The Intelligencer and Wheeling News-Register are combined daily newspapers under common ownership in Wheeling, West Virginia , and are the flagship publications of Ogden Newspapers . The Intelligencer is published weekday mornings and Saturdays, while the News-Register is published weekday afternoons and Sundays.
170-570: Founded as the Wheeling Intelligencer in August 1852 by Eli B. Swearingen and Oliver Taylor, The Intelligencer is the oldest continuously published daily newspaper in the state of West Virginia. The paper was initially established as a means to promote Winfield Scott and the Whig Party in the 1852 United States presidential election . This article about a West Virginia newspaper
340-539: A party platform endorsing the Compromise of 1850 as a final settlement of the slavery question. On the convention's first presidential ballot, Fillmore received 133 of the necessary 147 votes, while Scott won 131 and Webster won 29. After the 46th ballot still failed to produce a presidential nominee, the delegates voted to adjourn until the following Monday. Over the weekend, Fillmore and Webster supporters conducted unsuccessful negotiations to unite behind one candidate. On
510-561: A British force in the Battle of Queenston Heights . Scott led an artillery bombardment that supported an American crossing of the Niagara River, and he took overall command of U.S. forces at Queenston after Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer was badly wounded. Shortly after Scott took command, a British column under Roger Hale Sheaffe arrived. Sheaffe's numerically superior force compelled an American retreat, ultimately forcing Scott to surrender to
680-743: A Northerner sympathetic to the Southern view on slavery who had served under Scott as a brigadier general during the Mexican War. Pierce had resigned from the U.S. Senate in 1842, and had briefly held only the minor office of United States Attorney for the District of New Hampshire since then, but emerged as a compromise candidate partly because he served under Scott in the Mexican–American War. The Democrats attacked Scott for various incidents from his long public career, including his court-martial in 1809 and
850-533: A Senate bill providing for a final settlement of Texas's borders won passage days after Fillmore delivered his message. Under the terms of the bill, the U.S. would assume Texas's debts, while Texas's northern border was set at the 36° 30' parallel north (the Missouri Compromise line) and much of its western border followed the 103rd meridian. The bill attracted the support of a bipartisan coalition of Whigs and Democrats from both sections, though most opposition to
1020-611: A Texas bill similar to that which had been passed by the Senate. Following that vote, the House and the Senate quickly agreed on each of the major issues, including the banning of the slave trade in Washington. The president quickly signed each bill into law save for the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 ; he ultimately signed that law as well after Attorney General Crittenden assured him that the law
1190-521: A captain of the light artillery. In the War of 1812, Scott served on the Canadian front, taking part in the Battle of Queenston Heights and the Battle of Fort George , and was promoted to brigadier general in early 1814. He served with distinction in the Battle of Chippawa but was badly wounded in the subsequent Battle of Lundy's Lane . After the conclusion of the war, Scott was assigned to command army forces in
1360-475: A comment Scott had made at a private dinner in New York, though they later reconciled. He also continued a bitter feud with Gaines that centered over which of them had seniority, as both hoped to eventually succeed the ailing Brown. In 1821, Congress reorganized the army, leaving Brown as the sole major general and Scott and Gaines as the only brigadier generals; Macomb accepted demotion to colonel and appointment as
1530-564: A county government in El Paso and thus successfully claimed it as an integral part of Texas. A similar attempt to keep Santa Fe in Texas failed, and Santa Fe became part of the New Mexico territory. The United States Constitution (Article IV, Section 3) does not permit Congress unilaterally to reduce the territory of any state, so the first part of the Compromise of 1850 had to take the form of an offer to
1700-745: A district containing much of the Northeastern United States , and he and his family made their home near New York City. During the 1830s, Scott negotiated an end to the Black Hawk War , took part in the Second Seminole War and the Creek War of 1836 , and presided over the forced removal of the Cherokee . Scott also helped to avert war with the United Kingdom , defusing tensions arising from
1870-543: A down payment for the purchase of California in a treaty with Mexico, igniting a debate over the status of future territories. A freshman Democratic Representative, David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, offered an amendment known as the Wilmot Proviso that would ban slavery in any newly acquired lands. The Wilmot Proviso was defeated in the Senate, but it injected the slavery debate into national politics. In September 1847, an American army under General Winfield Scott captured
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#17328510979982040-523: A factor in the debates over the territories. California was part of the Mexican Cession. After the Mexican War, California was essentially run by military governors. President James K. Polk tried to get Congress to establish a territorial government in California officially, but the increasingly sectional debates prevented that. The South wanted to extend slave territory to Southern California and to
2210-471: A family friend, to help him obtain a commission in the newly expanded army. In May 1808, shortly before his twenty-second birthday, Scott was commissioned as a captain in the light artillery . Tasked with recruiting a company , he raised his troops from the Petersburg and Richmond areas, then traveled with his unit to New Orleans to join their regiment . Scott was deeply disturbed by what he viewed as
2380-423: A force led by David E. Twiggs against Santa Anna's left flank, while another force, led by Gideon Pillow , would attack Santa Anna's artillery. In the Battle of Cerro Gordo , Pillow's force was largely ineffective, but Twiggs and Colonel William S. Harney captured the key Mexican position of El Telegrafo in hand-to-hand fighting. Mexican resistance collapsed after the capture of El Telegrafo; Santa Anna escaped
2550-536: A hardy constitution, in his prime Scott was a physically large and imposing figure. Scott's education included attendance at schools run by James Hargrave and James Ogilvie. In 1805, Scott began attending the College of William and Mary , but he soon left to study law in the office of attorney David Robinson. His contemporaries in Robinson's office included Thomas Ruffin . While apprenticing under Robinson, Scott attended
2720-404: A history of conflict dating back to the 1841 Santa Fe Expedition . Outside of Texas, many Southern leaders supported Texas's claims to New Mexico to secure as much territory as possible for the expansion of slavery. Another issue that would affect the compromise was Texas's debt; it had approximately $ 10 million in debt left over from its time as an independent nation, and that debt would become
2890-472: A jury trial nor testify on their own behalf. Also, aiding a runaway slave by providing food or shelter was now a crime nationwide, punished by six months' imprisonment and a $ 1,000 fine. Officers capturing a fugitive slave were entitled to a fee for their work, and this expense was to be paid by the Federal Government. The law was so completely pro-slavery as to prohibit the admission of the testimony of
3060-441: A peace treaty with Mexican leaders. Though they initially feuded, Scott and Trist eventually developed a strong working relationship. In mid-April, Scott's force met Santa Anna's army at Cerro Gordo, near Xalapa. Santa Anna had established a solid defensive position, but he left his left flank undefended on the assumption that dense trees made the area impassable. Scott decided to attack Santa Anna's position on two fronts, sending
3230-408: A person accused of being an escaped slave into evidence at the judicial hearing to determine the status of the accused escaped slave. Thus, if free Blacks were claimed to be escaped slaves, they could not resist their return to slavery (or enslavement for the first time) by truthfully telling their actual history. Furthermore, the federal commissioners overseeing the hearings were paid $ 5 for ruling that
3400-518: A person was free, but were paid $ 10 for determining that he or she was a slave, thus providing a financial incentive to rule in favor of slavery regardless of the evidence. The law further exacerbated the problem of free Blacks being kidnapped and sold as slaves. The Fugitive Slave Act was essential to meet Southern demands. In terms of public opinion in the North, the critical provision was that ordinary citizens were required to aid slave catchers and that it
3570-646: A pistol on Benton. In early June, nine slave-holding Southern states sent delegates to the Nashville Convention to determine their course of action if the compromise passed. While some delegates preached secession , the moderates ruled and proposed a series of compromises, including extending the dividing line designated by the Missouri Compromise of 1820 to the Pacific Coast . Taylor died in July 1850, and
