129-911: The 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army . The division fought in the First World War in the trenches of the Western Front , in the fields of France and Flanders. During the Second World War , the division fought in the Norwegian Campaign and in North-western Europe . After the Second World War, it was disbanded in 1946, then reformed in 1947. It remained with Northern Command until finally disbanded in 1967. The Territorial Force (TF)
258-744: A sidearm or ancillary weapons . Infantry with ranged or polearms often carried a sword or dagger for possible hand-to-hand combat. The pilum was a javelin the Roman legionaries threw just before drawing their primary weapon, the gladius (short sword), and closing with the enemy line. Modern infantrymen now treat the bayonet as a backup weapon, but may also have handguns as sidearms . They may also deploy anti-personnel mines, booby traps, incendiary, or explosive devices defensively before combat. Infantry have employed many different methods of protection from enemy attacks, including various kinds of armour and other gear, and tactical procedures. The most basic
387-474: A German observation balloon was sent up and an aeroplane flew low along the front line, followed at 9:00 a.m., by another six German aircraft, which flew as far as Vlamertinghe and Elverdinghe. After the gas shelling, the German artillery returned to high explosive fire until 9:30 a.m. and then the bombardment gradually diminished. At 2:15 a.m. the bombardment increased in intensity and continued periodically until
516-507: A Polar Bear flash had massacred SS tank crew who were trying to surrendering. Some units had been issued with the order "NPT below rank major", meaning that they were not to take prisoners below that rank. The 49th's GOC, Major General "Bubbles" Barker, explained it in his diary on 2 July, "Yesterday the old 49 Div made a great name for itself and we are all feeling very pleased with ourselves. After being attacked on my left half, all day by infantry and tanks, we were in our original positions after
645-445: A decorated veteran of the First World War , Major General Barker ordered the divisional sign to be changed from its current emblem of a polar bear with its head lowered, which the GOC believed to be a sign of a lack of martial intent, into a more "aggressive" sign. "That Bear is too submissive. I want a defiant sign for my division, lift up its head and make it roar", Barker wrote. Subsequently
774-610: A few exceptions like the Mongol Empire , infantry has been the largest component of most armies in history. In the Western world , from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages ( c. 8th century BC to 15th century AD), infantry are categorised as either heavy infantry or light infantry . Heavy infantry, such as Greek hoplites , Macedonian phalangites , and Roman legionaries , specialised in dense, solid formations driving into
903-512: A full suit of attack-proof armour would be too heavy to wear in combat. As firearms improved, armour for ranged defence had to be made thicker and heavier, which hindered mobility. With the introduction of the heavy arquebus designed to pierce standard steel armour, it was proven easier to make heavier firearms than heavier armour; armour transitioned to be only for close combat purposes. Pikemen armour tended to be just steel helmets and breastplates, and gunners had very little or no armour at all. By
1032-450: A gas attack east of Ypres and a specialist Gas Pioneer regiment was provided. The mixture of chlorine and phosgene was to be used against British troops for the first time. The XXVII Reserve Corps commander, General der Artillerie Richard von Schubert , objected to the plan since, if successful, an attack would move the front line into even more marshy ground just before winter. Schubert preferred to attack near Wieltje, with Ypres as
1161-417: A hundred meters wide and a dozen rows deep. Maintaining the advantages of heavy infantry meant maintaining formation; this became even more important when two forces with heavy infantry met in battle; the solidity of the formation became the deciding factor. Intense discipline and training became paramount. Empires formed around their military. The organization of military forces into regular military units
1290-561: A memorable day for the Div[ision] and myself". However, the division then had all its transport sent forward to other units then advancing into Belgium , temporarily grounding the "Polar Bears", although giving the division a few days rest, deservedly so after having endured almost three months of action since landing in Normandy and suffered over 5,000 casualties. The division received the order to move, arriving, after travelling some 200 miles, in
1419-517: A mile north of Loos-en-Gohelle . During the first attack on 27 April, the gas cloud and artillery bombardment were followed by raiding parties, which made temporary lodgements in the British lines. Two days later, a second gas attack was carried out at Hulluch. This time, the wind turned and blew the gas cloud back over the German lines, causing a large number of German casualties, which were increased by British troops firing at German soldiers as they fled in
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#17328451196371548-549: A mixture of about 80 per cent chlorine and 20 per cent phosgene. The slow dispersal of cloud gas from depressions and trenches, made it difficult for the defenders to know when the gas discharge had ended. British studies concluded that the Germans had tried to surprise the troops with a lethal amount of gas, before they could get their helmets on. Soldiers wearing helmets were safe but one breath of concentrated gas would cause coughing and gasping, which made it very difficult to adjust
1677-401: A panic and a collapse of the defence, even though British anti-gas helmets had not been treated to repel phosgene. Only the 49th (West Riding) Division had a large number of gas casualties, when soldiers in reserve lines did not receive a warning in time to put on their helmets. A study by British medical authorities arrived at a figure of 1,069 gas casualties, 120 of which were fatal. After
1806-399: A problem. This can be avoided by having shield-armed soldiers stand close together, side-by-side, each protecting both themselves and their immediate comrades, presenting a solid shield wall to the enemy. The opponents for these first formations, the close-combat infantry of more tribal societies , or any military without regular infantry (so called " barbarians ") used arms that focused on
1935-440: A return to body armour for infantry, though the extra weight is a notable burden. In modern times, infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including military gas masks , counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these protective measures add to the weight an infantryman must carry, and may decrease combat efficiency. Early crew-served weapons were siege weapons , like
2064-455: A slow choking effect. A British soldier wrote, I don't know how long this asphyxiating horror went on. While it lasted it was practically impossible to breathe. Men were going down all about and struggling for air as if they were drowning, at the bottom of our so-called trench. The gas was quickly identified as chlorine by an experimental laboratory established at General Headquarters on 27 April, by professors Watson, John Haldane and Baker. In
