155-455: The West Memphis Three are three freed men convicted as teenagers in 1994 of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas , United States. Damien Echols was sentenced to death , Jessie Misskelley Jr. to life imprisonment plus two 20-year sentences, and Jason Baldwin to life imprisonment. During the trial, the prosecution asserted that the juveniles killed the children as part of
310-433: A Satanic ritual . Due to the dubious nature of the evidence, the lack of physical evidence connecting the men to the crime, and the suspected presence of emotional bias in court, the case generated widespread controversy and was the subject of several documentaries. Celebrities and musicians held fundraisers to support efforts to free the men. In July 2007, new forensic evidence was presented. A report jointly issued by
465-470: A dysfunctional family or a poor educational system , rather than any true presence of ADHD in the individual. In other cases, it may be explained by increasing academic expectations, with a diagnosis being a method for parents in some countries to obtain extra financial and educational support for their child. Behaviours typical of ADHD occur more commonly in children who have experienced violence and emotional abuse. Current models of ADHD suggest that it
620-481: A meta-analysis of 16 studies examining the relative risk of traffic collisions for drivers with ADHD, finding an overall relative risk estimate of 1.36 without controlling for exposure, a relative risk estimate of 1.29 when controlling for publication bias , a relative risk estimate of 1.23 when controlling for exposure, and a relative risk estimate of 1.86 for ADHD drivers with oppositional defiant disorder and/or conduct disorder comorbidities . In April 2018,
775-503: A minor , Misskelley was questioned alone; his parents were not present during the interrogation. Misskelley's father gave permission for Misskelley to go with police but did not explicitly give permission for his son to be questioned or interrogated. Misskelley was questioned for roughly 12 hours. Only two segments, totaling 46 minutes, were recorded. Misskelley quickly recanted his confession, citing intimidation, coercion, fatigue, and veiled threats from police. Misskelley specifically said he
930-436: A cause that can be understood mechanistically and treated in a novel way. The sensory overload is treatable with oral potassium gluconate . Research does not support popular beliefs that ADHD is caused by eating too much refined sugar, watching too much television, bad parenting, poverty or family chaos; however, they might worsen ADHD symptoms in certain people. In some cases, an inappropriate diagnosis of ADHD may reflect
1085-498: A day after Hutcheson's purported confession. Hutcheson was unable to recall the Wiccan meeting location and did not name any other participants in the purported meeting. Hutcheson was never charged with theft. She claimed she had implicated Echols and Misskelley to avoid facing criminal charges, and to obtain a reward for the discovery of the murderers. Misskelley was tried separately, and Echols and Baldwin were tried together in 1994. Under
1240-564: A distinct attention disorder occurring in 30–50% of ADHD cases as a comorbidity, regardless of the presentation; a subset of cases diagnosed with ADHD-PIP have been found to have CDS instead. Individuals with ADHD are three times more likely to be diagnosed with an eating disorder compared to those without ADHD; conversely, individuals with eating disorders are two times more likely to have ADHD than those without eating disorders. ADHD, trauma , and adverse childhood experiences are also comorbid, which could in part be potentially explained by
1395-410: A graduate of the unaccredited Columbia Pacific University , as an expert in the occult to testify the murders were a Satanic ritual. On March 19, 1994, Echols and Baldwin were found guilty on three counts of murder. The court sentenced Echols to death and Baldwin to life in prison. At trial, the defense team argued that news articles from the time could have been the source for Echols' knowledge about
1550-548: A halt to track construction just east of the St. Francis River in 1861. During the summer of 1862, Memphis fell into the hands of the Union forces. Most Confederate soldiers were ferried across the river to Hopefield, Arkansas, and surrounding farms. Many of these soldiers were moved on to other battle fronts, but some remained to harass the Union forces and disrupt river traffic. This became such
1705-415: A high heritability of 74%, meaning that 74% of the presence of ADHD in the population is due to genetic factors. There are multiple gene variants which each slightly increase the likelihood of a person having ADHD; it is polygenic and thus arises through the accumulation of many genetic risks each having a very small effect. The siblings of children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to develop
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#17328583708841860-416: A household in the city was $ 27,399, and the median income for a family was $ 32,465. Males had a median income of $ 29,977 versus $ 21,007 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 13,679. About 23.7% of families and 28.3% of the population were below the poverty line , including 40.9% of those under age 18 and 22.3% of those age 65 or over. West Memphis tends to have crime levels considerably above
2015-601: A hub for distribution and assembly operations. Healthcare is a noteworthy component of the city's economy, including Baptist Memorial Hospital – Crittenden, various clinics, medical suppliers, and nursing homes located in town. The city lies at the point where two of the nation's most heavily traveled interstate highways, Interstate 40 and Interstate 55 , intersect with the Mississippi River (a major cargo waterway) and large rail-lines operated by BNSF and Union Pacific . Cable television, internet and digital phone service
2170-668: A light green bicycle. Moore enjoyed wearing his scout uniform even when he was not at meetings. He was considered the leader of the three. He lived with his parents and his nine-year-old sister, Dawn. James Michael Moore is buried in Crittenden Memorial Park Cemetery in Marion, Arkansas . In 1994, a memorial was erected for the three murder victims. The memorial is located in the playground of Weaver Elementary School in West Memphis, where all three victims were second graders at
2325-885: A line at where normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin. According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and its text revision ( DSM-5-TR ), symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age . This requires at least six symptoms of either inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity for those under 17 and at least five symptoms for those 17 years or older. The symptoms must be present in at least two settings (e.g., social, school, work, or home), and must directly interfere with or reduce quality of functioning. Additionally, several symptoms must have been present before age 12. The DSM-5 's required age of onset of symptoms
2480-448: A major genetic mutation. There is no biologically distinct adult-onset ADHD except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury. Inattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behaviour, and impulsivity are common in ADHD. Academic difficulties are frequent, as are problems with relationships. The signs and symptoms can be difficult to define, as it is hard to draw
2635-408: A meta-analysis reviewing 40 voxel-based morphometry studies and 59 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies comparing subjects with IGD or ADHD to control groups that found that IGD and ADHD subjects had disorder-differentiating structural neuroimage alterations in the putamen and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) respectively, and functional alterations in the precuneus for IGD subjects and in
2790-563: A network of low-lying overflow areas and floodplains historically dominated by bald cypress , water tupelo , overcup oak , water hickory , and Nuttall oak forest subject to year-round or seasonal inundation. The Northern Holocene Meander Belts are the flat floodplains and former alignments of the Mississippi River , including levees , oxbow lakes , and point bars . Much of the wetlands and riverine habitat have been drained and developed for agricultural or urban land uses. The Wapanocca National Wildlife Refuge , which preserves some of
2945-666: A neurological condition characterised by recurrent seizures. There are well established associations between ADHD and obesity, asthma and sleep disorders, and an association with celiac disease. Children with ADHD have a higher risk for migraine headaches, but have no increased risk of tension-type headaches. Children with ADHD may also experience headaches as a result of medication. A 2021 review reported that several neurometabolic disorders caused by inborn errors of metabolism converge on common neurochemical mechanisms that interfere with biological mechanisms also considered central in ADHD pathophysiology and treatment. This highlights