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#17328510979983740-575: A ploy on the American government by flirting with the British. The British believed that they could make the state abolish slavery by purchasing it. However, Southern leaders, alarmed by the threat of British emancipation of Texan slaves, pushed harder for annexation. Eventually, John Tyler , in hopes of appealing to southern Democrats, led the push for annexation with Abel Upshur . Texas was staunchly committed to slavery, with its constitution making it illegal for
3910-545: A resolution promoting Scott to brevet lieutenant general. Scott was the first U.S. Army officer since George Washington to hold the rank. He also earned the appellation of the "Grand Old Man of the Army" for his long career. The passage of the 1854 Kansas–Nebraska Act and the outbreak of violent confrontations between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces in Kansas exacerbated sectional tensions and split both major parties. Pierce
4080-582: A rising by the divided Mexicans against the American invasion, Scott placed a priority on winning the cooperation of the Catholic Church . Among other initiatives designed to show respect for church property and officials, he ordered his men to salute Catholic priests on the streets of Veracruz. After securing supplies and wagons, Scott's army began the march toward Xalapa , a city on the way to Mexico City. Meanwhile, Polk dispatched Nicholas Trist , Secretary of State James Buchanan 's chief clerk, to negotiate
4250-446: A sleepy and almost forgotten land into a burgeoning hub with a population bigger than Delaware or Florida. The mostly lawless land found itself in desperate need of governance. Californians wanted to be made into a territory or state promptly. In response to growing demand for a better more representative government, a Constitutional Convention was held in 1849. The delegates unanimously outlawed slavery. They had no interest in extending
4420-781: A strategy similar to Scott's Anaconda Plan, Grant led the Union to victory, and Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia surrendered in April 1865. Compromise of 1850 The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five separate bills passed by the United States Congress in September 1850 that temporarily defused tensions between slave and free states in the years leading up to the American Civil War . Designed by Whig senator Henry Clay and Democratic senator Stephen A. Douglas , with
4590-424: A truce with John Harvey , who commanded British forces in the area. In the mid-1830s, Scott joined the Whig Party , which opponents of President Jackson established. Scott's success in preventing war with Canada under Van Buren confirmed his popularity with the broad public, and in early 1839, newspapers began to mention him as a candidate for the presidential nomination at the 1839 Whig National Convention . By
4760-612: A wealthy engineer and businessman who came from a distinguished family in Virginia. Scott and his family lived in Elizabethtown, New Jersey for most of the next thirty years. Beginning in the late 1830s, Maria spent much of her time in Europe because of a bronchial condition, and she died in Rome in 1862. They were the parents of seven children, five daughters and two sons: With the conclusion of
4930-665: A wider conflict, and they soon ordered the release of the prisoners. Later that year, Scott attempted to establish a legal practice in South Carolina but was unable to obtain a law license because he did not meet the state's one-year residency requirement. In early 1808, President Thomas Jefferson asked Congress to authorize an expansion of the United States Army after the British announced an escalation of their naval blockade of France , thereby threatening American shipping. Scott convinced U.S. Senator William Branch Giles ,
5100-474: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Winfield Scott Winfield Scott (June 13, 1786 – May 29, 1866) was an American military commander and political candidate. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army from 1841 to 1861, and was a veteran of the War of 1812 , American Indian Wars , Mexican–American War , and the early stages of the American Civil War . Scott
5270-614: Is now part of present-day Colorado that is east of the crest of the Rocky Mountains. Perhaps the most important part of the Compromise received the least attention during debates. Enacted September 18, 1850, it is informally known as the Fugitive Slave Law, or the Fugitive Slave Act . It bolstered the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 . The new version of the Fugitive Slave Law now required federal judicial officials in all states and federal territories, including free states, to assist with
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5440-571: The Caroline affair , in which Canadian forces burned a steamboat that had delivered supplies to rebel forces. President Van Buren dispatched Scott to western New York to prevent unauthorized border crossings and war between the United States and the United Kingdom. Still popular in the area due to his service in the War of 1812, Scott issued public appeals, asking Americans to refrain from supporting
5610-500: The Confederate States of America , and chose Jefferson Davis as president. Because Scott was from Virginia, Lincoln sent an envoy, Thomas S. Mather, to ask whether Scott would remain loyal to the United States and keep order during Lincoln's inauguration . Scott responded to Mather, "I shall consider myself responsible for [Lincoln's] safety. If necessary, I shall plant cannon at both ends of Pennsylvania Avenue , and if any of
5780-760: The Mississippi River . Some Native Americans moved peacefully, but others resisted, including many Seminoles . In December 1835, the Second Seminole War broke out after the Dade massacre , in which a group of Seminoles ambushed and massacred a U.S. Army company in Central Florida . President Jackson ordered Scott to take command of operations against the Seminoles personally, and the officer arrived in Florida by February 1836. After several months of inconclusive campaigning, Scott
5950-547: The Northwest Territory . In July 1812, the U.S. Congress declared war on Britain. After the declaration of war, Scott was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and assigned as second-in-command of the 2nd Artillery Regiment, serving under George Izard . While Izard continued to lead recruitment efforts, Scott led two companies north to join General Stephen Van Rensselaer 's militia force, which
6120-517: The Nullification Crisis . Scott traveled to Charleston, South Carolina , the center of the nullification movement, where he strengthened federal forts but also sought to cultivate public opinion away from secession . Ultimately, the crisis ended in early 1833 with the passage of the Tariff of 1833 . President Jackson launched a policy of Indian removal , forcing Native Americans to move west of
6290-817: The Patriot War and the Aroostook War . In 1841, Scott became the Commanding General of the United States Army , beating out his rival Edmund P. Gaines for the position. After the outbreak of the Mexican–American War in 1846, Scott was relegated to an administrative role, but in 1847 he led a campaign against the Mexican capital of Mexico City . After capturing the port city of Veracruz , he defeated Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna 's armies at
6460-946: The Pig War in Washington Territory , ending the last in a long series of British-American border conflicts. Despite being a Virginia native, Scott stayed loyal to the Union when the Civil War broke out and served as an essential adviser to President Abraham Lincoln during the opening stages of the war. He developed a strategy known as the Anaconda Plan but retired in late 1861 after Lincoln increasingly relied on General George B. McClellan for military advice and leadership. In retirement, he lived in West Point, New York , where he died on May 29, 1866. Contemporaries highly regarded Scott's military talent, and historians generally consider him one of
6630-543: The Rio Grande in a region claimed by both Mexico and Texas. Polk, Secretary of War William L. Marcy , and Scott agreed on a strategy in which the U.S. would capture Northern Mexico and then pursue a favorable peace settlement. While Taylor led the army in Northern Mexico, Scott presided over the expansion of the army, ensuring that new soldiers were properly supplied and organized. Taylor won several victories against
6800-589: The Territory of Utah , which expressly would be allowed to locally determine whether they would become slave or free territories, to add another free state to the Union (California), to adopt a severe measure to recover slaves who had escaped to a free state or free territory (the Fugitive Slave Law); and to abolish the slave trade in the District of Columbia . A key provision of each of the laws respectively organizing
6970-479: The Texas Revolution of 1836, and, partly because Texas had been settled by a large number of Americans, there was a strong sentiment in both Texas and the United States for the annexation of Texas by the United States. In December 1845, President James K. Polk signed a resolution annexing Texas, and Texas became the 28th state in the union. Polk, an expansionist and slave owner, sought further expansion through
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7140-547: The Texas State Legislature , rather than a unilateral enactment. This ratified the bargain and, in due course, the transfer of a broad swath of land from the state of Texas to the federal government was accomplished. In return for Texas's giving up this land, the United States assumed the debts of Texas. From the Mexican Cession, the New Mexico Territory received most of the present-day state of Arizona, most of