2193-408: A small scale counter attack by the evening. We gave him a real bloody nose and we calculate having knocked out some 35 tanks mostly Panthers. One of my Scots Battns distinguished themselves particularly. We gave him a proper knockout with our artillery with very strong concentration on any point where movement was expected". The division, by now known widely as, "Barker's Bears", then held the line for
2322-489: A weapon, the Nernst – Duisberg Commission investigated the feasibility of adding phosgene to chlorine gas, to increase its lethality . Work by Richard Willstätter to supply the German army with protective equipment, enabled it to contemplate the use of the far more lethal combination of phosgene and chlorine, without risk to German units. Phosgene was used by the German army from the end of May 1915, when attacks were conducted on
2451-463: Is personal armour . This includes shields , helmets and many types of armour – padded linen , leather, lamellar , mail , plate , and kevlar . Initially, armour was used to defend both from ranged and close combat; even a fairly light shield could help defend against most slings and javelins, though high-strength bows and crossbows might penetrate common armour at very close range. Infantry armour had to compromise between protection and coverage, as
2580-735: Is first noted in Egyptian records of the Battle of Kadesh ( c. 1274 BC ). Soldiers were grouped into units of 50, which were in turn grouped into larger units of 250, then 1,000, and finally into units of up to 5,000 – the largest independent command. Several of these Egyptian "divisions" made up an army, but operated independently, both on the march and tactically, demonstrating sufficient military command and control organisation for basic battlefield manoeuvres. Similar hierarchical organizations have been noted in other ancient armies, typically with approximately 10 to 100 to 1,000 ratios (even where base 10
2709-582: The 146th , 147th and 148th Infantry Brigades under command, was initially engaged in static defensive duties, guarding vital points and little time was allotted for training. However, training began soon afterwards with the overall intention being that the division, once fully trained, would join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. In the event, this was not to happen as, in February 1940,
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#17328451196372838-458: The 21st Army Group , which commanded all Allied land forces in the upcoming invasion, Major General Douglas Graham 's 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division , which had fought with distinction in North Africa and Sicily , was chosen by Montgomery as one of the two British assault divisions – the other being Major General Tom Rennie 's 3rd Division – and the 49th Division, despite training for
2967-524: The 6th Division (Major-General Charles Ross ), the 49th (West Riding) Division (Major-General E. M. Perceval) of VI Corps (Lieutenant-General John Keir ) and part of the right flank of the French 87th Territorial Division . A special warning was issued along with the routine precautions and from 15 December, when the wind was relatively favourable for a gas discharge, the Gas Alert was issued. A bombardment of
3096-506: The Battle of Poelcappelle . In early 1918, the division, now commanded by Major General Neville Cameron , was again holding a quiet sector of the Western Front. Throughout January and February, due to a severe shortage of manpower in the BEF, many of the division's infantry battalions were either disbanded, merged with other understrength units or posted elsewhere. The manpower shortage compelled
3225-582: The Battle of Thiepval Ridge . Again moved to a quieter sector of the front, the division spent, as it had in 1916, the first few months of 1917 uneventfully in the Ypres Salient , not being employed in any major offensives until the division was to take part in Operation Hush . However, the division was not employed in the operation and instead fought in the final stages of the Passchendaele offensive , in
3354-685: The Eastern Front . In December 1915, the 4th Army used the mixture of chlorine and phosgene against British troops in Flanders, during an attack at Wieltje near Ypres. Before the attack, the British had taken a prisoner who disclosed the plan and had also gleaned information from other sources; the divisions of VI Corps had been alerted from 15 December. The gas discharge on 19 December was accompanied by German raiding parties, most of which were engaged with small-arms fire, while they were attempting to cross no-man's land. British anti-gas precautions prevented
3483-595: The River Maas , along the Dutch border, fighting in very wet and muddy conditions. In late November, the division suffered a blow when its GOC, Major General "Bubbles" Barker, who had continuously commanded the 49th since April 1943, succeeded Lieutenant General O'Connor as the GOC of VIII Corps and left the division. Barker's handling of the 49th "Polar Bears" Division, most notably during Operation Epsom in Normandy, had clearly impressed his superiors. He later wrote that "My fortune
3612-452: The River Seine in the late August, and, upon crossing the river, turned towards the capture of Le Havre , which was captured on 12 September (see Operation Astonia ) with very light casualties to the 49th Division and its supporting units − 19 killed and 282 wounded − and capturing over 6,000 Germans in the process. Major General "Bubbles" Barker, the GOC, wrote in his diary that it "will be
3741-1133: The Royal Dragoon Guards , Royal Lancers , and King's Royal Hussars . Similarly, motorised infantry have trucks and other unarmed vehicles for non-combat movement, but are still infantry since they leave their vehicles for any combat. Most modern infantry have vehicle transport, to the point where infantry being motorised is generally assumed, and the few exceptions might be identified as modern light infantry . Mechanised infantry go beyond motorised, having transport vehicles with combat abilities, armoured personnel carriers (APCs), providing at least some options for combat without leaving their vehicles. In modern infantry, some APCs have evolved to be infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs), which are transport vehicles with more substantial combat abilities, approaching those of light tanks . Some well-equipped mechanised infantry can be designated as armoured infantry . Given that infantry forces typically also have some tanks, and given that most armoured forces have more mechanised infantry units than tank units in their organisation,
3870-504: The Second World War on 3 September 1939, the division, under Major General Pierse Mackesy , was mobilised for full-time war service and, with conscription having been introduced in the United Kingdom some months earlier, and with many units understrength after having to post officers and men to the second-line units, the division absorbed many conscripts. Although war was declared, the division, serving under Northern Command, still with
3999-851: The Site John McCrae just outside Ypres there is a memorial to the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division. It is located is immediately behind Essex Farm Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery , on top of the canal bank. It is shaped like an obelisk and accessed via a flight of stairs leading up the canal bank from the cemetery. Infantry Infantry is a specialization of military personnel who engage in warfare combat . Infantry generally consists of light infantry , irregular infantry , heavy infantry , mountain infantry , motorized infantry , mechanized infantry , airborne infantry , air assault infantry , and naval infantry . Other types of infantry, such as line infantry and mounted infantry , were once commonplace but fell out of favor in
