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190-578: Construction of the complex was preceded by a seven-year zoning and legal battle over the future of the Georgetown waterfront. This dispute led to the designation and development of a new national park , the Georgetown Waterfront Park . A two-year controversy over the design of the complex, which included accusations of malfeasance by a D.C. agency, followed. Construction began in November 1981, and

380-402: A waste sorting facility, and construction materials depot occupied portions of the site. Between 1960 and 1970, development of the Georgetown waterfront was studied five times. But none of the recommendations made by these studies were acted upon. Many D.C. residents, including those in Georgetown, strongly opposed plans to build a series of superhighways throughout the city — including along

570-543: A $ 20 million townhouse condominium development. Meanwhile, Weissberg Development Corp. purchased the Wilkins-Rogers Company Flour Mill site (bounded by K Street NW, Potomac Street NW, 33rd Street NW, and the C&;O Canal) for redevelopment into an $ 18 million mixed-use office and luxury apartment building. Both projects received CFA approval, even though construction could not yet proceed. On November 2, 1977,

760-735: A $ 250,000 study intended to spur zoning changes which would permit large-scale redevelopment of the waterfront. Members of the study committee included the NCPC, GCA, the District of Columbia Highway and Traffic Department , the Department of Housing and Urban Development , the Department of the Interior , the Department of Transportation , and the United States Commission of Fine Arts (CFA). Some developers attempted to move ahead with construction before

950-457: A $ 50 million complex of townhouse condominia, office buildings, and retail space in the area. The height of the structure would range from three to six stories. The development required the approval of the CFA, and D.C. City Council had to agree to cancel the unbuilt 30th Street, 31st Street, and Thomas Jefferson Street extensions (intended to reach the waterfront). Georgetown residents committed to turning

1140-450: A 1,000-seat facility to be designed by Warner LeRoy (then-owner of the famous Tavern on the Green ). The remaining retail (a gourmet food shop, an office supply store, a pharmacy , etc.) would be leased to businesses catering to the needs of the condominium owners. The eastern tower was designed to accommodate retail and restaurants on the ground floor with office space above. The western tower

1330-456: A 32" roughing mill. The completely electrified Indiana Harbor plant #2 was completed in 1917. On January 16, 44 Koppers coke ovens commenced production, bringing the company's total to 130 ovens, with a Koppers by-product and benzol recovery plant. On April 24, blast furnace Madeline No. 3, with a rated capacity of 500-600 tons/day, was blown in. Ten open hearth furnaces, 20 soaking pits, a 40" blooming mill, and new docks were also installed in

1520-455: A PUD provides flexibility to create convenient ways for residents to access commercial and other amenities. In the US, residents of a PUD have an ongoing role in management of the development through a homeowner's association . Pattern zoning is a zoning technique in which a municipality provides licensed, pre-approved building designs, typically with an expedited permitting process. Pattern zoning

1710-556: A bill to ban construction on the project until the Federal Emergency Management Agency (which was already conducting a floodplain study of the area) was complete. Mayor Marion Barry opposed the legislation. Although no floodplain study requirement was imposed, another nine months passed while final architectural drawings and building permits were secured. By July 1981, the cost of the project had risen to $ 154 million ( primarily due to inflation ). In September 1981,

1900-498: A collective bargaining contract. SWOC called for a nationwide strike on the "little steel" companies of Republic, Youngstown, Bethlehem, and Inland due to their refusals to sign contracts and allow collective bargaining. On May 26, the strike shut down operations at Indiana Harbor. Inland workers were allowed to strike without police intervention. On May 30, a large number of members from Local 1010 arrived in South Chicago to support

2090-516: A combination of private and public planning. Other critics of zoning argue that zoning laws are a disincentive to provide housing which results in an increase in housing costs and a decrease in productive economic output. For example, A 2017 study showed that if all states deregulated their zoning laws only halfway to the level of Texas, a state known for low zoning regulations, their GDP would increase by 12 percent due to more productive workers and opportunity. Furthermore, critics note that it impedes

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2280-586: A compact geographic area. The mixing of land uses is common throughout the world. Mixed-use zoning has particular relevance in the United States, where it is proposed as a remedy to the problems caused by widespread single-use zoning. Form-based or intensity zoning regulates not the type of land use, but the form that land use may take. For instance, form-based zoning in a dense area may insist on low setbacks, high density, and pedestrian accessibility. Form-based codes (FBCs) are designed to directly respond to

2470-404: A compatible group of uses are allowed to co-exist - or a combination of both single and mixed-use zones in one system. The main approaches include use-based, form-based, performance and incentive zoning. There are also several additional zoning provisions used in combination with the main approaches. Use-based or functional zoning systems can comprise single-use zones, mixed-use zones—where

2660-400: A compatible group of uses are allowed to co-exist —or a combination of both single- and mixed-use zones in one system. The primary purpose of single-use zoning is to geographically separate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is also used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community. Single-use zoning

2850-502: A fountain. The George Hyman Construction Company of Bethesda, Maryland , was the general contractor on the Washington Harbour construction project. Structural engineer Zivan Cohen of the firm Tadjer-Cohen-Edelson and landscape architect James Urban also worked on the complex. By November 1983, the cement plant was gone, excavation of the foundations was complete, pilings for the buildings were being driven, and steel sheeting

3040-505: A free economy, as poor zoning restrictions hinder the more efficient usage of a given area. Even without zoning restrictions, a landfill, for example, would likely gravitate to cheaper land and not a residential area. Single-use zoning laws can get in the way of creative developments like mixed-use buildings and can even stop harmless activities like yard sales. The Houston example of non-zoning or private zoning with no restriction on particular land use but with other development code shows

3230-584: A high degree of flexibility, but may be complex to administer. The more a proposed development takes advantage of incentive criteria, the more closely it has to be reviewed on a discretionary basis. The initial creation of the incentive structure in order to best serve planning priorities also may be challenging and often requires extensive ongoing revision to maintain balance between incentive magnitude and value given to developers. Incentive zoning may be most effective in communities with well-established standards and where demand for both land and for specific amenities