7310-591: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848; it was ratified by the U.S. Senate the following month. In late 1847, Scott arrested Pillow and two other officers after they wrote letters to American newspapers that were critical of Scott. In response, Polk ordered the release of the three officers and removed Scott from command. Upon founding the Aztec Club of 1847 , a military society of officers who served in Mexico during
7480-577: The Trent Affair , a diplomatic incident with Britain. On his return from Europe in December 1861, he lived alone in New York City and at West Point, New York , where he wrote his memoirs and closely followed the ongoing civil war. On June 23–24, 1862, President Lincoln made an unannounced visit to West Point , where he spent five hours consulting with Scott regarding the handling of the Civil War and
7650-648: The United States a confederacy at the time.) Many Northerners, meanwhile, were displeased by the Fugitive Slave Act. The debate over slavery in the territories would be re-opened in 1854 through the Kansas–Nebraska Act . It continued throughout the late 1850s, which culminated in one of the more well-known debates over slavery, the Lincoln-Douglas debates. In hindsight, the Compromise merely postponed
7820-447: The annexation of the Republic of Texas , which had gained independence from Mexico in 1836. After Polk won the election, Congress passed legislation enabling the annexation of Texas, and Texas achieved statehood in 1845. Polk and Scott had never liked one another, and their distrust deepened after Polk became president, partly due to Scott's affiliation with the Whig Party. Polk came into office with two primary foreign policy goals:
7990-622: The 48th ballot, Webster delegates began to defect to Scott, and the general gained the nomination on the 53rd ballot. Fillmore accepted his defeat with equanimity and endorsed Scott, but many Northern Whigs were dismayed when Scott publicly endorsed the party's pro-Compromise platform. Despite the party's effort to appeal to southerners by nominating William Alexander Graham of North Carolina for vice president, many Southern Whigs, including Alexander H. Stephens and Robert Toombs , refused to support Scott. The 1852 Democratic National Convention nominated dark horse candidate Franklin Pierce ,
8160-419: The American Civil War for a decade, contrary to the expectations of many at the time, who felt the issue of slavery had finally been settled. During that decade, the Whig Party completely broke down, to be replaced with the new Republican Party dominant in the North, while Democrats reigned in the South. Others argue that the Compromise only made more obvious the pre-existing sectional divisions, and laid
8330-407: The Battles of Cerro Gordo , Contreras , and Churubusco . He then captured Mexico City , after which he maintained order in the Mexican capital and indirectly helped envoy Nicholas Trist negotiate the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , which brought an end to the war. Scott unsuccessfully sought the Whig presidential nomination three times, in 1840, 1844, and 1848. He won it in 1852 , when the party
8500-428: The British after reinforcements from the militia failed to materialize. As a prisoner of war , Scott was treated hospitably by the British, although two Mohawk leaders nearly killed him while he was in British custody. As part of a prisoner exchange, Scott was released in late November; upon his return to the United States, he was promoted to colonel and appointed to command the 2nd Artillery Regiment. He also became
8670-423: The Canadian rebels. In late 1838, a new crisis known as the Aroostook War broke out over a dispute regarding the border between Maine and Canada, which had not been conclusively settled in previous treaties between Britain and the United States. Scott was tasked with preventing the conflict from escalating into a war. After winning the support of Governor John Fairfield and other Maine leaders, Scott negotiated
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#17328510979988840-402: The Cherokee "like cattle, through rivers, allowing them no time to take off their shoes and stockings. In mid-1838, Scott agreed to Chief John Ross 's plan to let the Cherokee lead a movement west, and he awarded a contract to the Cherokee Council to complete the removal. Scott was strongly criticized by many Southerners, including Jackson, for awarding the contract to Ross rather than continuing
9010-400: The Civil War, such as the staunch anti-slavery William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase , who would be in Lincoln's cabinet; the future president of the Confederacy , Jefferson Davis ; and rival to Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas . On January 29, 1850, Senator Henry Clay introduced a plan which combined the major subjects under discussion. His legislative package of eight bills included
9180-442: The Compromise of 1850 partly because of the fugitive slave act. By early 1852 , the three leading candidates for the Whig presidential nomination were Scott, who anti-Compromise Northern Whigs backed; President Fillmore, the first choice of most Southern Whigs; and Secretary of State Webster, whose support was concentrated in New England. The 1852 Whig National Convention convened on June 16, and Southern delegates won approval of
9350-409: The Compromise of 1850, as it came to be known, caused celebration in Washington and elsewhere, with crowds shouting, "The Union is saved!" Fillmore himself described the Compromise of 1850 as a "final settlement" of sectional issues, though the future of slavery in New Mexico and Utah remained unclear. The admission of new states, or the organization of territories in the remaining unorganized portion of
9520-414: The Confederacy. Scott took charge of molding Union military personnel into a cohesive fighting force. Lincoln rejected Scott's proposal to build up the regular army, and the administration would largely rely on volunteers to fight the war. Scott developed a strategy, later known as the Anaconda Plan , that called for the capture of the Mississippi River and a blockade of Southern ports. By cutting off
9690-400: The Democrats split along sectional lines, with Northern Democrats supporting Senator Stephen A. Douglas and Southern Democrats supporting Vice President John C. Breckinridge . Lincoln won the election, taking just 44 percent of the popular vote but winning a majority of the electoral vote due to his support in the North despite his name not being on the ballot in many Southern States. Fearing
9860-409: The House adopted a resolution that allowed a speaker to be elected with a plurality, and elected Howell Cobb on the 63rd ballot. As James McPherson puts it: "It was an inauspicious start to the 1850's." Three major types of issues were addressed by the Compromise of 1850: a variety of boundary issues, the status of territory issues, and the issue of slavery. While capable of analytical distinction,
10030-406: The House could not elect a speaker; the main issue was slavery in the new territories. The tumult of that period was severe, with a loaded revolver drawn on the floor of Congress, several fistfights between Northerners and Southerners, and then Senator Jefferson Davis challenging an Illinois representative to a duel. Southern representatives increasingly bandied around the idea of secession. Finally,
10200-416: The Louisiana Purchase, could also potentially reopen the polarizing debate over slavery. Not all accepted the Compromise of 1850. Longing for the former national influence of the South, a South Carolina newspaper wrote, "the Rubicon is passed ... and the Southern States are now vassals in this Confederacy." (This was not referring to the then-future Confederate States of America ; many still considered
10370-474: The Maryland or Virginia gentlemen who have become so threatening and troublesome show their heads or even venture to raise a finger, I shall blow them to hell." Scott helped ensure that Lincoln arrived in Washington safely and ensured the security of Lincoln's inauguration, which ultimately was conducted without a major incident. By the time Lincoln assumed office, seven states had declared their secession and had seized federal property within their bounds. Still,
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#173285109799810540-427: The Mexican army, but Polk eventually concluded that merely occupying Northern Mexico would not compel Mexico to surrender. Scott drew up an invasion plan that would begin with a naval assault on the Gulf port of Veracruz and end with the capture of Mexico City . With Congress unwilling to establish the rank of lieutenant general for Democratic Senator Thomas Hart Benton , Polk reluctantly turned to Scott to command
10710-508: The Mexican capital in the Battle for Mexico City . Several months later, Mexican and American negotiators agreed to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , under which Mexico agreed to recognize the Rio Grande as Texas's southern border and to cede Alta California and New Mexico . The Missouri Compromise had settled the issue of the geographic reach of slavery within the Louisiana Purchase territories by prohibiting slavery in states north of 36°30′ latitude, and Polk sought to extend this line into