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4128-400: The Ypres Salient , after which the effectiveness of gas as a weapon diminished, because the French and British introduced anti-gas measures and protective helmets. The German Nernst - Duisberg -Commission investigated the feasibility of adding the much more lethal phosgene to chlorine. Mixed chlorine and phosgene gas was used at the end of May 1915 against French troops and on Russian troops on
4257-442: The ballista , trebuchet , and battering ram . Modern versions include machine guns , anti-tank missiles , and infantry mortars . Beginning with the development the first regular military forces, close-combat regular infantry fought less as unorganised groups of individuals and more in coordinated units, maintaining a defined tactical formation during combat, for increased battlefield effectiveness; such infantry formations and
4386-553: The 146th arriving there on 8 May, the 147th on 17 May, and the divisional HQ arriving on 23 June, when it was redesignated HQ Alabaster Force and, in January 1941, Iceland Force before finally being redesignated HQ British Troops Iceland. Both brigades were thereafter stationed in Iceland until 1942. As a result, a new divisional insignia, featuring a polar bear standing on an ice floe , was adopted. Also stationed there from late October 1940
4515-414: The 147th Brigade under command, although the 70th Brigade became part of the division on 18 May, followed on 26 August by the 146th Brigade, and numerous other supporting units which later joined the division. The division then spent the next few months engaged in training throughout Wales and England, with the intention of catching up with the latest training methods. In March 1943, the division, abandoning
4644-404: The 147th Infantry Brigade was removed from its composition. The Division/District finally disbanded in 1967, becoming simply East Midlands District. The polar bear flash was last worn by 49th Brigade , Under Army 2020 , 49 (E) Brigade was merged with 7th Armoured Brigade to become 7th Infantry Brigade on 13 February 2015. The following officers commanded the division at various times: At
4773-469: The 1800s with the invention of more accurate and powerful weapons. In English, use of the term infantry began about the 1570s, describing soldiers who march and fight on foot. The word derives from Middle French infanterie , from older Italian (also Spanish) infanteria (foot soldiers too inexperienced for cavalry), from Latin īnfāns (without speech, newborn, foolish), from which English also gets infant . The individual-soldier term infantryman
4902-548: The 1st Battalion, Tyneside Scottish and 11th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry bearing the brunt of the German attacks, which were repulsed with heavy losses on both sides, although the Germans suffering by far the greater. It was during this period of the fierce fighting in Normandy that the Nazi propaganda broadcaster, Lord Haw-Haw , referred to the division as "the Polar Bear Butchers" , alleging that British soldiers wearing
5031-594: The 3 mi (4.8 km) width of the attack front, to about 8 mi (13 km) further back. The gas cloud moved for about 10 mi (16 km), almost as far as Bailleul. Around 6:15 a.m., green rockets were fired from the German front line and the British lines were bombarded by gas shells, which moved quietly through the air and only exploded with a "dull splash". In the 49th (West Riding) Division area, some troops in support trenches were asleep and were gassed before they could be woken but most were able to don their helmets in time. At 8:00 a.m. on 20 December,
5160-463: The 46th Division, during the Battle of France and in the BEF's subsequent retreat to Dunkirk , where it was evacuated to England , albeit with very heavy casualties. The 148th Brigade, which had suffered well over 1,400 casualties in Norway, did not rejoin the division, later becoming an independent formation. The division, now with only the 146th and 147th Infantry Brigades left, departed for Iceland ,
5289-502: The 49th Division played a part in the liberation of Utrecht , with the 49th Reconnaissance Regiment entering first, followed by Canadian troops. There is a monument dedicated to the Polar Bears at a spot on Biltstraat in the city. During the course of the Second World War, from Normandy to Arnhem, the 49th Division had suffered 11,000 officers and men wounded or missing, with 1,642 of these being killed in action. The 49th Infantry Division
49th (West Riding) Infantry Division - Misplaced Pages Continue
5418-526: The 49th Division was issued with a new "aggressive" insignia, now featuring a Polar Bear with its head facing upwards, roaring. In July, as the division was selected to be one of the three divisions to spearhead the Normandy invasion, then scheduled for the following year, the 49th was sent to Scotland , where it began strenuous training in amphibious warfare and combined operations , which continued throughout 1943 and into 1944. However, in early 1944, when General Sir Bernard Montgomery took over command of
5547-473: The 49th Division, after just over two years of training, landed in Normandy as part of Operation Overlord . The division arrived too late to take part in the Battle of Villers-Bocage , where the veteran 7th Armoured Division suffered a serious setback, but was involved in the numerous attempts to capture the city of Caen . The division, after landing, was only involved in relatively small-scale skirmishes, most notably on 16 June around Tilly-sur-Seulles , where
5676-517: The 49th Division, served with this division in 1923, when he was a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2). Upon the doubling of the size of the TA in mid-1939 the division, as it had in the First World War, raised a second-line duplicate formation, the 46th Infantry Division , when another European conflict, most likely with Nazi Germany , was becoming increasingly inevitable. Shortly after the outbreak of
5805-433: The 6th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment , of the 147th Brigade, suffered some 230 casualties − 30% of its war establishment strength − in a two-day battle whilst attempting to capture Le Parc de Boislonde. The position was eventually taken by the 7th Battalion, Dukes, under Lieutenant Colonel John Wileey . The 49th's first major action as a division came during Operation Martlet , the first phase of Operation Epsom ,
5934-417: The 71st Brigade sector, north-west of Wieltje, a German shrapnel bombardment was taken to mean that no infantry attack was imminent and the defenders went under cover. Lachrymatory and high explosive shells were fired at the right flank of the 49th (West Riding) Division and further back, on roads leading out of Ypres and on the British artillery lines but no systematic wire-cutting was observed. Vlamertinghe
6063-522: The American all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE). Infantrymen are defined by their primary arms – the personal weapons and body armour for their own individual use. The available technology, resources, history, and society can produce quite different weapons for each military and era, but common infantry weapons can be distinguished in a few basic categories. Infantrymen often carry secondary or back-up weapons, sometimes called