3420-411: A larger return on their investment, while others wanted to reinvest profits back into the company. Reinvestment would allow them to replace the old machinery that was in constant need of repair. It was decided that they would reinvest the profits, causing Adams to leave the company. He sold his shares to L.E. Block, oldest son of Joseph. The Block family led Inland Steel through its early years. In 1901,

3610-467: A major controversy broke out over the actions of Carol B. Thompson, director of the District of Columbia Office of Historic Preservation (DCHPO). As part of the building permitting process, DCHPO was required to verify that the project conformed to the appearance, arrangement, building materials, color, height, style, and texture of the surrounding buildings and did not damage the character of neighborhood. With

3800-570: A major impetus to a new effort to retain a portion of the waterfront as parkland. In April 1979, the Georgetown Waterfront Task Force — an ad hoc group consisting of the NCPC, National Park Service (NPS), and D.C. Office of Planning and Development (a unit of the mayor's office) — issued a draft redevelopment plan for the area bounded by Rock Creek Park, the Potomac River, Key Bridge, and the C&O Canal. The plan (which built on

3990-410: A major medical insurance plan. Dental benefits were added one year later. Vision was included in 1979. Inland's union, Local 1010, was viewed as the most left-leaning and radical of the steelworkers' unions, earning it the nickname of the "red local." A high frequency of wildcat strikes caused the local to gain a reputation as being militant. In 1936, Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC) 1010

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4180-570: A man whose sailboat had gone adrift on Lake Michigan. The Wilfred Sykes was one of several ships that joined the unsuccessful rescue efforts in the 1975 sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald . After the 1998 sale of Inland Steel, Wilfred Sykes came under the ownership of the Indiana Harbor Steamship Company and the management of Central Marine Logistics. The ship was still in service as of 2024. At 760 feet in length,

4370-424: A menu of compliance options where a property developer can earn points or credits for limiting environmental impacts, including affordable housing units, or providing public amenities. In addition to the menu and points system, there may be additional discretionary criteria included in the review process. Performance zoning may be applied only to a specific type of development, such as housing, and may be combined with

4560-508: A new corporate headquarters building, which was completed in 1957. In 1959, Inland gained additional sources of iron ore when the company invested in The Wabash Iron Company of Canada's Labrador region. A new expansion program was started in 1962 with the construction of a new 80-inch continuous hot strip mill. Inland also got its first oxygen-steelmaking shop. The first open-hearth shop, which had been in operation for 60 years,

4750-431: A number of sub-categories, for example, within the commercial category there may be separate districts for small retail, large retail, office use, lodging and others, while industrial may be subdivided into heavy manufacturing, light assembly and warehouse uses. Special districts may also be created for purposes like public facilities, recreational amenities, and green space. The application of single-use zoning has led to

4940-571: A plan for a workday consisting of three 8-hour shifts, but the company decided that the plan could not be used until the other steel firms adopted a similar one. In 1928, Inland purchased White Marble Lime Company, renaming it Inland Lime and Stone Company. Port Inland in Michigan was built around these limestone and dolomite quarries. In 1930, the firm completed a new office headquarters in East Chicago, which still survives. In 1935, Inland acquired

5130-589: A program for workplace safety in 1911. It was credited for reducing time off work due to accidents by one-third. In that same year, the Inland Fellowship Club was formed. Seventy percent of Indiana Harbor employees contributed 10 cents per month to a fund for worker relief. Inland used its own supply of coal to provide donations for workers in need. During the Great Depression , despite their own reduced income, many workers contributed 3% of their salary to

5320-422: A property owner and a local government to rezone a property in exchange for a commitment from the developer. It typically involves loosening restrictions on how the property can be used. Contract zoning is controversial and sometimes prohibited because it deviates from the broader planning process and has been considered an illegal bargaining away of the government's police powers to enforce zoning. Fiscal zoning

5510-418: A quasi-judicial process that enables land uses that, because of their special nature, may be suitable only in certain locations, or when arranged or operated in a particular manner. Uses which might be disallowed under current zoning, such as a school or a community center, can be permitted via conditional-use permits. Contract zoning is a controversial practice in which there is a bilateral agreement between

5700-492: A recession the following year ended the temporary steel boom. The market for domestic steel remained in a downturn until 1978. The 1980s began with another downturn for Inland and other companies in the domestic steel industry. Foreign companies offered lower prices that U.S. companies could not match. Between 1982 and 1985, Inland lost $ 456 million. During this time, the company began to sell off many of its subsidiaries, including raw materials and transportation services. Inland

5890-425: A reduction in lot sizes. The term planned unit development (PUD) can refer either to the regulatory process or to the development itself. A PUD groups multiple compatible land uses within a single unified development. A PUD can be residential, mixed-use, or a larger master-planned community. Rather than being governed by standard zoning ordinances, the developer negotiates terms with the local government. At best,

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6080-593: A single space. Mixed-use zoning can be vertical, within a single building, or horizontal, involving multiple buildings. Planning and community activist Jane Jacobs wrote extensively on the connections between the separation of uses and the failure of urban renewal projects in New York City. She advocated dense mixed-use developments and walkable streets . In contrast to villages and towns, in which many residents know one another, and low-density outer suburbs that attract few visitors, cities and inner city areas have

6270-555: A small harbor. Georgetown Inland argued that a construction ban, however temporary, would drive developers permanently away from the waterfront. The GCA sued to stop construction of the building, but the United States District Court for the District of Columbia refused its request on October 12. On September 29, the D.C. Zoning Commission lifted its June 29 ban and said that construction on the 100-acre (400,000 m) Georgetown waterfront could proceed. The GCA appealed to

6460-432: A smaller square-foot footprint. Although the NCPC did not immediately incorporate the report into its plans, it made it clear that it favored the report's conclusions. With the zoning commission seemingly at odds with the NCPC, in early January 1978 the CFA proposed a resolution: The construction of two waterside parks and a large underground parking garage on the Georgetown waterfront. The city said it would try to implement