3100-519: A number of differences between ADHD and control brains. Mirroring what is known from structural findings, fMRI studies have showed evidence for a higher connectivity between subcortical and cortical regions, such as between the caudate and prefrontal cortex. The degree of hyperconnectivity between these regions correlated with the severity of inattention or hyperactivity Hemispheric lateralization processes have also been postulated as being implicated in ADHD, but empiric results showed contrasting evidence on
3255-436: A number of genes are involved, many of which directly affect brain functioning and neurotransmission. Those involved with dopamine include DAT , DRD4 , DRD5 , TAAR1 , MAOA , COMT , and DBH. Other genes associated with ADHD include SERT , HTR1B , SNAP25 , GRIN2A , ADRA2A , TPH2 , and BDNF . A common variant of a gene called latrophilin 3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9% of cases and when this variant
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#17328583708843410-433: A possible connection to the bleeding man found in the bathroom, reported the incident to police officers who then inspected the ladies' room. The man reportedly wore a "blue cast type brace on his arm that had white Velcro on it", which would have made it difficult to tie up and murder three young boys. King gave the officers a pair of sunglasses he thought the man had left behind, and the detectives took some blood samples from
3565-625: A problem that on February 19, 1863, four companies of Federal forces burned down the entire town. The town of Hopefield was rebuilt after the war but never regained the prominence it once held in Crittenden County. After the St. Francis Levee District began the levee system in the Arkansas Delta during the 1890s, what little remained of Hopefield became part of the Mississippi River flood plain and
3720-745: A proportionally greater decrease in the volume in the left-sided prefrontal cortex. The posterior parietal cortex also shows thinning in individuals with ADHD compared to controls. Other brain structures in the prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar and prefrontal-striatal-thalamic circuits have also been found to differ between people with and without ADHD. The subcortical volumes of the accumbens , amygdala , caudate , hippocampus , and putamen appears smaller in individuals with ADHD compared with controls. Structural MRI studies have also revealed differences in white matter, with marked differences in inter-hemispheric asymmetry between ADHD and typically developing youths. Functional MRI (fMRI) studies have revealed
3875-503: A rate of 21% in those with ADHD, affects social skills, ability to communicate, behaviour, and interests. Learning disabilities have been found to occur in about 20–30% of children with ADHD. Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders, and academic skills disorders. ADHD, however, is not considered a learning disability, but it very frequently causes academic difficulties. Intellectual disabilities and Tourette's syndrome are also common. ADHD
4030-446: A reputation for his temper and for engaging in fistfights with other teenagers at school. Misskelley and Echols had dropped out of high school; however, Baldwin earned high grades and demonstrated a talent for drawing and sketching, and was encouraged by one of his teachers to study graphic design in college. Echols and Baldwin were close friends, and bonded over their similar tastes in music and fiction, and over their shared distaste for
4185-510: A settlement on the Mississippi River . He chose a location across the river from present-day Memphis. In 1797, the Spanish established Campo de la Esperanza, which was a small fort along the Mississippi River. The Spanish abandoned the fort in 1802 and the area took its English translation "Field of Hope", which eventually became known as Hopefield shortly after the United States took possession of
4340-496: A side effect of medications used to treat ADHD. In children with ADHD, insomnia is the most common sleep disorder with behavioural therapy being the preferred treatment. Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning. Melatonin is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia. Restless legs syndrome has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and
4495-551: A state witness claimed are microscopically similar to a green child's T-shirt found in Echols's sister's closet, and one red rayon fiber that state witnesses said is similar to a women's robe found in Baldwin's home. Under further questioning, the state witness conceded that many fibers are microscopically similar to each other and that the discovery proved nothing. Vicki Hutcheson, a new resident of West Memphis, would play an important role in
4650-521: A statistically small relationship between children's media use and ADHD-related behaviours exists. In November 2018, Cyberpsychology published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5 studies that found evidence for a relationship between problematic smartphone use and impulsivity traits. In October 2020, the Journal of Behavioral Addictions published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found
4805-496: A strengthened levee, the establishment of two lumber operations and the building of two major U.S. highways, the small lumber communities grew rapidly. In 1920 the population was approximately 132 and by 1928, the population had grown to 350. The community incorporated as a city in 1927 with the name West Memphis. Zack T. Bragg, one of the city's founders, was elected as the first mayor and served for three consecutive one year terms. William H. Hundhausen, another founder of West Memphis,
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4960-434: A supermarket (with the supermarket's name printed on the bags) rather than in containers of known and controlled origin. When police speculated about the assailant, the juvenile probation officer assisting at the scene of the murders speculated that Echols was "capable" of committing the murders," stating: "it looks like Damien Echols finally killed someone." Brent Turvey, a forensic scientist and criminal profiler, stated in
5115-579: A symptom of ADHD for that person. In DSM-5, subtypes were discarded and reclassified as presentations of the disorder that change over time. The individual may also meet the criteria for hyperactivity-impulsivity, but the inattentive symptoms are predominant. The individual may also meet the criteria for inattention, but the hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are predominant. Girls and women with ADHD tend to display fewer hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms but more symptoms of inattention and distractibility. Symptoms are expressed differently and more subtly as
5270-533: A systematic review of 11 studies where the data from all but one study suggested that heightened screen time for children is associated with attention problems. In July 2022, the Journal of Behavioral Addictions published a meta-analysis of 14 studies comprising 2,488 subjects aged 6 to 18 years that found significantly more severe problematic internet use in subjects diagnosed with ADHD to control groups. Systematic reviews in 2017 and 2020 found strong evidence that ADHD
5425-421: A tornado killed six people and caused approximately $ 35 million in damage. The town had not recovered from the tornado damage when it flooded from 12 inches (300 mm) of rain on December 25, 1987. Additionally, 7 to 10 inches (180 to 250 mm) of snow fell on January 6, 1988. When the snow began to melt, this added to the already existing flood problems and the destruction caused by the tornado. Some of
5580-502: A total area of 28.5 square miles (73.9 km ), of which 28.5 square miles (73.7 km ) is land and 0.077 square miles (0.2 km ), or 0.34%, is water. Ecologically, West Memphis is located on the border between the Northern Backswamps (western part of West Memphis) and Northern Holocene Meander Belts (eastern section of West Memphis) ecoregions within the larger Mississippi Alluvial Plain . The Northern Backswamps are
5735-498: A weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and impulsivity. In January 2021, the Journal of Psychiatric Research published a systematic review of 29 studies including 56,650 subjects that found that ADHD symptoms were consistently associated with gaming disorder and more frequent associations between inattention and gaming disorder than other ADHD scales. In July 2021, Frontiers in Psychiatry published
5890-438: Is 12 years. However, research indicates the age of onset should not be interpreted as a prerequisite for diagnosis given contextual exceptions. ADHD is divided into three primary presentations: The table "Symptoms" lists the symptoms for ADHD-I and ADHD-HI from two major classification systems. Symptoms which can be better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition which an individual has are not considered to be