10880-407: The Missouri Compromise Line through California and splitting the state; the lightly populated southern half never had slavery and was heavily Hispanic. The issue of California would play a central role in the exhausting 1849 speaker dispute. Aside from the disposition of the territories, other issues had risen to prominence during the Taylor years. The Washington, D.C. slave trade angered many in
11050-426: The North, who viewed the presence of slavery in the capital as a blemish on the nation. Disputes around fugitive slaves had grown since 1830 in part due to improving means of transportation, as the enslaved used roads, railroads, and ships to escape. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 had granted jurisdiction to all state and federal judges over cases regarding fugitive slaves, but several Northern states, dissatisfied by
11220-420: The Pacific Coast, but the North did not. The issue of whether it would be free or slave might well have gone undecided for years, as it had already after the end of the Mexican American war, if not for the finding of natural riches. Near the end of Polk's term in 1848, incredible news reached Washington: gold had been discovered in California. So began the California Gold Rush , which transformed California from
11390-423: The Rio Grande; Mexico argued that the more northern Nueces River was the proper Texan border. In March 1846, a skirmish broke out on the northern side of the Rio Grande, ending in the death or capture of dozens of American soldiers. Shortly thereafter, the United States declared war on Mexico, beginning the Mexican–American War . In August 1846, Polk asked Congress for an appropriation that he hoped to use as
11560-439: The South on Texas's land claims. On April 17, a "Committee of Thirteen" agreed on the border of Texas as part of Clay's plan. The dimensions were later changed. That same day, during debates on the measures in the Senate, Vice President Fillmore and Senator Benton verbally sparred, with Fillmore charging that the Missourian was "out of order." During the heated debates, Compromise floor leader Henry S. Foote of Mississippi drew
11730-426: The Southeastern United States. Some of Scott's associates tried to dissuade Scott from what they viewed as an immoral mission, but Scott accepted his orders. After almost all of the Cherokee refused to relocate voluntarily, Scott made careful plans to ensure that his soldiers forcibly but humanely relocated the Cherokee. Nonetheless, the Cherokee endured abuse from Scott's soldiers; one account described soldiers driving
11900-411: The Territory of New Mexico and the Territory of Utah was that slavery would be decided by local option, called popular sovereignty . That was an important repudiation of the idea behind the failure to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. However, the admission of California as a free state meant that Southerners were giving up their goal of a coast-to-coast belt of slave states. Texas
12070-412: The U.S. Army and were captured while fighting for Mexico. All 72 were court-martialed and sentenced to death. Under pressure from some Mexican leaders and personally feeling that the death penalty was an unjust punishment for some defendants, Scott spared 20, but the rest were executed. In early September, negotiations between Trist and the Mexican government broke down, and Scott exercised his right to end
12240-503: The United States retained control of the military installations at Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens. Scott advised evacuating the forts because an attempted re-supply would inflame tensions with the South, and Confederate shore batteries made re-supply impossible. Lincoln rejected the advice and chose to re-supply the forts; although Scott accepted the orders, his resistance to the re-supply mission, along with poor health, undermined his status within
12410-521: The Utah Territory received present-day Utah, most of present-day Nevada (everything north of the 37th parallel), a major part of present-day Colorado (everything west of the crest of the Rocky Mountains), and a small part of present-day Wyoming. That included the newly founded colony at Salt Lake , of Brigham Young . The Utah Territory also received some land that had been claimed by Texas; this land
12580-435: The War of 1812, Scott served on a board charged with demobilizing the army and determining who would continue to serve in the officer corps. Andrew Jackson and Brown were selected as the army's two major generals, while Alexander Macomb , Edmund P. Gaines , Scott, and Eleazer Wheelock Ripley would serve as the army's four brigadier generals. Jackson became commander of the army's Southern Division, Brown became commander of
12750-505: The Whig Party after taking office. Some Whigs, including Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, favored Scott as the Whig candidate in the 1844 presidential election . Still, Clay quickly emerged as the prohibitive front-runner for the Whig nomination. Clay won the 1844 Whig nomination, but he was defeated in the general election by Democrat James K. Polk . Polk's campaign centered on his support for
12920-429: The abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, the admission of California as a free state, and even the application of the formula of popular sovereignty to the territories were all less important than the least remembered component of the Compromise of 1850—the statute by which Texas relinquished its claims to much of New Mexico in return for federal assumption of the debts." Proposals in 1846 to 1850 on
13090-469: The acquisition of Oregon Country , which was under joint American and British rule, and the acquisition of Alta California , a Mexican province. The United States nearly went to war with Britain over Oregon, but the two powers ultimately agreed to partition Oregon Country at the 49th parallel north. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846 after U.S. forces under the command of Brigadier General Zachary Taylor clashed with Mexican forces north of
13260-495: The acquisition of the Mexican province of Alta California , which represented new lands to settle as well as a potential gateway to trade in Asia . His administration attempted to purchase California from Mexico, but the annexation of Texas stoked tensions between Mexico and the United States. Relations between the two countries were further complicated by Texas's claim to all land north of
13430-479: The administration. Nonetheless, he remained a critical military adviser and administrator. On April 12, Confederate forces began an attack on Fort Sumter, forcing its surrender the following day. On April 15, Lincoln declared that a state of rebellion existed and called up tens of thousands of militiamen . On the advice of Scott, Lincoln offered Robert E. Lee command of the Union forces, but Lee ultimately chose to serve
13600-466: The admission of California as a free state, the cession by Texas of some of its northern and western territorial claims in return for debt relief, the establishment of New Mexico and Utah territories, a ban on the importation of slaves into the District of Columbia for sale, and a more stringent fugitive slave law. Clay had originally favored voting on each of his proposals separately, but Senator Henry S. Foote of Mississippi convinced him to combine
13770-712: The aftermath of the Burning of Washington . The War of 1812 came to an effective end in February 1815, after news of the signing of the Treaty of Ghent (which had been signed in December 1814) reached the United States. In 1815, Scott was admitted to the Pennsylvania Society of the Cincinnati as an honorary member in recognition of his service in the War of 1812. Scott's Society of the Cincinnati insignia, made by silversmiths Thomas Fletcher and Sidney Gardiner of Philadelphia ,
13940-532: The army in Baton Rouge , where one of his first duties was to serve as a judge advocate (prosecutor) in the court-martial of Colonel Thomas Humphrey Cushing . During the early 19th century, relationships between Britain and the United States continued to deteriorate due to a variety of factors, including the British impressment of American citizens alleged to be Royal Navy deserters and Britain's support to Native Americans who were resisting U.S. colonization in
14110-460: The army of Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista . In the encounter known in Mexico as the Battle of La Angostura, Santa Anna brought U.S. forces to near collapse, capturing cannons and flags, and returned to Mexico City, leaving U.S. forces on the field. Santa Anna left to put down a minor insurrection , and recruited a new army. Biographer John Eisenhower said
14280-595: The army's Northern Division, and the brigadier generals were assigned leadership of departments within the divisions. Scott obtained a leave of absence to study warfare in Europe, though to his disappointment, he reached Europe only after Napoleon 's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo . Upon his return to the United States in May 1816, he was assigned to command army forces in parts of the Northeastern United States . He made his headquarters in New York City and became part of
14450-452: The army's senior general. Congress became engaged in a divisive debate over the status of slavery in the territories, and Scott joined with Whig leaders Henry Clay and Daniel Webster in advocating for the passage of what became known as the Compromise of 1850 . Meanwhile, Taylor died of an illness in July 1850 and was succeeded by Vice President Millard Fillmore . The Compromise of 1850 and