6192-573: The BEF, and played a relatively minor role in the Battle of Aubers Ridge , where Major General Baldock, the divisional commander, was wounded in action. The division was redesignated the 49th (West Riding) Division on 15 May 1915 and given the White Rose of York as its insignia. The division's three brigades were also redesignated, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd West Riding Brigades becoming the 146th (1st West Riding) , 147th (2nd West Riding) and 148th (3rd West Riding) Brigades , respectively. After Aubers Ridge,
6321-476: The British attempt to capture Caen. Although Lieutenant General Sir Richard O'Connor 's VIII Corps made the main effort, XXX Corps, with the 49th Division under control, was to protect VIII Corps' right flank by seizing the Rauray ridge. The operation commenced on 25 June, and the division, supported by elements of the 8th Armoured Brigade and a massive artillery barrage from over 250 guns, initially went well, with
6450-410: The German line opposite VI Corps was fired by 4.5-inch howitzers , to try to destroy gas cylinders in the area. The precautionary bombardment was limited by a chronic ammunition shortage, which had led to the twelve howitzers in each division being rationed to 250 shells for the week ending 20 December and 200 for the next week, about three shells per-howitzer-per-day. The bombardment caused damage to
6579-417: The German trenches, judged by the volume of rifle-fire directed at a British aircraft which flew low overhead. Small numbers of German troops were seen to advance from the German line; in one place about twelve men moved forward in single file and at another place about 30 soldiers attacked. A party managed to reach the British parapet before being overwhelmed but the rest were shot down in no man's land. In
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#17328451196376708-646: The Marines wear the polar bear insignia. A junior officer of the 1st Tyneside Scottish wrote of the experience in Iceland: "Iceland had given us so much. More than anything it had forged a firm and abiding link between all who wore the Polar Bear". On 26 April 1942, the division HQ was again reconstituted, this time in South Wales , serving under Western Command , commanded by Major General Curtis. The division initially had only
6837-402: The Second World War was the liberation of Arnhem and the fierce battles that led to it. The division, now part of I Canadian Corps , under Lieutenant General Charles Foulkes , and supported by Canadian tanks of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division , liberated the city at a cost of less than 200 casualties, but over 4,000 Germans became casualties. Just after the German surrender on 7 May 1945,
6966-503: The Swiss, English, Aragonese and German, to men-at-arms who went into battle as well-armoured as knights, the latter of which at times also fought on foot. The creation of standing armies —permanently assembled for war or defence—saw increase in training and experience. The increased use of firearms and the need for drill to handle them efficiently. The introduction of national and mass armies saw an establishment of minimum requirements and
7095-512: The TA in 1947, having been renamed the 49th (West Riding) Armoured Division . It was based in Nottingham , consisting of (on 1 April 1947): In 1956, it was renamed the 49th (West Riding and Midland) Infantry Division , its base moved to Leeds , and the 8th Armoured Brigade was removed from its order of battle. Finally, it underwent its last major change in 1961, when it was renamed to the 49th (West Riding and North Midland) Division/District , and
7224-570: The TF were not obligated to serve overseas without their permission and so, on 31 August, the division was ordered to form a second-line reserve unit, the 2nd West Riding Division , formed mainly from those men who, for various reasons, choose not to volunteer for overseas service. The division, under the command of Major General Thomas Baldock , who had been in command since 1911, moved to the South Yorkshire / Lincolnshire area for concentration and spent
7353-512: The Western Front against French troops and on the Eastern Front on Russians, where 12,000 cylinders with 240–264 long tons (244–268 t) of 95 per cent chlorine and 5 per cent phosgene was discharged on a 7.5 mi (12 km) front at Bolimów . The gas failed to suppress some of the Russian artillery and the Germans thought that the attack had been ineffective, having already experienced
7482-522: The Western Front. As part of Lieutenant General Thomas Morland 's X Corps , the division fought in the Battle of the Somme , fighting in the Battle of Albert , followed by the Battle of Bazentin Ridge . Transferring to Lieutenant General Charles Fergusson 's II Corps , the division then took part in the Battle of Pozières . Rested throughout August, the division then fought in the Battle of Flers–Courcelette and
7611-530: The XXVI Reserve Corps area, it was found to be impossible to place gas cylinders in a continuous line, due to the irregular nature of the trench lines. A conventional artillery bombardment would be fired but no general attack was to follow. The gas discharge, along the front from Boesinghe to Pilckem and Verlorenhoek, was to be accompanied by patrols to observe the effect of the gas and to snatch prisoners and equipment. Standing orders had been enforced after
7740-563: The advance towards the Falaise Pocket , where the Germans were attempting to retreat to, capturing thousands of Germans in the process. It was during this time that the division lost the 70th Brigade, which as a junior, 2nd line territorial formation, was broken up to provide reinforcements to other units. However, substituting the 70th Brigade was the 56th Brigade , formerly an independent formation comprising entirely Regular Army units, that had landed in Normandy on D-Day. The division reached
7869-443: The arms they used developed together, starting with the spear and the shield. A spear has decent attack abilities with the additional advantage keeping opponents at distance; this advantage can be increased by using longer spears, but this could allow the opponent to side-step the point of the spear and close for hand-to-hand combat where the longer spear is near useless. This can be avoided when each spearman stays side by side with
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#17328451196377998-411: The carrying burden is spread across several infantrymen. In all, this can reach 25–45 kg (60–100 lb) for each soldier on the march. Such heavy infantry burdens have changed little over centuries of warfare; in the late Roman Republic, legionaries were nicknamed " Marius' mules " as their main activity seemed to be carrying the weight of their legion around on their backs, a practice that predates
8127-469: The casualties being suffered by the 49th (West Riding) Division. Food exposed to the gas was tainted and soldiers who ate it vomited. Some of the gassed men suddenly died about twelve hours later while exerting themselves, despite showing few signs of illness beforehand. The next substantial German gas attacks against the British took place from 27 to 29 April 1916, near the German-held village of Hulluch ,
8256-408: The chlorine gas attacks earlier in 1915. The state of the wind was monitored by an officer in each corps and during conditions favourable for a gas release, a Gas Alert was issued. A sentry was posted near every alarm horn or gong, at every dug-out big enough for ten men, each group of smaller dugouts and at all signal offices. Gas helmets and alarms were tested every twelve hours and all soldiers wore