6045-449: Is an increased risk of a missed ADHD diagnosis, possibly because of compensatory strategies in said individuals. Studies of adults suggest that negative differences in intelligence are not meaningful and may be explained by associated health problems. In children, ADHD occurs with other disorders about two-thirds of the time. Other neurodevelopmental conditions are common comorbidities. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), co-occurring at
6200-423: Is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems , particularly those involving dopamine and norepinephrine . The dopamine and norepinephrine pathways that originate in the ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus project to diverse regions of the brain and govern a variety of cognitive processes. The dopamine pathways and norepinephrine pathways which project to
6355-528: Is associated with increased suicide risk across all age groups, as well as growing evidence that an ADHD diagnosis in childhood or adolescence represents a significant future suicidal risk factor. Potential causes include ADHD's association with functional impairment, negative social, educational and occupational outcomes, and financial distress. A 2019 meta-analysis indicated a significant association between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours (suicidal attempts, ideations, plans, and completed suicides); across
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6510-450: Is associated with other neurodevelopmental and mental disorders as well as non-psychiatric disorders, which can cause additional impairment. While people with ADHD often struggle to initiate work and persist on tasks with delayed consequences, this may not be evident in contexts they find intrinsically interesting and immediately rewarding, potentiating hyperfocus (a more colloquial term) or perseverative responding. This mental state
6665-400: Is both linked to novelty seeking and ADHD. The genes GFOD1 and CDH13 show strong genetic associations with ADHD. CDH13's association with ASD, schizophrenia , bipolar disorder, and depression make it an interesting candidate causative gene. Another candidate causative gene that has been identified is ADGRL3 . In zebrafish , knockout of this gene causes a loss of dopaminergic function in
6820-443: Is characterised by aggression, destruction of property, deceitfulness, theft and violations of rules. Adolescents with ADHD who also have CD are more likely to develop antisocial personality disorder in adulthood. Brain imaging supports that CD and ADHD are separate conditions: conduct disorder was shown to reduce the size of one's temporal lobe and limbic system , and increase the size of one's orbitofrontal cortex , whereas ADHD
6975-511: Is controversial due to the differences between people with ADHD and the difficulty determining the influence of symptoms, such as distractibility, on lower scores rather than intellectual capacity. In studies of ADHD, higher IQs may be over-represented because many studies exclude individuals who have lower IQs despite those with ADHD scoring on average nine points lower on standardised intelligence measures. However, other studies contradict this, saying that in individuals with high intelligence, there
7130-806: Is generally understood to be a common symptom of ADHD. People with ADHD of all ages are more likely to have problems with social skills , such as social interaction and forming and maintaining friendships. This is true for all presentations. About half of children and adolescents with ADHD experience social rejection by their peers compared to 10–15% of non-ADHD children and adolescents. People with attention deficits are prone to having difficulty processing verbal and nonverbal language which can negatively affect social interaction. They may also drift off during conversations, miss social cues, and have trouble learning social skills. Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD, as are delays in speech, language and motor development. Poorer handwriting
7285-501: Is located in eastern Crittenden County. It is bordered to the north by the city of Marion . A small piece of West Memphis extends south as far as the Mississippi River , but in most places the river is from 0.2 to 2 miles (0.32 to 3.22 km) south or east of the city limits. Downtown Memphis, Tennessee , is 8 miles (13 km) east of downtown West Memphis. According to the United States Census Bureau , West Memphis has
7440-707: Is more common in children with ADHD. Poor handwriting can be a symptom of ADHD in itself due to decreased attentiveness. When this is a pervasive problem, it may also be attributable to dyslexia or dysgraphia . There is significant overlap in the symptomatologies of ADHD, dyslexia, and dysgraphia, and 3 in 10 people diagnosed with dyslexia experience co-occurring ADHD. Although it causes significant difficulty, many children with ADHD have an attention span equal to or greater than that of other children for tasks and subjects they find interesting. Certain studies have found that people with ADHD tend to have lower scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) tests. The significance of this
7595-576: Is no clear data on whether there is a direct relationship between ADHD and suicidality, or whether ADHD increases suicide risk through comorbidities. ADHD arises from brain maldevelopment especially in the prefrontal executive networks that can arise either from genetic factors (different gene variants and mutations for building and regulating such networks) or from acquired disruptions to the development of these networks and regions; involved in executive functioning and self-regulation. Their reduced size, functional connectivity, and activation contribute to
7750-524: Is offered through Comcast. AT&T provides telephone and internet service. Major operations include distribution centers for retailers such as Family Dollar , Carvana , Bosch Tools and manufacturers such as Stateside Steel & Wire. Continuing nearly $ 40 million in expenditures in West Memphis since 1998, Ciba Specialty Chemicals began construction of a new $ 1.3 million, 7,000-square-foot (650 m ) laboratory facility in December 2003, which
7905-432: Is often comorbid with disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) occurs in about 25% of children with an inattentive presentation and 50% of those with a combined presentation. It is characterised by angry or irritable mood, argumentative or defiant behaviour and vindictiveness which are age-inappropriate. Conduct disorder (CD) occurs in about 25% of adolescents with ADHD. It
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#17328583708848060-468: Is often considered a core symptom. Impairments resulting from deficits in self-regulation such as time management , inhibition , and sustained attention can include poor professional performance, relationship difficulties, and numerous health risks, collectively predisposing to a diminished quality of life and a direct average reduction in life expectancy of 13 years. The disorder costs society hundreds of billions of US dollars each year, worldwide. It
8215-427: Is often due to iron deficiency anemia . However, restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders. Delayed sleep phase disorder is also a common comorbidity. Individuals with ADHD are at increased risk of substance use disorders . This is most commonly seen with alcohol or cannabis . The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in
8370-494: Is often hard to disengage from and is related to risks such as for internet addiction and types of offending behaviour. ADHD represents the extreme lower end of the continuous dimensional trait (bell curve) of executive functioning and self-regulation, which is supported by twin, brain imaging and molecular genetic studies. The precise causes of ADHD are unknown in most individual cases. Meta-analyses of studies of twins, families and molecular genetics have shown that
8525-443: Is present, people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication. The 7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4–7R) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by dopamine and is associated with ADHD. The DRD4 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase . The DRD4–7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioural phenotypes , including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention. The DRD4 gene
8680-532: The International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health published a systematic review of 24 studies researching associations between internet gaming disorder (IGD) and various psychopathologies that found an 85% correlation between IGD and ADHD. In October 2018, PNAS USA published a systematic review of four decades of research on the relationship between children and adolescents' screen media use and ADHD-related behaviours and concluded that