14620-456: The army's senior officer instead. Scott grew very heavy in his last years of service and could not mount a horse or walk more than a few paces without stopping to rest. He was often in ill health, and suffered from gout , dropsy , rheumatism , and vertigo . After retiring, he traveled to Europe with his daughter, Cornelia, and her husband, H. L. Scott. In Paris , he worked with Thurlow Weed to aid American consul John Bigelow in defusing
14790-445: The army. In January 1810, Scott was convicted in a court-martial, partly for making disrespectful comments about Wilkinson's integrity, and partly because of a $ 50 shortage in the $ 400 account he had been provided to conduct recruiting duty in Virginia after being commissioned. Concerning the money, the court-martial members concluded that Scott had not been intentionally dishonest but had failed to keep accurate records. His commission
14960-411: The battle, it was seen as a significant moral victory. The battle was "the first real success attained by American troops against British regulars." Later, in July 1814, a scouting expedition led by Scott was ambushed, beginning the Battle of Lundy's Lane . Scott's brigade was decimated after British troops led by General Gordon Drummond arrived as reinforcements, and he was placed in the reserve in
15130-453: The battlefield and returned to Mexico City, but Scott's force captured about 3,000 Mexican soldiers. After the battle, Scott continued to press toward Mexico City, cutting him and his army off from his supply base at Veracruz. Scott's force arrived in the Valley of Mexico in August 1847, by which time Santa Anna had formed an army of approximately 25,000 men. Because Mexico City lacked walls and
15300-478: The bill came from the South. The Senate quickly moved on to the other major issues, passing bills that provided for the admission of California, the organization of New Mexico Territory, and the establishment of a new fugitive slave law. The debate then moved to the House of Representatives, where Fillmore, Senator Daniel Webster, Douglas, Representative Linn Boyd , and Speaker of the House Howell Cobb took
15470-462: The bill continued. Seven months of agonizing politicking lay ahead. President Taylor opposed the compromise and continued to call for immediate statehood for both California and New Mexico. Senator Calhoun and some other Southern leaders argued that the compromise was biased against the South because it would lead to the creation of new free states. Most Northern Whigs, led by William Henry Seward , who delivered his famous "Higher Law" speech during
15640-449: The boundary and territory issues were included in the overarching issue of slavery. Pro-slavery and anti-slavery interests were each concerned with both the amount of land on which slavery was permitted and with the number of States in the slave or free camps. Since Texas was a slave state, not only the residents of that state but also both camps on a national scale had an interest in the size of Texas. The independent Republic of Texas won
15810-743: The ceded territory was referred to as the Mexican Cession ; but the boundaries between this Cession and the State of Texas were unclear, and Texas continued to claim all the territory north and east of the Rio Grande, which included a large stretch of land that it had never effectively controlled in present-day eastern New Mexico. New Mexico had long prohibited slavery, a fact that affected the debate over its territorial status, but many New Mexican leaders opposed joining Texas primarily because Texas's capital lay hundreds of miles away and because Texas and New Mexico had
15980-424: The chief of engineers, while Ripley and Jackson both left the army. After Brown died in 1828, President John Quincy Adams passed over Scott and Gaines due to their feuding, instead appointing Macomb. Scott was outraged and asked to be relieved of his commission, but ultimately backed down. In 1832, President Andrew Jackson ordered Scott to Illinois to take command of a conflict known as the Black Hawk War . By
16150-421: The chief of staff to Henry Dearborn , who was the senior general of the army and personally led operations against Canada in the area around Lake Ontario. Dearborn assigned Scott to lead an attack against Fort George , which commanded a strategic position on the Niagara River. With help from United States Navy elements commanded by Isaac Chauncey and Oliver Hazard Perry , he led U.S. troops to land behind
16320-557: The city's social life. He earned the nickname "Old Fuss and Feathers" for his insistence on proper military bearing, courtesy, appearance, and discipline. In 1835, Scott wrote Infantry Tactics, Or, Rules for the Exercise and Maneuvre of the United States Infantry , a three-volume work that served as the standard drill manual for the United States Army until 1855. Scott developed a rivalry with Jackson after Jackson took offense to
16490-453: The compromise prohibited the slave trade in Washington, D.C. , but not slave ownership. Southerners in Congress, alarmed and outraged, were unanimous in opposing the provision, seen as a concession to the abolitionists and a bad precedent, but they were outvoted. However, Washington's residents could still easily buy and sell slaves in the nearby states of Virginia and Maryland. Passage of
16660-481: The controversy, opposed the Compromise as well because it would apply the Wilmot Proviso to the western territories and because of the pressing of ordinary citizens into duty on slave-hunting patrols. That provision was inserted by Democratic Virginia Senator James M. Mason to entice border-state Whigs, who faced the greatest danger of losing slaves as fugitives but were lukewarm on general sectional issues related to
16830-483: The cooperation of civil leaders and the Catholic Church, Scott and the army restored order in the city by the end of the month. Peace negotiations between Trist and the Mexican government resumed, and Scott did all he could to support the talks, ceasing all further offensive operations. As military commander of Mexico City, Scott was held in high esteem by Mexican civil and American authorities alike, primarily owing to
17000-527: The deaths of influential senators who worked on the compromise, primarily Henry Clay and Daniel Webster , contributed to the feeling of increasing disparity between the North and South. The delay of hostilities for ten years allowed the Northern states to continue to industrialize. The Southern states, largely based on slave labor and cash crop production, lacked the ability to industrialize heavily. According to historian Mark Stegmaier, "The Fugitive Slave Act,
17170-543: The decisive Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836) against Mexico and captured Mexican president Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna . He signed the Treaties of Velasco , which recognized the Rio Grande as the boundary of the Republic of Texas. The treaties were then repudiated by the government of Mexico, which insisted that Mexico remained sovereign over Texas since Santa Anna had signed the treaty under coercion, and promised to reclaim
17340-514: The defeat at Contreras caused a panic among the rest of Santa Anna's army, and Scott immediately pressed the attack, beginning the Battle of Churubusco . Despite the strong defense by the Saint Patrick's Battalion and some other units, Scott's force quickly defeated the demoralized Mexican army. After the battle, Santa Anna negotiated a truce with Scott, and the Mexican foreign minister notified Trist that they were ready to begin negotiations to end
17510-453: The defeat of Charles Edward Stuart 's forces in the Battle of Culloden . Scott's father died when Scott was six years old; his mother did not remarry. She raised Scott, his older brother James, and their sisters Mary, Rebecca, Elizabeth, and Martha until her death in 1803. Although Scott's family held considerable wealth, most of the family fortune went to James, who inherited the plantation. At six feet, five inches tall and 230 pounds, with
17680-549: The eastern states of the Confederacy, Scott hoped to force the surrender of Confederate forces with a minimal loss of life on both sides. Scott's plan was leaked to the public and was derided by most Northern newspapers, which tended to favor an immediate assault on the Confederacy. As Scott was too old for battlefield command, Lincoln selected General Irvin McDowell , an officer whom Scott saw as unimaginative and inexperienced, to lead
17850-421: The enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 badly divided the country as a whole and the Whig Party in particular. Northerners strongly objected to the stringent provisions of the act, while Southerners complained bitterly about any perceived slackness in enforcement. Despite Scott's support for the Compromise of 1850, he became the chosen candidate of William Seward , a leading Northern Whig who objected to
18020-416: The ensuing divisions around whether the newly conquered lands would be slave or free. As of the 1848 election of Taylor, the issue was not yet apparent. Taylor was both a Whig and a slaveholder; though Whigs were increasingly anti-slavery, Taylor's slaveholding had reassured the South, and he won handily. Taylor made a key electoral promise that he would not veto any congressional resolution on slavery. Much to
18190-529: The fact that two of the leading contenders, Clay and Taylor, were enslavers. Ultimately, however, the delegates passed on Scott for a second time, nominating Taylor on the fourth ballot. Many anti- slavery Whigs then defected to support the nominee of the Free-Soil Party , former President Martin Van Buren. Taylor went on to win the general election. After the war, Scott returned to his administrative duties as