6650-688: A steel that was resistant to extreme temperature, unlike those made from the Bessemer or acid open hearth processes. Its primary mill, built in 1901, was situated on a large landfill protruding out into Lake Michigan next to the Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal . The steel mill's shoreline location enabled it to take in steelmaking commodities, such as iron ore, coal , and limestone , by lake freighter . Throughout much of its existence, Inland Steel operated its own fleet of bulk carrier vessels. The company's union, Steel Workers Organizing Committee Local 1010,

6840-411: A storage barge. During this process, a cutter's torch ignited a fire. The galley and three staterooms were damaged. Clarence B. Randall was sold three more times before being scrapped in 1987. In 1976, the newly constructed MV Joseph L Block entered service for Inland. At 728 feet in length, she had a carrying capacity of over 37,000 tons. She had two groundings in 1990, with one minor in nature and

7030-414: A superhighway. Instead, it called for the demolition of the existing Whitehurst Freeway . The study's authors said the freeway blocked vistas, inhibited development of the waterfront, was poorly engineered, and caused traffic back-ups at both of its ends. The report urged the city to bury the freeway in an enclosed trench and sell the air rights above it to developers or use it as parkland. The 1970 study

7220-531: A system of use-based districts. Performance zoning is flexible, logical, and transparent while offering a form of accountability. These qualities are in contrast with the seemingly arbitrary nature of use-based zoning. Performance zoning can also fairly balance a region's environmental and housing needs across local jurisdictions. Performance zoning balances principles of markets and private property rights with environmental protection goals. However, performance zoning can be extremely difficult to implement due to

7410-544: A type of furnace that has scrap and pig iron thrown in and heated to a very high temperature. In August of the following year, the plant at Indiana Harbor was put into operation. It had four 40-ton open hearth furnaces, a 32' blooming mill, 7 sheet and bar mills, and a 24" universal bar mill. Company headquarters were in the Marquette Building in Chicago. In August 1906, a new 50 acre tract with 4000 feet of water frontage

7600-546: A week, and Washington Harbour Associates said it would begin construction immediately thereafter. Construction on Washington Harbour began in November 1981 with demolition of an abandoned cement plant. On October 1, 1982, the D.C. Court of Appeals upheld its ruling of November 14, 1981, which essentially ended GCA's attempt to enjoin the DCHPO order. Some design changes occurred during construction. The United States Army Corps of Engineers had authority to approve any construction in

7790-434: Is a broad term that consists of several alternatives to use-based zoning that incorporate information and communication technologies. There are a number of different techniques to accomplish smart zoning. Floating zones, cluster zoning, and planned unit developments (PUDs) are possible—even as the conventional use-based code exists —or the conventional code may be completely replaced by a smart performance or form-based code, as

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7980-425: Is a controversial practice in which a small part of a larger zoning district is rezoned in a way that is not consistent with the community's broader planning process. While a jurisdiction can rezone even a single parcel of land in some cases, spot zoning is often disallowed when the change would conflict with the policies and objectives of existing land-use plans. Other factors that may be considered in these cases are

8170-507: Is a controversial practice in which local governments use land use regulation, including zoning, to encourage land uses that generate high tax revenue and exclude uses that place a high demand on public services. Environmental activists argue that putting everyday uses out of walking distance of each other leads to an increase in traffic, since people have to own cars in order to live a normal life where their basic human needs are met, and get in their cars and drive to meet their needs throughout

8360-616: Is a zoning district that overlaps one or more zoning districts to address a particular concern or feature of that area, such as wetlands, historic buildings or transit-oriented development . Overlay zoning has the advantage of providing targeted regulation to address a specific issue, such as a natural hazard, without having to significantly rewrite an existing zoning ordinance. However, development of overlay zoning regulation often requires significant technical expertise. Transferable development rights, also known as transfer of development credits and transferable development units, are based on

8550-578: Is established by States and Territories , hence each State or Territory has different zoning rules. Land use zones are generally defined at local government level , and most often called Planning Schemes. In reality, however in all cases the state governments have an absolute ability to overrule the local decision-making. There are administrative appeal processes such as VCAT to challenge decisions. Inland Steel Company 41°40′06″N 87°26′25″W  /  41.6684°N 87.4402°W  / 41.6684; -87.4402 The Inland Steel Company

8740-493: Is high. However, hidden costs may still offset its benefits. Incentive zoning has also been criticized for increasing traffic, reducing natural light, and offering developers larger rewards than those reaped by the public. Additional zoning provisions exist that are not their own distinct types of zoning but seek to improve existing varieties through the incorporation of flexible practices and other elements such as information and communication technologies (ICTs). Smart zoning

8930-417: Is six stories high. The total interior footage was just under 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m), although leaseable interior space was just 536,000 square feet (49,800 m). The main building consisted of two block long structures. The southern half of each building was curved, and these curved wings surrounded a large central fountain. This area was open on the southern end. Aligned on a north-south axis,

9120-450: Is the ability to create flexible zoning districts for smoother transitions between adjacent properties with different uses. Inclusionary zoning refers to policies to increase the number of housing units within a development that are affordable to low and middle-income households. These policies can be mandatory as part of performance zoning or based on voluntary incentives, such as allowing greater density of development. An overlay zone

9310-428: Is used to reduce barriers to housing development, create more affordable housing, reduce burdens on permit-review staff, and create quality housing designs within a certain neighborhood or jurisdiction. Pattern zoning may also be used to promote certain building types such as missing middle housing and affordable small-scale commercial properties. In some cases, a municipality purchases design patterns and constructs

9500-723: Is where only one kind of use is allowed per zone, or district. It is also known as exclusionary zoning or, in the United States, as Euclidean zoning because of a court case in Euclid, Ohio , Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co. 272 U.S. 365 (1926), which established its constitutionality. It has been the dominant system of zoning in North America, especially the United States , since its first implementation. Commonly defined single-use districts include: residential, commercial, and industrial. Each category can have