8385-405: The corps front and that a gas attack had recently been postponed. Information had been gleaned from another source that a gas attack was to be made on the Flanders front after 10 December, when the weather was favourable. It had also been discovered that the 26th Reserve Division had arrived from the Eastern Front and was at Courtrai. The Allied front line opposite the XXVI Reserve Corps was held by
8514-452: The discharge and increased after fifteen minutes. Sentries gave the gas warning by sounding the gongs and klaxons, the parapet was manned and rifle and machine-gun fire was opened by some battalions, as others waited on events. The divisional artilleries began a shrapnel barrage on their night bombardment lines. No German infantry attack followed, although troops were seen on German trench parapets and many troops were discovered to be occupying
8643-463: The distinction between mechanised infantry and armour forces has blurred. The first military forces in history were infantry. In antiquity , infantry were armed with early melee weapons such as a spear , axe , or sword , or an early ranged weapon like a javelin , sling , or bow , with a few infantrymen being expected to use both a melee and a ranged weapon. With the development of gunpowder , infantry began converting to primarily firearms . By
8772-727: The division received orders to form part of "Avonforce" and be sent to Finland , via Norway , and aid the Finnish Army during its Winter War with the Soviet Union . On 12 March, however, the Finnish, severely outnumbered by the Russians, surrendered, thus cancelling the order. On 4 April, the 49th Division ceased to function and the 146th and 148th Brigades (with the 147th Brigade remaining in England), both very poorly trained and equipped, took part in
8901-401: The division, now commanded by Major General Edward Perceval , was not engaged in any major battles until 19 December 1915, when the division, now part of Lieutenant General John Keir 's VI Corps , participated in the first Phosgene attack but suffered comparatively few losses. The first few months of 1916 were not spent in any major actions and the division held a relatively quiet sector of
9030-426: The effect of the gas and to lift prisoners and equipment. According to German sources, only two patrols were able to reach the British line and several parties had many losses to British return-fire. The gas formed a white cloud about 50 ft (15 m) high and lasted for thirty minutes before a freshening north-easterly wind blew it away. The effect was felt over a large area, because the cloud spread outwards from
9159-455: The enemy to prepare for the main forces' battlefield attack, protecting them from flanking manoeuvers , and then afterwards either pursuing the fleeing enemy or covering their army's retreat. After the fall of Rome, the quality of heavy infantry declined, and warfare was dominated by heavy cavalry , such as knights , forming small elite units for decisive shock combat , supported by peasant infantry militias and assorted light infantry from
9288-442: The eponymous Gaius Marius . When combat is expected, infantry typically switch to "packing light", meaning reducing their equipment to weapons, ammunition, and other basic essentials, and leaving other items deemed unnecessary with their transport or baggage train , at camp or rally point, in temporary hidden caches, or even (in emergencies) simply discarding the items. Additional specialised equipment may be required, depending on
9417-510: The evening of 21 December. The official historians of the Reichsarchiv wrote in Der Weltkrieg that at zero hour, some of the gas had not been released and gaps appeared in the cloud. Patrols found that the British had not retired from the front line, had engaged the Germans with small-arms fire and caused casualties. Despite favourable conditions, the gas had not had a great effect and it
9546-400: The existence of any organised military, likely started essentially as loose groups without any organisation or formation. But this changed sometime before recorded history ; the first ancient empires (2500–1500 BC) are shown to have some soldiers with standardised military equipment, and the training and discipline required for battlefield formations and manoeuvres: regular infantry . Though
9675-434: The expected duration of time operating away from their unit's base, plus any special mission-specific equipment. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the entrenching tool —basically a folding spade —which can be employed not only to dig important defences, but also in a variety of other daily tasks, and even sometimes as a weapon. Infantry typically have shared equipment on top of this, like tents or heavy weapons, where
9804-435: The failed Operation Market Garden . However, in late March 1945, the division, commanded now by Major General Stuart Rawlins after MacMillan was ordered to become GOC of the 51st (Highland) Division , received orders to clear "The Island", which, after much hard fighting but relatively light casualties, was cleared in early April, before advancing north-eastwards towards Arnhem . The 49th Division's last major contribution to
9933-416: The first phase objective, the town of Fontenay, being captured by the end of the first day against units of two German panzer divisions (the 2nd and 9th ). However, capturing Rauray itself proved more difficult although, after hard fighting, much of it in close quarters, it eventually fell to the 70th Brigade on 27 June which, for the next few days, had to ensure a series of very fierce counterattacks, with
10062-622: The first week of May, Watson and Major Cluny McPherson , of the Newfoundland Medical Corps, sent an anti-gas helmet to the War Office for approval. The helmet was a flannel bag soaked in glycerine , hyposulphite and sodium bicarbonate ; it was known as a British Smoke Helmet . By 6 July, all British troops in France had received one and in November an improved P Helmet was introduced. Based on research by Fritz Haber into chlorine as
10191-471: The gas, Allied small-arms and artillery fire dominated the area and halted the German advance. The surprise gained against the French was increased by the lack of protection against gas and because of the psychological effect of its unpredictable nature. Bullets and shells followed a consistent path but gas varied in speed, intensity and extent. A soldier could evade bullets and shells by taking cover but gas followed him, seeped into trenches and dugouts and had
10320-501: The helmet and troops slow to don their helmets could be killed. On 19 December, some troops well behind the front line were affected and helmets were worn at Vlamertinghe, about 8,000 yd (4.5 mi; 7.3 km) behind the front line. The British concluded that the speed of the gas cloud reduced casualties, even though the gas helmets in use had not been treated specifically to resist phosgene. A British study counted 1,069 gas casualties, of which 120 were fatal; 75 per cent of
10449-527: The helmet outside the greatcoat or rolled up on their heads, with the top greatcoat button undone to tuck the helmet in. Special lubricants were provided for the working parts of weapons in forward positions. A German Non-commissioned officer of the XXVI Reserve Corps, which held the German line between the Ypres–Roulers and Ypres–Staden railway lines, was captured near Ypres on the night of 4/5 December. The prisoner said that gas cylinders had been dug into