18360-427: The fairness with which he treated Mexican citizens. In November 1847, Trist received orders to return to Washington. Scott received orders to continue the military campaign against Mexico; Polk had grown frustrated at the slow pace of negotiations. With the support of Scott and Mexican president Manuel de la Peña y Peña , Trist defied his orders and continued the negotiations. Trist and the Mexican negotiators concluded
18530-543: The federal soldiers, reversed the administration's position late in July and threw its support to the compromise measures. At the same time, Fillmore denied Texas's claims to New Mexico, asserting that the United States had promised to protect the territorial integrity of New Mexico in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Fillmore's forceful response helped convince Texas's U.S. Senators, Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk , to support Stephen Douglas's compromise. With their support,
18700-509: The fort, forcing its surrender. Scott was widely praised for his conduct in the battle, although he was personally disappointed that the bulk of the British garrison escaped capture. As part of another campaign to capture Montreal, Scott forced the British to withdraw from Hoople Creek in November 1813. Despite this success, the campaign fell apart after the American defeat at the Battle of Crysler's Farm and after Wilkinson (who had taken command of
18870-454: The front in August) and Hampton failed to cooperate on a strategy to take Montreal. With the failure of the campaign, President Madison and Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr. relieved Wilkinson and some other senior officers of their battlefield commands. They were replaced with younger officers such as Scott, Izard, and Jacob Brown . In early 1814, Scott was promoted to brigadier general and
19040-527: The groundwork for future conflict. They view the Fugitive Slave Law as helping to polarize the US, as shown in the enormous reaction to Harriet Beecher Stowe 's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin . The passage of the Fugitive Slave Law aroused feelings of bitterness in the North. Furthermore, the Compromise of 1850 led to a breakdown in the spirit of compromise in the Antebellum period . The Compromise exemplifies that spirit, but
19210-569: The hanging of members of the Saint Patrick's Battalion during the Mexican–American War. Scott proved to be a poor candidate who lacked popular appeal and suffered the worst defeat in Whig history. In the South, distrust and apathy toward Scott led many Southern Whigs to vote for Pierce or to sit out the election, and in the North, many anti-slavery Whigs voted for John P. Hale of the Free Soil Party . Scott won just four states and 44 percent of
19380-403: The horror of Southerners, however, Taylor indicated that true to his promise, he would not even veto the Wilmot Proviso if it were passed. Tensions accelerated quickly into the fall of 1849. Midterm elections worsened matters, as the Free Soil Party had gained 12 seats, which gave them a king-maker position in the closely divided House: 105 Whigs to 112 Democrats. After three weeks and 62 ballots,
19550-852: The introduction of those exciting topics of a sectional character". The problem of what to do with the territories became the leading issue in Congress. So began the most famous debates in the history of Congress. At the head were the three titans of Congress: Henry Clay, Daniel Webster , and John C. Calhoun . All had been born during the American Revolution, and had carried the torch of the Founding Fathers . This represented their last and greatest act in politics. The nationalist Clay and Webster sought compromise, while Southern sectionalist Calhoun warned of imminent disaster. The triumvirate would be broken before long as Calhoun would die of tuberculosis . In March, shortly before his death, his final speech
19720-468: The invasion of Mexico through Veracruz was "up to that time the most ambitious amphibious expedition in human history." The operation commenced on March 9, 1847, with the Siege of Veracruz , a joint army-navy operation led by Scott and Commodore David Conner . After safely landing his 12,000-man army, Scott encircled Veracruz and began bombarding it; the Mexican garrison surrendered on March 27. Seeking to avoid
19890-461: The invasion. Among those who joined the campaign were several officers who would later distinguish themselves in the American Civil War , including Major Joseph E. Johnston , Captain Robert E. Lee , and Lieutenants Ulysses S. Grant , George B. McClellan , George G. Meade , and P. G. T. Beauregard . While Scott prepared the invasion, Taylor inflicted what the U.S. characterized as a crushing defeat on
20060-495: The invasion. Scott spent the following months convalescing under the supervision of military doctors and physician Philip Syng Physick . Scott's performance at the Battle of Chippawa had earned him national recognition. He was promoted to the brevet rank of major general and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal . In October 1814, Scott was appointed commander of American forces in Maryland and northern Virginia, taking command in
20230-468: The issue of slavery in the Mexican Cession remained unresolved. While a Southern slaveowner himself, Taylor believed that slavery was economically infeasible in the Mexican Cession, and as such he opposed slavery in those territories as a needless source of controversy. In Taylor's view, the best way forward was to admit California as a state rather than a federal territory, as it would leave the slavery question out of Congress's hands. The timing for statehood
20400-414: The lack of due process in these cases, had passed personal liberty laws that made it more difficult to return alleged fugitive slaves to the South. Congress also faced the issue of Utah , which like California and New Mexico, had been ceded by Mexico. Utah was inhabited largely by Latter-day Saints whose then-practice of polygamy was unpopular elsewhere in the United States. When Taylor took office,
20570-473: The lead in convincing members to support the compromise bills that had been passed in the Senate. The Senate's proposed settlement of the Texas-New Mexico boundary faced intense opposition from many Southerners, as well as from some Northerners who believed that Texas did not deserve monetary compensation. After a series of close votes that nearly delayed consideration of the issue, the House voted to approve
20740-435: The lead in passing Clay's compromise through Congress as five separate bills. Under the compromise, Texas surrendered its claims to present-day New Mexico and other states in return for federal assumption of Texas's public debt. California was admitted as a free state, while the remaining portions of the Mexican Cession were organized into New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory . Under the concept of popular sovereignty ,
20910-520: The legislature to free slaves. The United States inherited the Texas-Mexican boundary dispute after annexing Texas, which quickly led to the Mexican-American War. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , which ended the war, defined the new Mexico–United States border , which followed the Rio Grande in part, but made no specific reference the claims of the Republic of Texas. The southwestern part of
21080-513: The lost territories. To the extent that there was a de facto recognition, Mexico treated the Nueces River as its northern boundary control. A vast, largely unsettled area lay between the two rivers. Neither Mexico nor the Republic of Texas had the military strength to assert its territorial claim. On December 29, 1845, the Republic of Texas was annexed to the United States and became the 28th state . To facilitate US annexation, Sam Houston played
21250-566: The main Union army in the eastern theater of the war. Though Scott counseled that the army needed more time to train, Lincoln ordered an offensive against the Confederate capital of Richmond. Irvin McDowell led a force of 30,000 men south, where he met the Confederate Army at the First Battle of Bull Run . The Confederate army dealt the Union a major defeat, ending any hope of a quick end to
21420-749: The most accomplished generals in U.S. history. Scott was born on June 13, 1786, the fifth child of Ann (Mason) Scott and William Scott, a planter, veteran of the American Revolutionary War , and officer in the Dinwiddie County militia. At the time, the Scott family resided at Laurel Hill, a plantation near Petersburg , Virginia . Ann Mason Scott was the daughter of Daniel Mason and Elizabeth Winfield, and Scott's parents chose his maternal grandmother's surname for his first name. Scott's paternal grandfather, James Scott, had migrated from Scotland after
21590-513: The newly acquired territory. However, the divisive issue of slavery blocked any such legislation. As his term came to a close, Polk signed the lone territorial bill passed by Congress, which established the Territory of Oregon and banned slavery in it. Polk declined to seek re-election in the 1848 presidential election , and the 1848 election was won by the Whig ticket of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore . Prophetically, Ralph Waldo Emerson quipped that "Mexico will poison us", referring to