9690-456: The D.C. Superior Court blocked all development in the area while the suit was pending. On February 6, 1975, the final version of the federally funded consultant's study was issued. It recommended only low- and medium-rise buildings on the waterfront (40 feet (12 m) to 60 feet (18 m) high), rather than the high-rise structures (90 feet (27 m) high) approved by the D.C. Zoning Commission in November. It also recommended buildings with

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9880-641: The National Park Service . Under home rule legislation, however, the zoning commission membership would be a chair, vice-chair, and public member appointed by the mayor and subject to approval by the D.C. City Council ; the Architect of the Capitol; and the director of the National Park Service. The District of Columbia Home Rule Act was due to come into effect on January 1, 1975. In a surprise move,

10070-621: The New Urbanism movement. To accommodate the New Urbanist vision of walkable communities combining cafés , restaurants , offices and residential development in a single area, mixed-use zones have been created within some zoning systems. These still use the basic regulatory mechanisms of zoning, excluding incompatible uses such as heavy industry or sewage farms , while allowing compatible uses such as residential, commercial and retail activities so that people can live, work and socialise within

10260-636: The Potomac River on the Georgetown waterfront. Each of the five different studies proposed the construction of superhighways in and around the area, and each time the controversy surrounding the recommendation made the study politically unpalatable. A sixth study was made in 1970. Commissioned by the National Capitol Planning Commission (NCPC) and the Georgetown Citizens' Association (GCA), the report made no recommendation to build

10450-551: The Roman Empire (31 BC – 476 AD). Throughout the Age of Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution , cultural and socio-economic shifts led to the rapid increase in the enforcement and invention of urban regulations. The shifts were informed by a new scientific rationality, the advent of mass production and complex manufacturing, and the subsequent onset of urbanisation. Industry leaving the home reshaped modern cities. The definition of home

10640-643: The SS Edward L. Ryerson entered service in 1960. Because she was designed for optimal service in transporting iron ore, the cargo hold of the Edward L Ryerson was smaller than other ships of comparable overall size and had a square bottom. In 1998, she was acquired by the Indiana Harbor Steamship Company and was under management of Central Marine Logistics. Edward L Ryerson entered her first long-term layup around that time, which lasted until 2006. In 2009, she entered another period of inactivity. In 1962, Inland purchased

10830-564: The United States with the Los Angeles zoning ordinances of 1904 and the New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution . There are a great variety of zoning types, some of which focus on regulating building form and the relation of buildings to the street with mixed uses, known as form-based, others with separating land uses, known as use-based, or a combination thereof. Use-based zoning systems can comprise single-use zones, mixed-use zones - where

11020-472: The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit . The court of appeals issued a temporary injunction banning construction, pending resolution of additional issues by the district court. A preliminary version of the federal study was issued on November 2, 1972. Even though Georgetown Inland was proceeding with its plans (it now intended to construct two nine-story office towers),

11210-561: The W. W. Holloway (formerly the SS Henry A. Hawgood ), she was taken under tow by the Jantar. After a journey of about six weeks, they arrived in Recife and were scrapped. In 1946, Inland purchased the motor vessel Steel Chemist from U.S. Steel, which they renamed The Inland. With two cranes mounted on the deck a length of 258 feet, she was capable of delivering steel products to most ports along

11400-428: The lame duck zoning commission reversed course in late November 1974 and approved the proposed revised zoning rules for the Georgetown waterfront. The Washington Post reported that the rezoning process would have to begin again under the home-rule zoning commission, and there was little chance that the new commission would be able to approve anything like the proposed regulations. The existing zoning commission acted,

11590-407: The 1.0-million ton (0.9m tonne ) mark for the first time. A second plant opened that year. The new plant was run completely by electricity. The plan for electrification had been developed by a Westinghouse engineer named Wilfred Sykes, who later joined the company in 1922. Philip D. Block became president in 1919, taking over for Alexis W. Thompson, who had held the position since 1908. He devised

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11780-454: The 552 foot long J.J. Sullivan. Following the acquisition, the 55 year-old ship was renamed Clarence B Randall. Although she had numerous incidents under her previous name and ownership, Clarence B Randall only had one while serving the Inland Fleet. She ran aground in 1973, but was able to free herself a short tine later without receiving any damage. She was sold in 1976 for conversion to

11970-534: The C&O Canal generally held buildings to six-stories as well. However, developers could seek exemptions allowing construction up to nine stories for mixed-use developments. In the W-3 area bounded by 30th and 31st Streets NW, the Potomac River, and the C&;O Canal , buildings were permitted to reach nine stories. The square footage of a single building was also restricted in all three sub-zones, although this could be exceeded if

12160-427: The C&O Canal was converted into W-1 zoned space. Public hearings on the revised plan began on August 6. The NCPC opposed the proposed regulations, arguing that it permitted buildings that were too high, did not regulate rooftop structures (such as penthouses or towers), provided too many exceptions for industrial use, and did not adequately protect historic structures. A group of local citizens and consultants known as

12350-635: The C&O Canal, as well as a small parcel on the opposite bank of the C&O Canal bounded by Wisconsin Avenue NW, Grace Street NW, and Potomac Street NW. The company said it would retain the historic Canal Warehouse and the historic building facades on Wisconsin Avenue, and construct a luxury shopping mall and south-facing condominia on the site. This project came the Georgetown Park shopping complex. The final legal development occurred when, on October 17, 1978,

12540-507: The CFA having approved final architectural drawings and WHA having obtained assurances from the National Park Service regarding park construction, DCHPO approval was the last step required before the city would issue a building permit. The controversy began when Thompson visited the proposed construction site in late August 1981. She failed to notify the GCA or WHA, which was a violation of DCHPO rules. On September 12, Thompson issued an order approving

12730-518: The CFA's January 1978 proposal) called for a new park to be developed between 31st Street NW and Key Bridge along the Potomac River. The Chessie System railway, which owned the land, agreed to donate a 160-foot (49 m) wide strip next to the river for the park. Height restrictions for buildings immediately next to the park on K Street would be imposed, limiting structures to just 30 feet (9.1 m), while other structures could be 50 to 60 feet (15 to 18 m) in height. The plan reduced development in