8835-638: The Louisiana Territory . Crittenden County is bounded on the east by the Mississippi River and was established in 1825, eleven years before Arkansas became a state. Named after Robert Crittenden , the first secretary of the Arkansas Territory , the county had a population of 1,272 in 1830. Hopefield became the eastern terminal for the Memphis and Little Rock Railroad in 1857. However, the Civil War forced
8990-581: The West Memphis Three and the case brought about a great amount of public intrigue. Four documentaries have been made about the incident, the first being Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills . Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley were released from jail in 2011 after signing an Alford plea , which allowed them to plead guilty while maintaining their innocence. They were released with time served and placed on probation until 2021. West Memphis
9145-538: The census of 2000, there were 27,666 people, 10,051 households, and 7,136 families living in the city. The population density was 1,044.3 inhabitants per square mile (403.2/km ). There were 11,022 housing units at an average density of 416.1 per square mile (160.7/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 55.93% Black or African American , 42.16% White , 0.21% Native American , 0.53% Asian , 0.02% Pacific Islander , 0.51% from other races , and 0.64% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.01% of
9300-478: The organophosphate insecticides chlorpyrifos and dialkyl phosphate is associated with an increased risk; however, the evidence is not conclusive. Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy can cause problems with central nervous system development and can increase the risk of ADHD. Nicotine exposure during pregnancy may be an environmental risk. Extreme premature birth , very low birth weight , and extreme neglect, abuse, or social deprivation also increase
9455-439: The prefrontal cortex and striatum are directly responsible for modulating executive function (cognitive control of behaviour), motivation, reward perception, and motor function; these pathways are known to play a central role in the pathophysiology of ADHD. Larger models of ADHD with additional pathways have been proposed. In children with ADHD, there is a general reduction of volume in certain brain structures, with
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#17328583708849610-487: The rewards circuit (including the OFC, the anterior cingulate cortex , and striatum ) for both IGD and ADHD subjects. In March 2022, JAMA Psychiatry published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 87 studies with 159,425 subjects 12 years of age or younger that found a small but statistically significant correlation between screen time and ADHD symptoms in children. In April 2022, Developmental Neuropsychology published
9765-555: The " Bruton rule ", Misskelley's confession could not be admitted against his co-defendants; thus he was tried separately. All three defendants pleaded not guilty. During Misskelley's trial, Richard Ofshe , an expert on false confessions and police coercion, and Professor of Sociology at UC Berkeley , testified that the brief recording of Misskelley's interrogation was a "classic example" of police coercion . Critics have also stated that Misskelley's various "confessions" were in many respects inconsistent with each other, as well as with
9920-528: The "crossroads of America" in the trucking industry. In 1973, a six-lane highway bridge, known as the Hernando de Soto Bridge and located north of the Harahan, opened as part of I-40. In 1980, Leo Chitman was elected as the city's first African American mayor. Current mayor Marco McClendon, who became the youngest West Memphis Mayor to be sworn into office in 2019, is African American as well. On December 14, 1987,
10075-583: The 1790s. Grants were given to Benjamin Fooy, John Henry Fooy, and Isaac Fooy in the Hopefield (Crittenden County) area and to William McKenney in the Bridgeport-West Memphis area. In the summer of 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando De Soto crossed the Mississippi River into what is now Crittenden County with an army of over 300 conquistadors and almost as many captured Native American slaves. The Spanish found
10230-408: The 1990s, Southland Greyhound Park , one of West Memphis' largest employers, saw its attendance and revenues decline drastically, with a corresponding economic impact on both the town and state. This was largely attributed to the rise of casino gambling in nearby Tunica, Mississippi . By 2002, Southland struggled to survive. Following an estimated $ 40 million investment by the park's owner and
10385-431: The 5:1 male-to-female sex ratio in the epidemiology of ADHD suggests that ADHD may be the end of a continuum where males are overrepresented at the tails , citing clinical psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen 's suggestion for the sex ratio in the epidemiology of autism as an analogue. Natural selection has been acting against the genetic variants for ADHD over the course of at least 45,000 years, indicating that it
10540-423: The ADHD population, as have mood disorders (especially bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder ). Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder. Adults and children with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder, which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions. Sleep disorders and ADHD commonly co-exist. They can also occur as
10695-508: The Bolz Slack Barrell Cooperage plant located at the southern end of present-day 8th Street in West Memphis. The Bolz Cooperage, which was a stave mill, purchased a great quantity of acreage for its lumber operation. Within a short time of the mill's beginning, a small community developed. In 1917, highways 70 and 61 were established and clearing began through the future West Memphis. With the threat of river flooding diminished by
10850-536: The Memphis/West Memphis area created the need for lodging and other services. Construction in 1949 of a second automobile bridge across the Mississippi, connecting Memphis and West Memphis, created another influx of automobile traffic. The buildings in the 700, 800 and 900 blocks of East Broadway reflect the growth of the city of West Memphis in the years 1930 to 1958. Until the national interstate highway system
11005-530: The Mississippi River Valley for at least 10,000 years, although much of the evidence of their presence has been buried or destroyed. The people of the Mississippian Period were the last indigenous inhabitants of the West Memphis area. Mound City Road, located within the eastern portion of the West Memphis city limits, has a marker indicating that the villages of Aquixo (Aquijo) or Pacaha were in
11160-493: The Mississippi River to Forrest City in St. Francis County . The flood of 1913 was the last time the levee broke in Crittenden County. After the levee system was built and strengthened, Zack T. Bragg , a lumberman who had been logging in St. Francis County since 1905, purchased 300 acres of virgin timber and established a sawmill in 1914. The mill was located along a railroad spur and a dirt path that would eventually become Missouri Street in West Memphis. Bragg also acquired
11315-718: The Square Deal Café on South 16th Street) and Elvis Presley (who ate his first breakfast after being inducted into the U.S. Army at the Coffee Cup on East Broadway on March 24, 1958). Other night spots along Broadway Street included Willowdale Inn, the Cotton Club, and the Plantation Inn. Legal greyhound racing began in the county in 1935. In the years that followed, the track closed several times—once for flooding, another due to World War II, and another time due to fire. However,
11470-523: The State concluded that there was no bite mark at all. The State's experts had examined the actual bodies for any marks, and others conducted expert photo analysis of injuries. Upon further examination, it was concluded that if these marks were bite marks, they did not match the teeth of any of the three convicted. In May 1994, the three defendants appealed their convictions; the convictions were upheld on direct appeal. In June 1996, Misskelley's lawyer, Dan Stidham,
11625-561: The West Memphis Commercial Historic District remain much as they appeared in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, the remainder of the city's major traffic corridor, Broadway Avenue, has changed significantly. In the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, 8th Street was often called " Beale Street West", reflecting a music and nightlife scene to equal that in Memphis. Some places in West Memphis have been associated with entertainers such as B.B. King (who began his public entertaining at
11780-614: The addition since 2006 of electronic games of skill and video poker machines, Southland has added more than 300 new employees, making it the third largest employer in West Memphis with 660 employees. Most of West Memphis is served by the West Memphis School District while a portion of the city of West Memphis is located within the Marion Public School District . West Memphis district schools: Marion district schools: From 1951 until its closure in 2014,