21760-457: The people of each territory would decide whether or not slavery would be permitted. The compromise also included a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law and banned the slave trade in Washington, D.C. The issue of slavery in the territories would be re-opened by the Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854), but the Compromise of 1850 played a major role in postponing the American Civil War . The Republic of Texas declared its independence from Mexico following
21930-513: The popular vote, while Pierce won just under 51 percent of the popular vote and a large majority of the electoral vote . After the 1852 election, Scott continued his duties as the army's senior officer. He maintained cordial relations with President Pierce but frequently clashed with Pierce's Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis , over issues like travel expenses. Despite his defeat in the 1852 presidential election, Scott remained broadly popular, and on Pierce's recommendation, in 1855, Congress passed
22100-583: The possibility of imminent secession, Scott advised Buchanan and Secretary of War John B. Floyd to reinforce federal forts in the South. He was initially ignored, but Scott gained new influence within the administration after Floyd was replaced by Joseph Holt in mid-December. With assistance from Holt and newly appointed Secretary of State Jeremiah S. Black , Scott convinced Buchanan to reinforce or resupply Washington, D.C., Fort Sumter (near Charleston, South Carolina), and Fort Pickens (near Pensacola, Florida ). Meanwhile, several Southern states seceded, formed
22270-440: The proposals regarding California's admission and the disposition of Texas's borders into one bill. Clay hoped that this combination of measures would convince House members from both North and South to support the overall package of laws even if they objected to specific provisions. Clay's proposal attracted the support of some Northern Democrats and Southern Whigs, but it lacked the backing necessary to win passage, and debate over
22440-622: The removal under his own auspices. Scott accompanied one Cherokee group as an observer, traveling with them from Athens, Tennessee , to Nashville, Tennessee , where he was ordered to the Canada–United States border . In late 1837, the so-called " Patriot War " broke out along the Canadian border when some Americans sought to support the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in Canada. Tensions escalated after
22610-428: The return of escaped slaves to their masters in slave states. Any federal marshal or other official who did not arrest an alleged runaway slave was liable to a fine of $ 1,000 (equivalent to $ 36,624 in 2023). Law enforcement everywhere in the US now had a duty to arrest anyone suspected of being a fugitive slave on no more evidence than a claimant's sworn testimony of ownership. Suspected slaves could neither ask for
22780-408: The second phase of the battle. Scott was later severely wounded while seeking a place to commit his reserve forces. He believed that Brown's decision to refrain from fully committing his strength at the outset of this battle resulted in the destruction of Scott's brigade and many unnecessary deaths. The battle ended inconclusively after Brown ordered his army to withdraw, effectively bringing an end to
22950-489: The site, and while the poor location caused several illnesses and deaths among his soldiers, Wilkinson refused to relocate them because he personally profited. In addition, staying near New Orleans enabled Wilkinson to pursue his private business interests and continue the courtship of Celestine Trudeau, whom he later married. Scott briefly resigned his commission over his dissatisfaction with Wilkinson, but before his resignation had been accepted, he withdrew it and returned to
23120-456: The staff, and even worse, his advice was seldom sought by his civilian superiors." Macomb had largely been outside the chain of command, and senior commanders like Gaines, Scott, and Quartermaster General Thomas Jesup reported directly to the Secretary of War. Despite Scott's efforts to invigorate the office, he enjoyed little influence with President Tyler, who quickly became alienated from most of
23290-528: The staffing of the War Department . After McClellan's defeat in the Seven Days Battles , Lincoln accepted Scott's advice and appointed General Halleck as the army's senior general. In 1864, Scott sent a copy of his newly published memoirs to Ulysses S. Grant , who had succeeded Halleck as the lead Union general. The copy that Scott sent was inscribed "from the oldest to the greatest general." Following
23460-433: The support of President Millard Fillmore , the compromise centered on how to handle slavery in recently acquired territories from the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The provisions of the compromise were: A debate over slavery in the territories erupted during the Mexican–American War , as many Southerners sought to expand slavery to the newly acquired lands and many Northerners opposed any such expansion. The debate
23630-528: The time Scott arrived in Illinois, the conflict had come to a close with the army's victory at the Battle of Bad Axe . Scott and Governor John Reynolds concluded the Black Hawk Purchase with Chief Keokuk and other Native American leaders, opening up much of present-day Iowa to settlement by whites. Later, in 1832, Jackson placed Scott in charge of army preparations for a potential conflict arising from
23800-442: The time of the convention in December 1839, party leader Henry Clay and 1836 presidential candidate William Henry Harrison had emerged as the two front-runners, but Scott loomed as a potential compromise candidate if the convention deadlocked. After several ballots, the convention nominated Harrison for president. Harrison went on to defeat Van Buren in the 1840 presidential election , but he died just one month into his term and
23970-555: The trial of Aaron Burr , who had been accused of treason for his role in events now known as the Burr conspiracy . During the trial, Scott developed a negative opinion of the Senior Officer of the United States Army , General James Wilkinson , as the result of Wilkinson's efforts to minimize his complicity in Burr's actions by providing forged evidence and false, self-serving testimony. Scott
24140-405: The truce. In the subsequent Battle for Mexico City , Scott launched an attack from the west of the city, capturing the critical fortress of Chapultepec on September 13. Santa Anna retreated from the city after the fall of Chapultepec, and Scott accepted the surrender of the remaining Mexican forces early on the 14th. Unrest broke out in the days following the capture of Mexico City, but with
24310-582: The union. In 1859, Buchanan assigned Scott to lead a mission to settle a dispute with Britain over the ownership of the San Juan Islands in the Pacific Northwest . Scott reached an agreement with British official James Douglas to reduce military forces on the islands, thereby resolving the so-called " Pig War ". In the 1860 presidential election , the Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln , while
24480-440: The unprofessionalism of the army, which at the time consisted of just 2,700 officers and men. He later wrote that "the old officers had, very generally, sunk into either sloth, ignorance, or habits of intemperate drinking." He soon clashed with his commander, General James Wilkinson , over Wilkinson's refusal to follow the orders of Secretary of War William Eustis to remove troops from an unhealthy bivouac site. Wilkinson owned
24650-433: The war, Scott was elected as one of only two honorary members of the organization. Scott was again a contender for the Whig presidential nomination in the 1848 election . Clay, Daniel Webster , and General Zachary Taylor were also candidates for the nomination. As in 1840, Whigs were looking for a non-ideological war hero to be their candidate. Scott's main appeal was to anti-slavery "conscience Whigs", who were dismayed by
24820-410: The war. Despite the presence of Scott's army just outside of Mexico City, the Mexican and American delegations remained far apart on terms; Mexico was only willing to yield portions of Alta California and refused to accept the Rio Grande as its northern border. While negotiations continued, Scott faced a difficult issue in the disposition of 72 members of Saint Patrick's Battalion who had deserted from
24990-500: The war. McDowell took the brunt of public vituperation for the defeat at Bull Run, but Scott, who had helped plan the battle, also received criticism. Lincoln replaced McDowell with McClellan, and the president began meeting with McClellan without Scott in attendance. Frustrated with his diminished standing, Scott submitted his resignation in October 1861. Though Scott favored General Henry Halleck as his successor, Lincoln made McClellan
25160-470: The western part of the present-day state of New Mexico, and the southern tip of present-day Nevada (south of the 37th parallel ). The territory also received most of present-day eastern New Mexico, a portion of present-day Colorado (east of the crest of the Rocky Mountains , west of the 103rd meridian, and south of the 38th parallel ); all of this land had been claimed by Texas. From the Mexican Cession,
25330-580: Was admitted to the bar in 1806, and practiced in Dinwiddie . In 1807, Scott gained his initial military experience as a corporal of cavalry in the Virginia Militia , serving amid the Chesapeake–Leopard affair . Scott led a detachment that captured eight British sailors who had attempted to land to purchase provisions. Virginia authorities did not approve of this action, fearing it might spark