12920-539: The CFA's proposals, even though some city officials were reluctant to address the waterfront in such a piecemeal fashion. With the GCA suit against the approved zoning changes still pending in April 1977, Papermill Associates (a partnership between the real estate firm of Holland & Lyons and rental car magnate Warren Avis ) purchased the site of an unused waterfront paper mill (bounded by Cecil Alley NW, Grace Street NW, K Street NW, and Potomac Street NW) and began planning

13110-512: The Chicago-area steelmaker had 14,000 employees and was producing 3.4 million tons (3.0m tonnes) per year. Inland received two awards for military production in 1943. The Army/Navy "E" of achievement was given for high production of wartime material. The "M" from the U.S. Maritime Administration was for outstanding achievement in vital wartime contracts. Inland Steel became fully vertically integrated in 1944. Philip D. Block retired his presidency

13300-461: The D.C. Court of Appeals ruled in Citizens Association of Georgetown v. Zoning Commission of the District of Columbia , 392 A.2d 1027 (D.C. App., 1978) that the November 1974 zoning regulations had been properly adopted even though they did fit with the NCPC's master plan. The decision essentially put an end to the GCA's attempt to prevent rezoning. The D.C. Court of Appeals decision provided

13490-458: The D.C. Superior Court ruled that the November 1974 zoning regulations had been properly adopted, even though they did not fit with the NCPC's master plan for the city. The GCA asked the court to issue a temporary injunction on construction in the area while they appealed the ruling. Then, in an unrelated case, the District of Columbia Court of Appeals issued a ruling on December 2 regarding zoning on Capitol Hill . The D.C. appellate court held that

13680-492: The D.C. Zoning Commission could not adopt decisions inconsistent with the NCPC's master plan. The GCA immediately refiled with the superior court, citing the Capitol Hill case and seeking to overturn the November 1974 zoning regulations. The same day that the court of appeals issued its decision, Western Development Corp. announced the purchase of most of the area bounded by Wisconsin Avenue NW, M Street NW, Potomac Street NW, and

13870-502: The Fellowship Club. The contributions were matched by the company. Funded by vending machine profits at Indiana Harbor Works, Inland Athletic Association was formed in 1934. Employees participated in team and individual competitive sports such as bowling, horseshoes, golf, baseball, softball, basketball, and tennis. In 1936, a medical clinic was set up at Indiana Harbor to serve workers and their families. Contributory group insurance

14060-469: The Georgetown Planning Group argued that the proposed rules permitted development that was too dense and too tall, and which would draw too much automobile and pedestrian traffic to the area. On November 15, the zoning board postponed action on the rezoning plan until the NCPC finished its regional planning exercise for the same area. Zoning of the Georgetown waterfront took a new direction with

14250-540: The Georgetown waterfront, and the D.C. Zoning Commission acted immediately to implement these proposals. After public hearings on May 9, the zoning commission proposed new regulations on June 29. These rules permitted much more dense development, and established three sub-zones. In the W-1 area bounded by the Potomac River, 31st Street NW, Key Bridge , and K Street NW, buildings were restricted to six stories in height. The W-2 area bounded by 31st Street NW, K Street NW, Key Bridge, and

14440-519: The Great Lakes after World War II was the SS Wilfred Sykes. Named after the president of the company at that time, the 678 foot long vessel entered service in 1950. She was designed to operate with greater speed and carrying capacity, and was considered the prototype for all future lake freighters . In her two years as the largest ship on the lakes , Wilfred Sykes set five records for hauling

14630-408: The Great Lakes. The Inland only served in the fleet for two years, which were without incident. She was sold to Transit Tankers & Terminals, of Quebec, where she was converted to a liquid bulk carrier and rechristened as Transinland. During an extended period of being laid-up, vandals caused serious damage to the ship's internal structure. She was scrapped in 1980. The first U.S. ship built on

14820-682: The NPS to buy just the Chessie System and Inland Steel land in the area and turn it into a national park. This legislation began to move forward in the Senate, which provided new urgency to settle the park issue on the waterfront. On July 13, 1979, Secretary of the Interior Cecil D. Andrus , NCPC chairman David Childs , D.C. planning director James O. Gibson, and Western Develop Corp. president Herbert S. Miller signed an agreement to proceed with development of

15010-506: The Potomac River. In March 1983, WHA asked permission to dredge a channel in the Potomac that would lead to the elliptical boat basin in the center of the project, and for approval of a floating dock to provide additional boating facilities. WHA also asked the Corps to consent to construction of a seawall on the river's edge, and to use the material dredged from the Potomac to fill in the area behind

15200-512: The U.S. court of appeals reimposed its temporary injunction eight days later. The appellate court delayed a final ruling in the matter until February 1, 1973. On February 6, the court of appeals extended its temporary injunction for 45 more days. It held that the D.C. Zoning Commission had improperly lifted its construction ban without providing a written justification. The court ordered the zoning board to issue that justification within 45 days. The zoning board provided its justification, and on May 8

15390-485: The U.S., but profitability continued to be difficult to attain. Although Inland was still the largest steel distributor and fourth largest manufacturer in the United States, the company did not have a profitable year in the 1990s until 1994. The following year, the company formed Inland International to sell and distribute products to companies in Mexico, China, Hong Kong, South Africa, and India. To appease major shareholders,

15580-671: The United Steelworkers Association (USWA). In the same year, the National War Labor Board ordered the "little steel" companies to allow unionization. Inland became the first to comply with this order on August 3, when they signed a contract with the United Steelworkers of America . Strikes in both 1946 and 1947 resulted in a total wage increase of 34 cents per hour. A monthlong strike in 1949 helped workers gain another wage increase and pension plan. In

15770-624: The ability of those that wish to provide charitable housing from doing so. For example, in 2022, Gloversville's Free Methodist Church in New York wished to provide 40 beds for the homeless population in -4 degree weather and were inhibited from doing so. Corruption is a challenge for zoning. Some have argued that zoning laws increase economic inequality . Empirical effectiveness estimates show some zoning approaches can contribute to housing crisis . The legal framework for land use zoning in Australia