10578-889: The individual – weapons using personal strength and force, such as larger swinging swords, axes, and clubs. These take more room and individual freedom to swing and wield, necessitating a more loose organisation. While this may allow for a fierce running attack (an initial shock advantage) the tighter formation of the heavy spear and shield infantry gave them a local manpower advantage where several might be able to fight each opponent. Thus tight formations heightened advantages of heavy arms, and gave greater local numbers in melee. To also increase their staying power, multiple rows of heavy infantrymen were added. This also increased their shock combat effect; individual opponents saw themselves literally lined-up against several heavy infantryman each, with seemingly no chance of defeating all of them. Heavy infantry developed into huge solid block formations, up to
10707-422: The introduction of special troops (first of them the engineers going back to medieval times, but also different kinds of infantry adopted to specific terrain, bicycle, motorcycle, motorised and mechanised troops) culminating with the introduction of highly trained special forces during the first and second World War. Naval infantry, commonly known as marines , are primarily a category of infantry that form part of
10836-454: The late 1930s, many of the division's units were converted into other roles, mostly into artillery, searchlight or armoured regiments so that, by the time war broke out in September 1939, the division's composition, which included units from the disbanded 46th (North Midland) Division , was much changed from what it was in 1914. Of note, Bernard Montgomery , who was later to have association with
10965-469: The left flank, in the 49th (West Riding) Division area, which had the 146th Brigade and 147th Brigade in the line, no man's land was only 20 yd (18 m) wide in places and small-arms fire was received from the German trenches before the gas discharge. On the 6th Division front to the right, which had the 18th , 71st and 16th Brigades in line, the opposing trenches were about 300 yd (270 m) apart. Slow rifle fire began simultaneously with
11094-707: The lower classes. Towards the end of Middle Ages, this began to change, where more professional and better trained light infantry could be effective against knights, such as the English longbowmen in the Hundred Years' War . By the start of the Renaissance , the infantry began to return to a larger role, with Swiss pikemen and German Landsknechts filling the role of heavy infantry again, using dense formations of pikes to drive off any cavalry. Dense formations are vulnerable to ranged weapons. Technological developments allowed
11223-417: The main enemy lines, using weight of numbers to achieve a decisive victory , and were usually equipped with heavier weapons and armour to fit their role. Light infantry, such as Greek peltasts , Balearic slingers , and Roman velites , using open formations and greater manoeuvrability, took on most other combat roles: scouting , screening the army on the march, skirmishing to delay, disrupt, or weaken
11352-447: The main force of the army, these forces were usually kept small due to their cost of training and upkeep, and might be supplemented by local short-term mass-conscript forces using the older irregular infantry weapons and tactics; this remained a common practice almost up to modern times. Before the adoption of the chariot to create the first mobile fighting forces c. 2000 BC , all armies were pure infantry. Even after, with
11481-487: The mid 17th century began replacement of the pike with the infantry square replacing the pike square. To maximise their firepower, musketeer infantry were trained to fight in wide lines facing the enemy, creating line infantry . These fulfilled the central battlefield role of earlier heavy infantry, using ranged weapons instead of melee weapons. To support these lines, smaller infantry formations using dispersed skirmish lines were created, called light infantry, fulfilling
11610-595: The mission or to the particular terrain or environment, including satchel charges , demolition tools, mines , or barbed wire , carried by the infantry or attached specialists. Historically, infantry have suffered high casualty rates from disease , exposure, exhaustion and privation — often in excess of the casualties suffered from enemy attacks. Better infantry equipment to support their health, energy, and protect from environmental factors greatly reduces these rates of loss, and increase their level of effective action. Health, energy, and morale are greatly influenced by how
11739-561: The mountain and arctic warfare roles, participated in Exercise Spartan , the largest military exercise held in England. In April 1943, the division was assigned to I Corps , under Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall , and was earmarked as an assault division for the invasion of Normandy , scheduled for spring the following year. On 30 April the division received a new GOC, Major General Evelyn "Bubbles" Barker . A highly competent officer and
11868-750: The naval forces of states and perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations , as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from naval operations. Air force infantry and base defense forces are used primarily for ground-based defense of air bases and other air force facilities. They also have a number of other, specialist roles. These include, among others, Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and training other airmen in basic ground defense tactics. Infentory Phosgene attack 19 December 1915 Associated articles 1915 1916 1917 1918 Associated articles The German phosgene attack of 19 December 1915
11997-515: The new GOC's assumption of command, the next few months for the division, now serving as part of II Canadian Corps , commanded by Lieutenant General Guy Simonds , were spent mainly in small-scale skirmishing, including numerous patrols in attempts to dominate no man's land , and garrisoning the area between the River Waal and the Lower Rhine , also known as "The Island", created in the aftermath of
12126-520: The next few months engaged in training. By late March 1915, training had progressed to the point where the division was warned for a potential move overseas. By mid-April, the division was in France , and was to remain on the Western Front as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) for the rest of the war. Soon after arrival the division, although unfamiliar with trench warfare , was assigned to Lieutenant General Sir Henry Rawlinson 's IV Corps of
12255-624: The next few weeks, absorbing reinforcements and carrying out patrols until its participation in the Second Battle of the Odon , before, on 25 July, transferring from Bucknall's XXX Corps, in which the division had served nearly six months, to Lieutenant General John Crocker's I Corps. The corps was now part of the First Canadian Army and the 49th Division, on the corps' left flank, in August, took part in
12384-402: The offensive since landing in Normandy, then spent the next few weeks on the defensive along the Dutch frontier, before returning to the offensive. Operation Pheasant commenced in the third week of October, with the objective, after Tilburg and Breda had fallen to the 49th, being the capture of the town of Roosendaal , which fell after ten days of vicious fighting. Major General Barker described