25500-540: Was a crime to assist a fugitive. Many Northerners deeply resented these provisions. The violent process of returning slaves to the South made the act abhorrent to many Northerners. Resentment towards the Act further heightened tensions between the North and South, which were then inflamed further by abolitionists such as Harriet Beecher Stowe . Her novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin , stressed the horrors of recapturing escaped slaves and outraged Southerners. A statute enacted as part of
25670-522: Was a one-of-a-kind, solid gold eagle measuring nearly three inches in height. It is one of the most unique military society insignias ever produced. There are no known portraits or photographs of Scott wearing the insignia, which is now in the collection of the United States Military Academy Museum. In March 1817, Scott married Maria DeHart Mayo (1789–1862). She was the daughter of Abigail ( née DeHart) Mayo and Colonel John Mayo,
25840-444: Was allowed to keep the following portions of the disputed land: south of the 32nd parallel and south of the 36°30' parallel north and east of the 103rd meridian west . The rest of the disputed land was transferred to the United States. The final border was designed to keep the frontier settlement of El Paso in Texas, since despite that settlement's geographic, historic, and economic ties to New Mexico, Texas had recently established
26010-419: Was assigned to lead a regiment under Brown. In mid-1814, Scott took part in another invasion of Canada, which began with a crossing of the Niagara River under Brown's command. Scott was instrumental in the American success at the Battle of Chippawa , which took place on July 5, 1814. Though the battle was regarded as inconclusive from the strategic point of view because the British force remained intact after
26180-419: Was constitutional. Though some in Texas still favored sending a military expedition into New Mexico, in November 1850 the state legislature voted to accept the compromise. The general solution that was adopted by the Compromise of 1850 was to transfer a considerable part of the territory claimed by Texas state to the federal government; to organize two new territories formally, the Territory of New Mexico and
26350-432: Was critical of Gaines' actions during the campaign, though it did not accuse him of misconduct or incompetence. It also criticized the language he used to defend himself publicly and to the court. Martin Van Buren , a personal friend of Scott's, assumed the presidency in 1837, and Van Buren continued Jackson's Indian removal policy. In April 1838, Van Buren placed Scott in command of the removal of Cherokee people from
26520-467: Was delivered by his friend the Virginia Senator James M. Mason , as the blanket-wrapped Calhoun sat nearby, too weak to do it himself. He provided a prescient warning that the South perceived the balance between North and South as broken, and that any further imbalance might lead to war. The situation was severe. Other players included a variety of rising politicians who would play key roles in
26690-648: Was denied re-nomination in favor of James Buchanan, while the Whig Party collapsed. In the 1856 presidential election , Buchanan defeated John C. Frémont of the anti-slavery Republican Party and former President Fillmore, the candidate of the nativist American Party . Sectional tensions continued to escalate after the Supreme Court handed down its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford . Buchanan proved incapable of healing sectional divides, and some leading Southerners became increasingly vocal in their desire to secede from
26860-566: Was essentially indefensible, Santa Anna sought to defeat Scott in a pitched battle, choosing to mount a defense near the Churubusco River several miles south. The Battle of Contreras began on the afternoon of August 19, when the Mexican army under General Gabriel Valencia attacked and pushed back an American detachment charged with building a road. In the early morning of the following day, an American force led by General Persifor Frazer Smith surprised and decimated Valencia's army. News of
27030-442: Was further complicated by Texas's claim to all former Mexican territory north and east of the Rio Grande , including areas it had never effectively controlled. These issues prevented the passage of organic acts to create organized territorial governments for the land acquired in the Mexican–American War. In early 1850, Clay proposed a package of eight bills that would settle most of the pressing issues before Congress. Clay's proposal
27200-626: Was in Taylor's favor, as the Gold Rush was well underway at the time of his inauguration, and California's population was exploding. In October 1849, a California constitutional convention unanimously agreed to join the Union—and to ban slavery within their borders. In his December 1849 State of the Union report , Taylor endorsed California's and New Mexico's applications for statehood, and recommended that Congress approve them as written and "should abstain from
27370-451: Was in danger of dying off. The Whigs were severely divided over the Compromise of 1850 , and Democrat Franklin Pierce won a decisive victory over his former commander. Nonetheless, Scott remained popular among the public. In 1855, he received a brevet promotion to lieutenant general , becoming the first U.S. Army officer to hold that rank since George Washington . In 1859, he peacefully solved
27540-473: Was opposed by President Zachary Taylor , anti-slavery Whigs like William Seward , and pro-slavery Democrats like John C. Calhoun , and congressional debate over the territories continued. The debates over the bill are among the most famous in Congressional history, and the divisions devolved into fistfights and drawn guns on the floor of Congress. After Taylor died and was succeeded by Fillmore, Douglas took
27710-692: Was ordered to the border of Alabama and Georgia to put down a Muscogee uprising known as the Creek War of 1836 . American forces under Scott, General Thomas Jesup , and Alabama Governor Clement Comer Clay quickly defeated the Muscogee. Some subordinates and civilians criticized Scott's actions in the campaigns against the Seminole and the Muscogee, and President Jackson convened a Court of Inquiry that investigated Scott and Gaines. The court cleared Scott of misconduct; still, it reprimanded him for his language criticizing Gaines in official communications. The court
27880-512: Was physically exhausted as the effects of tuberculosis , which would eventually kill him, began to take their toll. Clay left the Senate to recuperate in Newport , Rhode Island , and Senator Stephen A. Douglas took the lead in attempting to pass Clay's proposals through the Senate. Fillmore, anxious to find a quick solution to the conflict in Texas over the border with New Mexico, which threatened to become an armed conflict between Texas militia and
28050-629: Was preparing for an invasion of the Canadas . President James Madison made the invasion the central part of his administration's war strategy in 1812, as he sought to capture Montreal and thereby take control of the St. Lawrence River and cut off Upper Canada from Lower Canada . The invasion would begin with an attack on the town of Queenston , which was just across the Niagara River from Lewiston, New York . In October 1812, Van Rensselaer's force attacked
28220-446: Was removed from command for insubordination and was succeeded by General Wade Hampton . The rousing reception Scott received from his army peers as he began his suspension led him to believe that most officers approved of his anti-Wilkinson comments, at least tacitly; their high opinion of him, coupled with Leigh's counsel to remain in the army, convinced Scott to resume his military career once his suspension had been served. He rejoined
28390-549: Was succeeded by Vice President John Tyler . On June 25, 1841, Macomb died, and Scott and Gaines were still the two most obvious choices for the position of Commanding General of the United States Army . Secretary of War John Bell recommended Scott, and President Tyler approved; Scott was also promoted to the rank of major general . According to biographer John Eisenhower , the office of commanding general had, since its establishment in 1821, been an "innocuous and artificial office ... its occupant had been given little control over
28560-402: Was succeeded by Vice President Fillmore, who had privately come to support Clay's proposal. The various bills were initially combined into one "omnibus" bill. Despite Clay's efforts, it failed in a crucial vote on July 31, opposed by southern Democrats and by northern Whigs. He announced on the Senate floor the next day that he intended to pass each part of the bill. The 73-year-old Clay, however,
28730-485: Was suspended for one year. After the trial, Scott fought a duel with William Upshaw, an army medical officer and Wilkinson friend Scott blamed for initiating the court-martial. Each fired at the other, but both emerged unharmed. After the duel, Scott returned to Virginia, where he spent the year studying military tactics and strategy, and practicing law in partnership with Benjamin Watkins Leigh . Meanwhile, Wilkinson
28900-465: Was the Whig Party 's presidential nominee in the 1852 election but was defeated by Democrat Franklin Pierce . He was known as Old Fuss and Feathers for his insistence on proper military etiquette and the Grand Old Man of the Army for his many years of service. Scott was born near Petersburg, Virginia , in 1786. After training as a lawyer and brief militia service, he joined the army in 1808 as
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