15960-489: The area by 75 percent. In March 1978, Senator Charles Mathias of Maryland introduced legislation in Congress to designate the entire area bounded by Rock Creek Park, Key Bridge, the Potomac River and the C&O Canal a national park. The controversial legislation would have forced all development in the area to cease. The legislation died, but in early 1979 Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon introduced legislation requiring

16150-473: The area. The Chessie System turned over its strip of land for development of the park, and the NPS agreed to build a park there at a cost of $ 7 to $ 12 million. In addition, a trapezoidal portion of the northeast part of the waterfront area, consisting of land owned by the Chessie System, Western Development, Inland Steel, and other landowners, would be purchased by a joint venture owned by the Chessie System and Western Development. The joint venture pledged to build

16340-449: The capital himself and brought in his 22-year-old son, Philip D. Block. After purchasing Buckingham's land and machinery, Inland Steel Company was officially in business on October 30, 1893. Inland Steel was immediately successful, making a small profit in 1894. A slightly larger profit was earned in 1895. A disagreement broke out between the founders on what should be done with these profits. William H. Adams and some other investors wanted

16530-624: The case in London or New York. The construction of the Montparnasse Tower in 1973 led to an outcry. As a result, two years after its completion the construction of buildings over seven storeys high in the city centre was banned. Performance zoning, also known as flexible or impact zoning or effects-based planning, was first advocated by Lane Kendig in 1973. It uses performance-based or goal-oriented criteria to establish review parameters for proposed development projects. Performance zoning may use

16720-407: The case of form-based zoning, the differing regulations may govern the density, size and shape of allowed buildings whatever their use. The planning rules for each zone determine whether planning permission for a given development may be granted. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land. It may indicate the size and dimensions of lots that land may be subdivided into, or

16910-482: The city of Miami did in 2019. The incorporation of ICTs to measure metrics such as walkability , and the flexibility and adaptability that smart zoning can provide, have been cited as advantages of smart zoning over "non-smart" performance or form-based codes. Floating zones describe a zoning district's characteristics and codify requirements for its establishment, but its location remains unspecified until conditions exist to implement that type of zoning district. When

17100-427: The city's most architecturally distinctive buildings". Zoning In urban planning , zoning is a method in which a municipality or other tier of government divides land into "zones", each of which has a set of regulations for new development that differs from other zones. Zones may be defined for a single use (e.g. residential , industrial ), they may combine several compatible activities by use, or in

17290-452: The community's desired character and intensity of development. The French planning system is mostly form-based; zones in French cities generally allow many types of uses. The city of Paris has used its zoning system to concentrate high-density office buildings in the district of La Défense rather than allow heritage buildings across the city to be demolished to make way for them, as is often

17480-602: The company acquired J.M. Tull Metals Company, a manufacturer and distributor of metal products. In partnership with Nippon Steel, the I/N Tek continuous cold rolling mill was built in New Carlisle , Indiana the following year. In 1988, the parties entered into a second joint venture with the construction of the I/N Kote steel sheet galvanizing facility at the same site. The Inland Department of Safety, Sanitation, and Relief implemented

17670-559: The company made the decision to retain steel distributor Ryerson-Tull and sell its steel production facilities. Ispat International, a global steel producer based in the Netherlands, acquired Inland Steel for $ 1.4 billion in July of 1998. A series of mergers led to the company eventually becoming ArcelorMittal . As of 2020, the assets of Inland Steel were part of Cleveland-Cliffs . In 1894, Inland established its first research lab. By 1935,

17860-463: The company raised more than $ 1 million to build an open-hearth mill in East Chicago. This would become the firm's primary location, the Indiana Harbor plant. This expansion allowed the firm to grow more than tenfold in size, from 250 workers in 1897 to 2,600 in 1910. R.J. Beatty of Midland Steel invested and became general manager, bringing the addition of sheet mills. In March 1903, G.H. Jones

18050-442: The company repeatedly faced reduced demand, economic downturns, and failed business ventures. Over the next few decades, the company shrank and became unprofitable. It was sold to Ispat International , a Dutch firm, in 1998. As of 2020, its assets were owned by Cleveland-Cliffs . Inland Steel was an integrated steel company that reduced iron ore to steel. It specialized in the basic open hearth steelmaking process. This produced

18240-418: The complex "more High Tack than High Tech", he found it far superior to the bland, limestone-clad, boxy structures which usually are built in the city. Speaking in 1987, GCA board member Donald Shannon called it "a disaster, a collection of junk," and denounced it for being kitschy and for catering to yuppie consumerism . Washington Post reporter Maryann Haggerty, writing in 1998, called the complex "one of

18430-634: The complexity of preparing an impact study for each project, and can require the supervising authority to exercise a lot of discretion. Performance zoning has not been adopted widely in the US. Incentive zoning allows property developers to develop land more intensively, such as with greater density or taller buildings, in exchange for providing some public benefits, such as environmental amenities or affordable housing units. The public benefits most often incentivised by US cities are "mixed-use development, open space conservation, walkability, affordable housing, and public parks." Incentive zoning allows for

18620-427: The concept that with land ownership comes the right of use of land, or land development . These land-based development rights can, in some jurisdictions, be used, unused, sold, or otherwise transferred by the owner of a parcel. These are typically used to transfer development rights from rural areas (sending sites) to urban areas (receiving sites) with more demand and infrastructure to support development. Spot zoning

18810-505: The court of appeals lifted its injunction. In accepting the zoning commission's justification, the appellate court required that, going forward, the zoning commission must take sworn testimony and permit cross-examination of witnesses prior to making zoning decisions, and issue quasi-judicial written opinions outlining the reasons for its decisions. (The court ruling proved to be a watershed in improving city zoning decisions.) The preliminary federal study recommended extensive zoning changes for

19000-514: The criteria for implementation of a floating zone are met, the floating zone ceases "to float" and its location is established by a zoning amendment. Cluster zoning permits residential uses to be clustered more closely together than normally allowed, thereby leaving substantial land area to be devoted to open space. Cluster zoning has been favored for its preservation of open space and reduction in construction and utility costs via consolidation, although existing residents may often disapprove due to