11935-516: The area. Several mounds are still visible. Explorers from both Spain and France visited the area near West Memphis. Among those explorers were Hernando de Soto and his men from Spain and Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet from France. By the time French hunters and explorers entered the region, the Mississippian towns and other settlements had been abandoned. The original site of West Memphis came from Spanish land grants issued during
12090-429: The area. U.S. Highway 61, named Missouri Street in West Memphis, was constructed at the same time and its juncture with Highway 70 would become the epicenter of downtown West Memphis. West Memphis was officially incorporated in 1927 and continued to grow to become the largest city in Crittenden County. The availability of river and rail transportation transformed West Memphis into the manufacturing and distribution hub of
12245-452: The bodies were discovered. Morgan was presumed to be at least casually familiar with all three murdered boys, having previously driven an ice cream truck route in their neighborhood. Arrested in Oceanside on May 17, 1993, Morgan and Holland both took polygraph exams administered by California police. Examiners reported that both men's charts indicated deception when they denied involvement in
12400-415: The bodies were found was not necessarily the location where the murders actually happened. After the initial investigation, the police failed to control disclosure of information and speculation about the crime scene. According to Leveritt, "Police records were a mess. To call them disorderly would be putting it mildly." Leveritt speculated that the small local police force was overwhelmed by the crime, which
12555-405: The bodies were pulled from the water). Stidham has called the coroner's investigation "extremely substandard." There was a small amount of blood found at the scene that was never tested. According to HBO's documentaries Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills (1996) and Paradise Lost 2: Revelations (2000), no blood was found at the crime scene, indicating that the location where
12710-410: The boys had been raped; however, later expert testimony disputed this finding. Trace amounts of sperm DNA were found on a pair of pants recovered from the scene. Prosecution experts claim Byers's wounds were the results of a knife attack and that he had been purposely castrated by the murderer; defense experts claim the injuries were most likely the result of post-mortem animal predation. Police believed
12865-462: The boys were abused and murdered. Stidham, who was later elected to a municipal judgeship, has written a detailed critique of what he asserts are major police errors and misconceptions during their investigation. Stidham made similar comments during a radio show interview in May 2010. The physical evidence presented at the trial of Echols and Baldwin consisted of two green threads found at the crime scene that
13020-466: The boys were assaulted and killed at the location where they were found; critics argued that the assault, at least, was unlikely to have occurred at the creek. Byers was the only victim with drugs in his system; he was prescribed Ritalin (methylphenidate) in January 1993 as part of treatment of an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . The initial autopsy report describes the drug as Carbamazepine and
13175-589: The boys were reported last seen. Despite a shoulder-to-shoulder search of Robin Hood Hills by a human chain, searchers found no sign of the missing boys. Around 1:45 pm, juvenile Parole Officer Steve Jones spotted a boy's black shoe floating in a muddy creek that led to a major drainage canal in Robin Hood Hills. A subsequent search of the ditch revealed the bodies of three boys. They had been stripped naked and were hogtied with their own shoelaces, their right ankles tied to their right wrists behind their backs,
13330-422: The brains of ADHD individuals, self-treatment and increased psychosocial risk factors. This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult, with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks. Other psychiatric conditions include reactive attachment disorder , characterised by a severe inability to appropriately relate socially, and cognitive disengagement syndrome ,
13485-406: The business currently known as Southland Park Gaming & Racing on North Ingram Boulevard has been in the same location since 1956 and is now open every day of the week, including 24 hours on weekends. West Memphis began its role as a trucking hub with the opening of parts of Interstate 55 in the 1950s. With both I-55 and I-40 traveling toward the Mississippi River, West Memphis became known as
13640-502: The city's main commercial thoroughfare, Broadway Avenue, was instigated by the increased traffic and by demand for the industrial products produced and shipped through West Memphis by rail and river. Tourist courts , restaurants, hotels and other amenities geared toward the traveler were constructed along the traffic corridor through West Memphis. During the World War II years, transportation of soldiers and goods by road, river, and rail in
13795-712: The community was served by Crittenden Regional Hospital, a 152-bed JCAHO Accredited facility. Memphis-based Baptist Memorial Health System opened Baptist Memorial Hospital–Crittenden, an 11-bed facility focusing on acute care, in December 2018. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by executive dysfunction occasioning symptoms of inattention , hyperactivity, impulsivity and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and developmentally-inappropriate . ADHD symptoms arise from executive dysfunction, and emotional dysregulation
13950-473: The county. In the 1930s West Memphis, along with the rest of the Mississippi Delta, suffered due to the economic depression. However, the city grew and developed at a record pace. The most notable export of West Memphis from that era was its original blues music. At one time Sonny Boy Williamson , Howlin' Wolf , Robert Lockwood, Jr. , and B.B. King lived in West Memphis. The growth and development of
14105-451: The crime. After a month had passed with little progress in the case, police continued to focus their investigation upon Echols, interrogating him more frequently than any other person. Nonetheless, they claimed he was not regarded as a direct suspect but a source of information. On June 3, the police interrogated Jessie Misskelley Jr. Despite his reported IQ of 72 (categorizing him as borderline intellectual functioning ) and his status as
14260-414: The defense objections were overruled. There has been widespread criticism of the handling of the crime scene by the police. Misskelley's former attorney Dan Stidham cites multiple substantial police errors at the crime scene, characterizing it as "literally trampled, especially the creek bed." The bodies, he said, had been removed from the water before the coroner arrived to examine the scene and determine
14415-424: The disorder is primarily genetic with a heritability rate of 70-80%, where risk factors are highly accumulative. The environmental risks are not related to social or familial factors; they exert their effects very early in life, in the prenatal or early postnatal period. However, in rare cases, ADHD can be caused by a single event including traumatic brain injury , exposure to biohazards during pregnancy, or
14570-616: The disorder than siblings of children without the disorder. The association of maternal smoking observed in large population studies disappears after adjusting for family history of ADHD, which indicates that the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD is due to familial or genetic factors that increase the risk for the confluence of smoking and ADHD. ADHD presents with reduced size, functional connectivity and activation as well as low noradrenergic and dopaminergic functioning in brain regions and networks crucial for executive functioning and self-regulation. Typically,
14725-583: The disorder) tends to be much higher. However their usefulness as tools for diagnosis is limited as no single gene predicts ADHD. ASD shows genetic overlap with ADHD at both common and rare levels of genetic variation. In addition to genetics, some environmental factors might play a role in causing ADHD. Alcohol intake during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders which can include ADHD or symptoms like it. Children exposed to certain toxic substances, such as lead or polychlorinated biphenyls , may develop problems which resemble ADHD. Exposure to
14880-417: The dosage at a sub-therapeutic level. His father said Byers may not have taken his prescription on May 5, 1993. Steve Edward Branch, Christopher Byers and Michael Moore were all second graders at Weaver Elementary School. Each had achieved the rank of "Wolf" in the local Cub Scout pack and were best friends. Steve Branch was the son of Steven and Pamela Branch, who divorced when he was an infant. His mother