12513-525: The open. The mixture of chlorine and phosgene was of sufficient concentration to penetrate the British PH helmet . The 16th (Irish) Division was unjustly blamed for poor gas discipline; to allay doubts as to the effectiveness of the helmet, it was put out that the gas helmets of the division were of inferior manufacture. Production of the Small Box Respirator , which had worked well during the attack,
12642-402: The operation, the Germans concluded that a breakthrough could not be achieved solely by the use of gas. During the evening of 22 April 1915, German pioneers released chlorine gas from cylinders placed in trenches at the Ypres Salient . The gas drifted into the positions of the French 87th Territorial and the 45th Algerian divisions, which occupied the north side of the salient and caused many of
12771-400: The others in close formation, each covering the ones next to him, presenting a solid wall of spears to the enemy that they cannot get around. Similarly, a shield has decent defence abilities, but is literally hit-or-miss; an attack from an unexpected angle can bypass it completely. Larger shields can cover more, but are also heavier and less manoeuvrable, making unexpected attacks even more of
12900-414: The parapets of the German trenches but did not affect the gas cylinders and the shoot had not finished when the gas attack began. At 5:00 a.m., an unusual parachute flare was seen to rise from the German lines and at 5:15 a.m., red rockets, which were so unusual that British sentries gave the alert, rose all along the XXVI Reserve Corps front. Soon afterwards, a hissing was heard and a smell noticed. On
13029-458: The raising of large numbers of light infantry units armed with ranged weapons, without the years of training expected for traditional high-skilled archers and slingers. This started slowly, first with crossbowmen , then hand cannoneers and arquebusiers , each with increasing effectiveness, marking the beginning of early modern warfare , when firearms rendered the use of heavy infantry obsolete. The introduction of musketeers using bayonets in
13158-616: The reduction of each of the division's three infantry brigades from four to three battalions. In the latter half of 1918, the division, mostly unaffected by the German Army 's Spring Offensives , fought in all the major battles of the Lys offensive , and in the Hundred Days Offensive , which saw the war turn in favour of the Allied powers , come to an end on 11 November 1918 . The 49th Division
13287-422: The role for many months, was instead relegated to a backup role, causing great disappointment to all ranks. In January 1944, the division moved to East Anglia , where, on 2 February, it was transferred from Lieutenant General John Crocker 's I Corps, with which it had served since April 1943, to XXX Corps , under Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall, and continued training for the invasion. On 13 June 1944, most of
13416-1041: The same multiple roles as earlier light infantry. Their arms were no lighter than line infantry; they were distinguished by their skirmish formation and flexible tactics. The modern rifleman infantry became the primary force for taking and holding ground on battlefields as an element of combined arms . As firepower continued to increase, use of infantry lines diminished, until all infantry became light infantry in practice. Modern classifications of infantry have since expanded to reflect modern equipment and tactics, such as motorised infantry , mechanised or armoured infantry , mountain infantry , marine infantry , and airborne infantry . Beyond main arms and armour, an infantryman's "military kit" generally includes combat boots , battledress or combat uniform , camping gear , heavy weather gear, survival gear , secondary weapons and ammunition , weapon service and repair kits, health and hygiene items, mess kit , rations , filled water canteen , and all other consumables each infantryman needs for
13545-490: The short and ill-fated Norwegian Campaign , that were intended to retake the ports of Trondheim and Narvik from the German Army . The 146th Brigade came under command of "Mauriceforce", with the 148th under "Sickleforce". The poorly planned campaign was a complete disaster and the two brigades, fighting as two different brigade groups , and widely scattered from each other, withdrew from Norway in May 1940. One consolation, however,
13674-723: The soldier is fed, so militaries issue standardised field rations that provide palatable meals and enough calories to keep a soldier well-fed and combat-ready. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances, and communication with artillery and other support units. Modern infantry can have GPS , encrypted individual communications equipment, surveillance and night vision equipment, advanced intelligence and other high-tech mission-unique aids. Armies have sought to improve and standardise infantry gear to reduce fatigue for extended carrying, increase freedom of movement, accessibility, and compatibility with other carried gear, such as
13803-647: The south of the Netherlands at a concentration area on 21 September, ten miles south of the Antwerp-Turnhout Canal. Over the next few days, the division liberated Turnhout and crossed the Antwerp-Turnhout Canal. It was during this period that the division was awarded its first and only Victoria Cross (VC) of the Second World War, belonging to Corporal John Harper of the Hallamshire Battalion , York and Lancaster Regiment . The division, after being on
13932-464: The time of Napoleonic warfare , infantry, cavalry and artillery formed a basic triad of ground forces, though infantry usually remained the most numerous. With armoured warfare , armoured fighting vehicles have replaced the horses of cavalry, and airpower has added a new dimension to ground combat, but infantry remains pivotal to all modern combined arms operations. The first warriors, adopting hunting weapons or improvised melee weapons, before
14061-445: The time of the musket, the dominance of firepower shifted militaries away from any close combat, and use of armour decreased, until infantry typically went without wearing any armour. Helmets were added back during World War I as artillery began to dominate the battlefield, to protect against their fragmentation and other blast effects beyond a direct hit. Modern developments in bullet-proof composite materials like kevlar have started
14190-468: The town as "not much of a place, bombed by USAF early in the year... We have crossed 20 miles in 10 days and had to fight every inch of it". Further fighting continued until the division ended up at Willemstad at the Hollandsche Diep. The division then transferred from Lieutenant General Crocker's I Corps to Lieutenant General Neil Ritchie 's XII Corps and helped in the clearing of the west bank of
14319-526: The tribal host assembled from farmers and hunters with only passing acquaintance with warfare and masses of lightly armed and ill-trained militia put up as a last ditch effort. Kushite king Taharqa enjoyed military success in the Near East as a result of his efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running. In medieval times the foot soldiers varied from peasant levies to semi-permanent companies of mercenaries, foremost among them
14448-455: The troops to run back from the cloud. A gap had been made in the Allied line, which if exploited by the Germans, could have eliminated the salient and led to the capture of Ypres. The German attack was intended as a strategic diversion, rather than a breakthrough attempt and insufficient forces were available to follow up the success. As soon as German troops tried to advance into areas not affected by