19190-538: The day. Single-use zoning and urban sprawl have also been criticized as making work–family balance more difficult to achieve, as greater distances need to be covered in order to integrate the different life domains. These issues are especially acute in the United States, with its high level of car usage combined with insufficient or poorly maintained urban rail and metro systems. Some economists claim that zoning laws work against economic efficiency, reduce responsiveness to consumer demands and hinder development in

19380-515: The design and height of structures in the area, recommended against its construction for being too tall. On June 29, the D.C. Zoning Commission issued, without comment, a 120-day ban on all construction on the waterfront. The GCA argued for a ban on all construction in the area until the federal study was complete, but in August 1972 Georgetown Inland unveiled a plan to construct an $ 80 million complex of restaurants, hotels, office buildings, retail space, and

19570-452: The distinctive form of many cities in the United States , Canada , Australia , and New Zealand , in which a very dense urban core , often containing skyscrapers , is surrounded by low density residential suburbs , characterised by large gardens and leafy streets . Some metropolitan areas such as Minneapolis–Saint Paul and Sydney have several such cores. Mixed-use zoning combines residential, commercial, office, and public uses into

19760-477: The distress call of the SS Henry Steinbrenner . First mate Arthur Ritter and nine other crew entered frigid Lake Superior in one of the ship's lifeboats to look for survivors. They rescued two men. When the crew arrived at Indiana Harbor, each crew member was given a U.S. savings bond. The Lake Carriers Association later presented them with a citation of bravery on a bronze plaque. In 1971, the crew rescued

19950-483: The efforts of steel industry investors and the family of founder Joseph Block. Inland opened a second steel plant during World War I, and the company continued to grow, making purchases of other companies starting in 1928 to facilitate vertical integration . Demand for consumer products made from steel rose in the 1950s, and the main Inland Steel mill in Indiana Harbor hit its peak employment level in 1969. From then on,

20140-588: The entire area into a park overwhelmingly opposed the agreement. With this agreement, the boundaries of the Washington Harbor complex were set and design work began. The Chessie System and Western Development hired GMR Limited, an architectural firm located in Rockville, Maryland , to design Washington Harbour. The company submitted its proposed design to the Commission of Fine Arts in the fall of 1979. This design

20330-451: The establishment of home rule in the District of Columbia . The zoning commission was governed by 1920 legislation, and its membership modified slightly by the 1967 reorganization of the city government into a mayor-council format. In 1974, its members were the District mayor, the chair and vice chair of the District of Columbia City Council, the Architect of the Capitol , and the director of

20520-461: The federal study recommended that only mixed-use developments should be permitted on the waterfront. The report also recommended limiting structures to 40 feet (12 m) in height, although buildings of 60 feet (18 m) could be constructed in some places. This generated a second lawsuit by the GCA. The U.S. district court issued a second ruling in the construction case on November 18, and again allowed Georgetown Inland to proceed. GCA appealed, and

20710-474: The federal study was finished. These plans created disputes which had a direct impact on the eventual construction of Washington Harbour. In April 1972, Georgetown Inland, a subsidiary of the Inland Steel Company , commissioned architect Arthur Cotton Moore to design an eight-story office building on company-owned land at 1055 Thomas Jefferson Street NW. But the CFA, which had statutory authority to approve

20900-412: The following decade, the union and Inland became hopelessly deadlocked on three separate occasions. The 1952 steel strike led to a monthlong strike that only ended when steel manufacturers agreed to terms recommended by the wage stabilization board, which they had initially refused. A three-year contract signed in 1956 provided annual wage increases and paid holidays, but contained a no-strike clause. This

21090-409: The following year and was replaced by L.E. Block. In 1948, Wilfred Sykes became president. Starting in the 1950s, there was an increased demand for consumer products made from steel, such as appliances and motor vehicles . Cold rolling processes were used to make the sheets and strips necessary in the manufacture of these goods, and Inland soon specialized in this process. A $ 360 million project

21280-551: The form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development. Zoning is the most common regulatory urban planning method used by local governments in developed countries. Exceptions include the United Kingdom and the City of Houston , Texas . Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances (exceptions to the zoning rules), usually because of some perceived hardship caused by

21470-417: The housing market through subsidiary Inland Steel Urban Development Corporation. Foreign steel companies were increasing their presence in the world steel market. In 1971, the role of President of Inland Steel passed to Michael Tenenbaum, who further coordinated the technical aspects of the company and wrote extensively on air pollution and energy conservation. The business became profitable again in 1974, but

21660-427: The lab employed 35 researchers. The lab was located in the open hearth department of the plant, allowing steel to be tested as it was being made. It would be tested for impurities, chemical composition, and physical properties. Researchers also worked on the development of new steel types. The company purchased fifty acres of land along Lake Michigan in 1901 for the development of a plant with an open hearth furnace,

21850-728: The labor union at the former Inland Steel Company's facilities, though it has bargained independently of other unions ever since the CCSC dissolved in 1985. In 1911, the Inland Steamship Company was formed, with Hutchinson & Company of Cleveland serving as purchasing agent and manager of marine operations. Two steamships were purchased from the Acme Transit Company, the Hawgood and the Woodford . The Arthur H. Hawgood , at 569 feet,

22040-566: The machinery was bought by Ross Buckingham. He was able to acquire six acres of land and $ 20,000 for buildings, but was unable to raise more capital. An acquaintance of Buckingham, George H. Jones, learned of this and became interested. At the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, Jones met Joseph Block of the Block-Pollack Iron Company. Block wanted to be involved in this new business venture, but his business associates did not. Block put up

22230-609: The molten metal rise to the top and are removed when hot air is blown in. In 1908, the firm continued to expand its facilities. The plant at Indiana Harbor got 3 new sheet mills, 2 galvanizing pots, an 8"-11" merchant mill, and a 24" sheet bar billet and mill. Two open hearth furnaces and 8 sheet mills were added in 1910. Land was leased on the Cuyuna Range in Minnesota for iron ore mining. With capital stock increased from $ 2,500,000 to $ 5,000,000, further additions were made that brought