15035-599: The evening they disappeared and seeing Terry Hobbs, Steve Branch's stepfather, calling them to come home. Initial police searches made that night were limited. Friends and neighbors also conducted a search that night, which included a cursory visit to the location where the bodies were later found. A more thorough police search for the children began around 8:00 am on May 6, led by the Crittenden County Search and Rescue personnel. Searchers canvassed all of West Memphis but focused primarily on Robin Hood Hills, where
15190-414: The evidence is weak and may apply to only children with food sensitivities . The European Union has put in place regulatory measures based on these concerns. In a minority of children, intolerances or allergies to certain foods may worsen ADHD symptoms. Individuals with hypokalemic sensory overstimulation are sometimes diagnosed as having ADHD, raising the possibility that a subtype of ADHD has
15345-400: The film Paradise Lost 2 that human bite marks could have been left on at least one of the victims. However, these potential bite marks were first noticed in photographs years after the trials and were not inspected by a board-certified medical examiner until four years after the murders. The defense's expert testified that the mark in question was not an adult bite mark, while experts put on by
15500-521: The front page of the Memphis Commercial Appeal before any of the trials began. Shortly after Misskelley's first confession, police arrested Echols and his close friend Baldwin. Eight months after his original confession, on February 17, 1994, Misskelley made another statement to police. His lawyer, Dan Stidham, remained in the room and continually advised Misskelley not to say anything. Misskelley ignored this advice and went on to detail how
15655-425: The genital mutilation, and Echols said his knowledge was limited to what was "on TV". The prosecution claimed that Echols' knowledge was nonetheless too close to the facts, since there was no public reporting of drowning or that one victim had been mutilated more than the others. Echols testified that Detective Ridge's description of their earlier conversation (which was not recorded) regarding those particular details
15810-469: The importance of close collaboration between health services to avoid clinical overshadowing. In June 2021, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews published a systematic review of 82 studies that all confirmed or implied elevated accident-proneness in ADHD patients and whose data suggested that the type of accidents or injuries and overall risk changes in ADHD patients over the lifespan. In January 2014, Accident Analysis & Prevention published
15965-599: The individual ages. Hyperactivity tends to become less overt with age and turns into inner restlessness, difficulty relaxing or remaining still, talkativeness or constant mental activity in teens and adults with ADHD. Impulsivity in adulthood may appear as thoughtless behaviour, impatience, irresponsible spending and sensation-seeking behaviours, while inattention may appear as becoming easily bored, difficulty with organization, remaining on task and making decisions, and sensitivity to stress. Although not listed as an official symptom, emotional dysregulation or mood lability
16120-476: The investigation, though she would later recant her testimony, claiming her statements were fabricated due in part to coercion from police. On May 6, 1993 (before the victims were found later the same day), Hutcheson took a polygraph exam by Detective Don Bray at the Marion Police Department, to determine whether or not she had stolen money from her West Memphis employer. Hutcheson's young son, Aaron,
16275-490: The land to be the most densely populated that they had seen since starting their journey on the Florida coast, two years earlier. The Spanish expedition departed Arkansas two years later, leaving behind numerous Old World diseases. It was 130 years before Europeans visited this region again. The French expedition of Joliet and Marquette in 1673 found none of the towns or people that the Spanish had documented; all that remained were
16430-586: The major employers in the city are Schneider National Carriers, Southland Park Gaming & Racing, Family Dollar Distribution, FedEx National LTL, and Robert Bosch Power Tools. Family Dollar Distribution and FedEx National LTL are located in the Mid-America Industrial Park west of the city. The 1993 murders of three young boys and the subsequent convictions of Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Misskelley, Jr. brought much unwanted attention to West Memphis. The three young men convicted were known as
16585-408: The many mounds that still dot the landscape along the rivers and creeks. The original inhabitants, like the later settlers, were drawn to this region because of its fertile river bottom soil, abundant game, and thick forest. The earliest recorded immigrant to the area was Benjamin Fooy, a native of Holland , who was sent in 1795 by the Spanish governor of the large area claimed by Spain to establish
16740-497: The murders, Echols had claimed that he obtained super powers by drinking human blood. At the time of his arrest, Echols was working part-time with a roofing company and expecting a child with his girlfriend, Domini Teer. Early in the investigation, the WMPD briefly regarded two West Memphis teenagers as suspects. Chris Morgan and Brian Holland, both with drug offense histories, had abruptly departed for Oceanside, California , four days after
16895-575: The murders. During subsequent questioning, Morgan claimed a long history of drug and alcohol use, along with blackouts and memory lapses. He claimed that he "might have" killed the victims but quickly recanted this part of his statement. California police sent blood and urine samples from Morgan and Holland to the WMPD, but there is no indication WMPD investigated Morgan or Holland as suspects following their arrest in California. The relevance of Morgan's recanted statement would later be debated in trial, but it
17050-451: The national average. For the year of 2006, the violent crime index was 1989.3 violent crimes committed per 100,000 residents. The national average was 553.5 crimes committed per 100,000 residents. For 2008, the total murder risk for the city was over two and a half times the United States average, the same applied when compared to the Arkansas state average. Other forms of crime were roughly
17205-458: The other. Additionally, traumatic events in childhood are a risk factor for ADHD; they can lead to structural brain changes and the development of ADHD behaviours. Finally, the behavioural consequences of ADHD symptoms cause a higher chance of the individual experiencing trauma (and therefore ADHD leads to a concrete diagnosis of a trauma-related disorder). Some non-psychiatric conditions are also comorbidities of ADHD. This includes epilepsy ,
17360-424: The particulars of the crime scene and murder victims, including (for example) an "admission" that Misskelley watched Damien rape one of the boys. Police had initially suspected that the victims had been raped because their anuses were dilated. However, there was no forensic evidence indicating that the murdered boys had been raped. Dilation of the anus is a normal post-mortem condition. On February 5, 1994, Misskelley
17515-401: The pathophysiology of ADHD, as well as imbalances in the noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems that mediate these brain regions. Genetic factors play an important role; ADHD has a heritability rate of 70-80%. The remaining 20-30% of variance is mediated by de-novo mutations and non-shared environmental factors that provide for or produce brain injuries; there is no significant contribution of
17670-520: The pleas and sentenced the three to time served. They were released with 10-year suspended sentences , having served 18 years. On May 5, 1993, three eight-year-old boys (Steve Branch, Michael Moore, and Christopher Byers) were reported missing in West Memphis, Arkansas. The first report to the police was made by Byers's adoptive father, John Mark Byers, around 7:00 pm. The boys were allegedly last seen together by three neighbors, who in affidavits told of seeing them playing together around 6:30 pm
17825-445: The population. There were 10,051 households, out of which 36.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.4% were married couples living together, 25.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. There were 553 unmarried partner households: 475 of both sexes, 52 same-sex male, and 26 same-sex female. 24.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.6% had someone living alone who
17980-460: The prevailing cultural climate of West Memphis, situated in the Bible Belt . Echols and Baldwin were acquainted with Misskelley from school, but were not close friends with him. Echols' family was poor, received frequent visits from social workers and he rarely attended school. He and a girlfriend had run off and later broken into a trailer during a rain storm; they were arrested, though only Echols
