Was in the hands of private tutors, before he attended Brasenose College, Oxford to study classics , though his scientific interests may have been cultivated by mathematician Baden Powell . Otherwise, his taste for science has no clear origin though his circle in Swansea was broadly educated. He graduated in 1832. In 1835, he was called to the bar by Lincoln's Inn . In the same year, Grove joined

4032-519: Was mother to Edmond Herbert Grove-Hills ("Colonel Rivers") and John Waller Hills . His health perpetually troubled, Grove died at home, 115 Harley Street in London, after a long illness. He is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery , London. Grove became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1840, and received its Royal Medal in 1847. He was Vice-President of the Royal Institution in 1844. Receiving

4096-421: Was not a Royal Fellow, but provided her patronage to the society, as all reigning British monarchs have done since Charles II of England . Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1951) was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination and a period of peer-reviewed selection. Each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership

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