14577-541: The ultimate objective; the resources for such an ambitious attack did not exist. By mid-November, Albrecht had decided to have the gas cylinders placed along the front of the XXVI Reserve Corps and on the right flank of the XXVII Reserve Corps. Gas cylinders containing a mixture of chlorine and phosgene, were placed along the front of the XXVI Reserve Corps and on the right flank of the XXVII Reserve Corps. In
14706-430: The unpredictability of chemical weapons in cold weather; the Russians suffered 8,394 casualties of which 1,011 were fatal. The first attack on British troops using the new gas combination was planned for 19 December, near Wieltje in Flanders. In late October 1915, Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, German army high command) accepted a proposal from the 4th Army ( Generaloberst Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg ) for
14835-596: The weapon speciality; examples of infantry units that retained such names are the Royal Irish Fusiliers and the Grenadier Guards . Dragoons were created as mounted infantry , with horses for travel between battles; they were still considered infantry since they dismounted before combat. However, if light cavalry was lacking in an army, any available dragoons might be assigned their duties; this practice increased over time, and dragoons eventually received all
14964-452: The weapons and training as both infantry and cavalry, and could be classified as both. Conversely, starting about the mid-19th century, regular cavalry have been forced to spend more of their time dismounted in combat due to the ever-increasing effectiveness of enemy infantry firearms. Thus most cavalry transitioned to mounted infantry. As with grenadiers, the dragoon and cavalry designations can be retained long after their horses, such as in
15093-453: Was bombarded by super-heavy 17-inch howitzers and Elverdinghe by 13-inch howitzers. The British defence scheme was implemented by moving forward the reserves of the 6th and 49th (West Riding) divisions and the 14th (Light) Division (Major-General Victor Couper) in corps reserve, was ordered to stand to. The German gas discharge on the front from Boesinghe to Pilckem and Verlorenhoek was followed by twenty raiding parties, which were to observe
15222-521: Was concluded that a breakthrough could not be obtained just by a gas attack. Cloud gas attacks in April and May 1915, had been made against unprotected troops but by December, British troops had been trained, had efficient respirators and had organised anti-gas procedures. Cotton waste respirators had been replaced by a helmet made of flannelette, soaked in an absorbent solution. The P Helmet, soaked in sodium phenate (phenol) which absorbed chlorine and phosgene,
15351-490: Was constituted as follows during the war: 146th Infantry Brigade 147th Infantry Brigade 148th Infantry Brigade ( left 4 April 1940 ) 70th Infantry Brigade ( from 18 May 1942, disbanded 20 August 1944 ) 56th Infantry Brigade ( from 20 August 1944 ) Divisional Troops Royal Artillery Royal Engineers Royal Army Medical Corps The division was disbanded in Germany in 1946, but reformed in
15480-548: Was constituted as follows during the war: 243rd Divisional Employment Company ( joined 16 June 1917 ) The division was disbanded after the war but was reformed, now as the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division , when the old TF was itself reconstituted as the Territorial Army (TA) in 1920, with the same composition as pre-1914. The division was stationed in Northern Command . During the interwar period , particularly in
15609-669: Was formed on 1 April 1908 following the enactment of the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw.7, c.9) which combined and re-organised the old Volunteer Force , the Honourable Artillery Company and the Yeomanry . Originally designated the West Riding Division , the division was composed of the 1st , 2nd and 3rd West Riding Brigades , each with four infantry battalions, along with supporting units. The division
15738-399: Was in use on 19 December. German gas attacks were made at night or in the early morning, when the wind was favourable and darkness made it difficult for the defenders to see the gas cloud. Phosgene made the gas cloud more poisonous and the Germans tried to increase the concentration of the gas by discharging it quickly, though this reduced the duration of the attack. The gas was found to be
15867-510: Was not coined until 1837. In modern usage, foot soldiers of any era are now considered infantry and infantrymen. From the mid-18th century until 1881, the British Army named its infantry as numbered regiments "of Foot" to distinguish them from cavalry and dragoon regiments (see List of Regiments of Foot ). Infantry equipped with special weapons were often named after that weapon, such as grenadiers for their grenades , or fusiliers for their fusils . These names can persist long after
15996-399: Was not common), similar to modern sections (squads) , companies , and regiments . The training of the infantry has differed drastically over time and from place to place. The cost of maintaining an army in fighting order and the seasonal nature of warfare precluded large permanent armies. The antiquity saw everything from the well-trained and motivated citizen armies of Greece and Rome,
16125-491: Was one of fourteen divisions that made up part of the peacetime TF. In peacetime, the divisional headquarters was, from 1912, at Tower Street in York . Elements of the division had, by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, just departed for their annual summer camp and were mobilised for war service on 5 August, the day after Britain entered the war . According to the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 , men of
16254-484: Was that they gained the distinction of being amongst the very first British troops to fight the enemy in the Second World War, and certainly the first Territorials to do so. The brigades returned to the United Kingdom, where, on 10 June, the division was reconstituted in Scottish Command under Major General Henry Curtis . Curtis, the new General Officer Commanding (GOC), had commanded the division's sister formation,
16383-547: Was the 70th Independent Infantry Brigade . In 1941, at the request of British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , the division was trained in mountain warfare and also in arctic warfare . By April 1942, responsibility for Iceland had been handed over to the United States , with the arrival in July the previous year of the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade and the three brigades began to be relieved, and Major General Curtis suggested
16512-463: Was the first use of phosgene gas against British troops by the German army. The gas attack took place at Wieltje , north-east of Ypres in Belgian Flanders on the Western Front in the First World War . German gas attacks on Allied troops had begun on 22 April 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres using chlorine against French and Canadian units. The surprise led to the capture of much of
16641-411: Was to command the Polar Bears whose achievements were made possible by its great efficiency at all levels, its high morale and the marvellous team work..... It was a splendid fighting machine". Barker's successor was Major General Gordon "Babe" MacMillan , formerly the GOC of the 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division . Like his predecessor, MacMillan was a distinguished veteran of the First World War. After
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