18135-570: The rapid growth of the city that grew from thick forests and swamps earlier in the 20th century, West Memphis was nicknamed the "Wonder City" in the mid-1930s. The first automobiles began crossing the Mississippi River at Memphis in 1917 by special roadways constructed on the Harahan Bridge , which was built for rail traffic and opened in 1916. This heralded the growth of the future West Memphis as its main street, U.S. Highway 70, known as Broadway Avenue, brought an influx of automobile traffic through
18290-760: The rearing family and social environment. Very rarely, ADHD can also be the result of abnormalities in the chromosomes. In November 1999, Biological Psychiatry published a literature review by psychiatrists Joseph Biederman and Thomas Spencer found the average heritability estimate of ADHD from twin studies to be 0.8, while a subsequent family , twin, and adoption studies literature review published in Molecular Psychiatry in April 2019 by psychologists Stephen Faraone and Henrik Larsson that found an average heritability estimate of 0.74. Additionally, evolutionary psychiatrist Randolph M. Nesse has argued that
18445-460: The recording was "inaudible", but Hutcheson claimed the recording was audible. On June 2, 1993, Hutcheson told police that about two weeks after the murders were committed, she, Echols, and Misskelley attended a Wiccan meeting in Turrell, Arkansas . Hutcheson claimed that, at the Wiccan meeting, a drunken Echols openly bragged about killing the three boys. Misskelley was first questioned on June 3, 1993,
18600-400: The restaurant's ladies' room. The man was bleeding and had brushed against the restroom walls. Officer Regina Meeks responded to the call, taking the restaurant manager's report through the eatery's drive-through window . By then, the man had left, and police did not enter the restroom on that date. The day after the victims' bodies were found, Bojangles' manager Marty King, thinking there was
18755-532: The risk as do certain infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood. These infections include, among others, various viruses ( measles , varicella zoster encephalitis , rubella , enterovirus 71 ). At least 30% of children with a traumatic brain injury later develop ADHD and about 5% of cases are due to brain damage. Some studies suggest that in a small number of children, artificial food dyes or preservatives may be associated with an increased prevalence of ADHD or ADHD-like symptoms, but
18910-410: The same fashion as its northern neighbor Hopefield, became part of the Mississippi River flood plain in the 1890s. The entire area usually flooded in the spring until the St. Francis Levee District was established in 1893. However, private landowners along the Mississippi River built levees that were only three or four feet high. In 1912 and 1913, the St. Francis main levee broke, flooding the area from
19065-452: The same with the exception of larceny which was slightly above the national average. While the crime within West Memphis is typically high, it is relatively average when compared with its far larger neighbor Memphis , the same applies to other cities throughout the same region of the South. Primarily because of its central location and transportation infrastructure, West Memphis has become
19220-562: The same with their left arms and legs. Their clothing was found in the creek, some of it twisted around sticks that had been thrust into the muddy ditch bed. The clothing was mostly turned inside-out; two pairs of the boys' underwear were never recovered. Christopher Byers had lacerations to various parts of his body and mutilation of his scrotum and penis. The autopsies by forensic pathologist Frank J. Peretti indicated that Byers died of "multiple injuries", while Moore and Branch died of "multiple injuries with drowning". Police initially suspected
19375-525: The season of the year. Broadway Boulevard is the downtown district for the city of West Memphis. This downtown area has more than 84 stores and restaurants lining the street. Broadway also hosts blues singers and events in the city's "Blues on Broadway". West Memphis is one of only two cities in Arkansas (along with Hot Springs ) with a venue for parimutuel gambling , antedating the casino developments in nearby Tunica County, Mississippi , by many years. In
19530-411: The similarity in presentation between different diagnoses. The symptoms of ADHD and PTSD can have significant behavioural overlap—in particular, motor restlessness, difficulty concentrating, distractibility, irritability/anger, emotional constriction or dysregulation, poor impulse control, and forgetfulness are common in both. This could result in trauma-related disorders or ADHD being mis-identified as
19685-751: The state and the defense team stated, "Although most of the genetic material recovered from the scene was attributable to the victims of the offenses, some of it cannot be attributed to either the victims or the defendants." Following a 2010 decision by the Arkansas Supreme Court regarding newly produced DNA evidence and potential juror misconduct , the West Memphis Three negotiated a plea bargain with prosecutors. On August 19, 2011, they entered Alford pleas , which allowed them to assert their innocence while acknowledging that prosecutors have enough evidence to convict them. Judge David Laser accepted
19840-400: The state of rigor mortis , allowing the bodies to decay on the creek bank and to be exposed to sunlight and insects. The police did not telephone the coroner until almost two hours after the discovery of the floating shoe, resulting in a late appearance by the coroner. Officials failed to drain the creek in a timely manner and secure possible evidence in the water (the creek was sandbagged after
19995-441: The studies examined, the prevalence of suicide attempts in individuals with ADHD was 18.9%, compared to 9.3% in individuals without ADHD, and the findings were substantially replicated among studies which adjusted for other variables. However, the relationship between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours remains unclear due to mixed findings across individual studies and the complicating impact of comorbid psychiatric disorders. There
20150-463: The timbering rights to thousands of acres of adjacent land clearing the area that eventually gave way to fertile farmland and to the future West Memphis. The area around Bragg's Mill was known for the first few years as Bragg, Arkansas. The small community consisted of the mill, a commissary and boarding house, and a few dozen dwellings for workers. In 1914, another operation began two miles south of Bragg's Mill when William H. Hundhausen began plans for
20305-424: The time of the crime. In May 2013, for the 20th anniversary of the slayings, Weaver Elementary School principal Sheila Grissom raised funds to refurbish the memorial. At the time of their arrests, Jessie Misskelley Jr. was 17 years old, Jason Baldwin was 16 years old, and Damien Echols was 18 years old. Baldwin and Echols had been previously arrested for vandalism and shoplifting respectively, and Misskelley had
20460-581: The ventral diencephalon and the fish display a hyperactive/impulsive phenotype . For genetic variation to be used as a tool for diagnosis, more validating studies need to be performed. However, smaller studies have shown that genetic polymorphisms in genes related to catecholaminergic neurotransmission or the SNARE complex of the synapse can reliably predict a person's response to stimulant medication . Rare genetic variants show more relevant clinical significance as their penetrance (the chance of developing
20615-426: The walls and tiles of the restroom. Police detective Bryn Ridge testified that he later lost those blood scrapings. A hair identified as belonging to a black male was later recovered from a sheet wrapped around one of the victims. Police officers James Sudbury and Steve Jones felt that the crime had "cult" overtones, and that Damien Echols might be a suspect because he had an interest in occultism, and Jones felt Echols
20770-583: The year-round flooded bald cypress forest typical of this ecoregion prior to development for row agriculture lies north of West Memphis. As of the 2020 United States Census , there were 24,520 people, 9,939 households, and 5,964 families residing in the city. As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 26,245 people living in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 63.3% Black, 33.7% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.4% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, <0.0% from some other race and 0.8% from two or more races. 1.6% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of
20925-466: Was "scared of the police" during this confession. Though he was informed of his Miranda rights, Misskelley later claimed he did not fully understand them. In 1996, the Arkansas Supreme Court ruled that Misskelley's confession was voluntary and that he did, in fact, understand the Miranda warning and its consequences. Portions of Misskelley's statements to the police were leaked to the press and reported on
21080-449: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.23. In the city, the population was spread out, with 31.5% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.9 males. The median income for
21235-604: Was a typical eight-year-old. "He still believed in the Easter Bunny and Santa Claus". Christopher Mark Byers is buried in Forest Hill Cemetery East in Memphis, Tennessee . Michael Moore was the son of Todd and Dana Moore. He was eight years old, 4 ft. 2 tall, weighed 55 lbs, and had brown hair. He was last seen wearing blue pants, a blue Boy Scouts of America shirt, and an orange and blue Boy Scout hat, and riding
21390-477: Was also present, and proved such a distraction that Bray was unable to administer the polygraph. Aaron, a playmate of the murdered boys', mentioned to Bray that the boys had been killed at "the playhouse." When the bodies proved to have been discovered near where Aaron indicated, Bray asked Aaron for further details, and Aaron claimed that he had witnessed the murders committed by Satanists who spoke Spanish . Aaron's further statements were wildly inconsistent, and he
21545-572: Was awarded custody and later married Terry Hobbs. Branch was eight years old, 4 ft. 2 tall, weighed 65 lbs, and had blond hair. He was last seen wearing blue jeans and a white T-shirt, and riding a black and red bicycle. He was an honor student. He lived with his mother, Pamela Hobbs, his stepfather, Terry Hobbs, and a four-year-old half-sister, Amanda. Steve Edward Branch is buried in Mount Zion Cemetery in Steele, Missouri . Christopher Byers
21700-513: Was born to Melissa DeFir and Ricky Murray. His parents divorced when he was four years old and shortly afterward his mother married John Mark Byers, who adopted the boy. Byers was eight years old, 4 ft. tall, weighed 52 lbs, and had light brown hair. He was last seen wearing blue jeans, dark shoes, and a white long-sleeved shirt. He lived with his mother, Sharon Melissa Byers, his adoptive father, John Mark Byers, and his stepbrother, Shawn Ryan Clark, aged 13. According to his mother, Christopher
21855-501: Was capable of murdering children. The police interviewed Echols on May 7, two days after the bodies were discovered. During a polygraph examination, he denied any involvement. The polygraph examiner claimed that Echols' chart indicated deception. On May 9, during a formal interview by Detective Bryn Ridge, Echols mentioned that one of the victims had wounds to the genitals; law enforcement viewed this knowledge as incriminating. No physical evidence connected Echols, Baldwin or Misskelley to
22010-662: Was charged with burglary. Echols spent several months in a mental institution in Arkansas and afterward received "full disability" status from the Social Security Administration . During Echols' trial, Dr. George W. Woods testified (for the defense) that Echols suffered from: serious mental illness characterized by grandiose and persecutory delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations , disordered thought processes, substantial lack of insight, and chronic, incapacitating mood swings. At his death penalty sentencing hearing, Echols' psychologist reported that months before
22165-576: Was completed in June 2004. Public parks in the area include Franklin Park, Grimsley Park, Hicks Park, Hightower Park, Horton Park, Martin Luther King Jr. Park, Matthews Park, Rowe Park, Tenth Street Park, Tilden Rodgers Sports Complex and Worthington Park. The West Memphis Gateway serves as the main entrance to the city of West Memphis. The LED lighting for the overpass support beams light at night according to
22320-414: Was convicted by a jury of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder. The court sentenced him to life plus 40 years in prison. His conviction was appealed, but the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed the conviction. Three weeks later, Echols and Baldwin went on trial. The prosecution accused the three young men of committing a Satanic murder. The prosecution called Dale W. Griffis,
22475-443: Was elected as its third mayor and served from 1932 to 1944. The construction of the railroads, the establishment of lumber operations and the construction of two new U.S. highways fueled the growth of West Memphis. In 1930, the population reached 895. By 1940, the population grew to 2,225 and by the 1950 census , the population had more than quadrupled in size to 9,112, making West Memphis the fastest growing city in Arkansas. Due to
22630-542: Was eventually barred from admission as evidence. The sighting of a black male as a possible alternate suspect was implied during the beginning of the Misskelley trial. According to local West Memphis police officers, on the evening of May 5, 1993, at 8:42 pm, workers in the Bojangles' restaurant located about a mile from the crime scene in Robin Hood Hills reported seeing a black male who seemed "mentally disoriented" inside
22785-596: Was in turn thrown out by the Arkansas Supreme Court as to all three defendants on November 4, 2010. West Memphis, Arkansas West Memphis is the largest city in Crittenden County, Arkansas , United States. The population was 24,520 at the 2020 census , ranking it as the state's 20th largest city. It is part of the Memphis metropolitan area , and is located directly across the Mississippi River from Memphis, Tennessee . Native Americans lived in
22940-427: Was inaccurate (and indeed that some other claims by Ridge were "lies"). Mara Leveritt , an investigative journalist and the author of Devil's Knot , argues that Echols' information may have come from police leaks, such as Detective Gitchell's comments to Mark Byers, that circulated amongst the local public. The defense team objected when the prosecution attempted to question Echols about his past violent behaviors, but
23095-575: Was not an adaptative trait in ancient times. The disorder may remain at a stable rate by the balance of genetic mutations and removal rate (natural selection) across generations; over thousands of years, these genetic variants become more stable, decreasing disorder prevalence. Throughout human evolution, the EFs involved in ADHD likely provide the capacity to bind contingencies across time thereby directing behaviour toward future over immediate events so as to maximise future social consequences for humans. ADHD has
23250-427: Was opened in the late 1950s, diverting traffic away from former routes through the middle of America's towns, West Memphis' Broadway Avenue was the city's center of commerce, with retail stores, tourist courts and hotels and office buildings. Decline of Broadway Avenue was rapid after the traffic through the town diminished with the opening of the interstate highways. Although the three blocks of East Broadway contained in
23405-418: Was preparing an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 2007, Echols petitioned for a retrial, based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 which might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted. The petition failed when the original trial judge, Judge David Burnett , disallowed presentation of this information in his court. This ruling
23560-473: Was shown to reduce connections in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex more broadly. Conduct disorder involves more impairment in motivation control than ADHD. Intermittent explosive disorder is characterised by sudden and disproportionate outbursts of anger and co-occurs in individuals with ADHD more frequently than in the general population. Anxiety and mood disorders are frequent comorbidities. Anxiety disorders have been found to occur more commonly in
23715-581: Was unable to identify Baldwin, Echols, or Misskelley from photo line-ups, and there was no "playhouse" at the location Aaron indicated. A police officer leaked portions of Aaron's statements to the press contributing to the growing belief that the murders were part of a Satanic rite. On or about June 1, 1993, Hutcheson agreed to police suggestions to place hidden microphones in her home during an encounter with Echols. Misskelley agreed to introduce Hutcheson to Echols. During their conversation, Hutcheson reported that Echols made no incriminating statements. Police said
23870-561: Was unlike any they had ever investigated. Police refused an unsolicited offer of aid and consultation from the violent crimes experts of the Arkansas State Police , and critics suggested this was due to the WMPD's being under investigation by the Arkansas State Police for suspected theft from the Crittenden County drug task force. Leveritt further noted that some of the physical evidence was stored in paper sacks obtained from
24025-521: Was washed away. An early settlement that was established for ferry operations between Memphis and Arkansas in the early 1880s was given the name West Memphis. This small settlement, located directly south of the present day Memphis & Arkansas Bridge , never incorporated and died out shortly after ferry traffic ceased due to the completion of the Frisco Bridge across the Mississippi River in 1892. In addition to its lost ferry operations, this area, in
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