22420-403: The most tonnage of iron ore. She had incidents of grounding in 1973, 1998, and 2002. In 1997, she hit a seawall near Grand Haven, Michigan. Except for the 1973 grounding that required a trip to drydock for repairs, Wilfred Sykes escaped these incidents with only superficial damage. A boiler explosion in 1984 caused massive damage to the mechanical systems. In 1953, Wilfred Sykes responded to

22610-485: The name of his upscale restaurant would be "Potomac". Phase two of the project, which consisted of a hotel/office building on land between 30th Street NW and Rock Creek, was to begin construction in late 1986. But phase two was never completed. The land was sold, and the House of Sweden built on the site in 2006. As constructed, the $ 200 million Washington Harbour complex consisted of five buildings with 23 facades. Each building

22800-637: The newest and largest among Inland's furnaces, was blown in, with a capacity of 1000 tons/day, for a new company-wide total of 4000 tons/day. This blast furnace was built by Arthur G. McKee & Co, who had also built No. 1 in 1907. Madeline No. 6 arrived in 1942. Inland formed a Canadian subsidiary in 1953, the Caland Ore Company, when the company signed a contract to lease a high-grade iron ore deposit under Steep Rock Lake in Ontario. A large expenditure project modernized existing facilities and commissioned

22990-441: The newspaper suggested, because it would suffer no political retaliation (having gone out of business), its actions could give the home-rule zoning commission political cover to retain the rules, and because its members believed there had been enough delay and consideration of the rules. Development, the old commission felt, had to proceed now or it never would. The GCA immediately sued to have the new zoning regulations overturned, and

23180-451: The other causing significant damage. Joseph L Block came under the ownership of Indiana Harbor Steamship Company and the management of Central Marine Logistics in 1998. Following this, she had minor grounding incidents in 1999 and 2010. In 2006, the crew of Joseph L Block rescued a kayaker who was 32 miles off the shore of Lake Michigan. In 2024, still in service, the Joseph L Block opened

23370-458: The particular nature of the property in question. The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to antiquity . The ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land, based on use. Outside the city walls were the undesirable functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, and brick-firing. Within

23560-427: The physical structure of a community in order to create more walkable and adaptable environments. Form-based zoning codes have five main elements: a regulating plan, public standards, building standards, and precise definitions of technical terms. Form-based codes recognize the interrelated nature of all components of land-use planning—zoning, subdivision, and public works—and integrate them to define districts based on

23750-417: The plant. Inland approved of the wage increases and signed the governor's agreement. However, the company still refused to acknowledge the union. Despite this, the union continued to meet. The majority of their demands focused on ending discrimination based on age, race, and gender. They wanted equal pay for equal work and a system of job promotion that was based on seniority. In 1942, SWOC officially became

23940-423: The problem of maintaining order between strangers. This order is maintained when, throughout the day and evening, there are sufficient people present with eyes on the street . This can be accomplished in successful urban districts that have a great diversity of uses, creating interest and attracting visitors. Jacobs' writings, along with increasing concerns about urban sprawl, are often credited with inspiring

24130-482: The project's height. The CFA said the project, at 86 feet (26 m) high, was too tall, and that it would not approve any building taller than 60 feet (18 m). Moore quickly submitted a revised design. The redesign lowered the height of the project to 68.5 feet (20.9 m) (just five feet taller than the tallest building in Georgetown). The footprint of the complex was expanded back to 5.9 acres (24,000 m) and

24320-705: The project. Washington Post real estate reporter John Mintz disparaged it as "pop art" architecture. J. Carter Brown , director of the National Gallery of Art , derisively called it "Xanadu on the Potomac", while the author of the AIA Guide to the Architecture of Washington, D.C. felt it was a "curious concoction of architectural motifs" and "cartoonish" — and, overall, visually staggering. Architect Richard Saul Wurman called it "bombastic" and rife with "clunky flamboyance", but acknowledged that it provided superb access to

24510-435: The project. GCA sued to overturn the DCHPO order. On November 4, the D.C. Court of Appeals issued a temporary injunction enjoining construction of Washington Harbour. The court lifted its order on November 14, concluding that the hearing showed that Thompson's actions had not irreparably harmed the DCHPO permitting process and that the second site visit had been properly held. The city said it would issue building permits within

24700-425: The project. When GCA learned of Thompson's site visit, it sued to enjoin issuance of her order. Thompson rescinded her order. A second site visit (which conformed to DCHPO rules) occurred in early October 1981. Thompson was forced to hold a hearing in which GCA and WHA voiced their views on whether Thompson's previous visit had compromised the DCHPO approval process. On October 22, Thompson reissued her order approving

24890-513: The properties themselves while in other cases the municipality offers the patterns for private development. A hybrid zoning code combines two or more approaches, often use-based and form-based zoning. Hybrid zoning can be used to introduce form and design considerations into an existing community's zoning without completely rewriting the zoning ordinance. Composite zoning is a particular type of hybrid zoning that combines use, form, and site design components: An advantage of composite zoning

25080-407: The property, which has had six different owners between 1990 and 2013. It was put up for sale again in 2013. Washington Harbour has a first-of-its kind set of floodgates designed to help protect it against Potomac River floods. However, failure to use the floodgates properly caused a major flood in 2011, which led to a lawsuit and a $ 30 million renovation. During the 1800s, the Georgetown waterfront

25270-499: The redesign and EIS requirements, Western Development officials said the start date for their project was being pushed from fall 1980 to March 1981. The company also gave a name to its partnership with the Chessie System: Washington Harbour Associates. On March 5, 1980, Moore proposed a new design for Washington Harbour. The $ 60 million project in the postmodern style consisted of two curving buildings on

25460-647: The replacement of parts in Escanaba, Michigan. The second grounding occurred 40 years later in the St. Marys River. In 1979, she collided with tug George N. Carleton in Thunder Bay. Both escaped relatively unharmed, without the need for any major repairs. L.E. Block was laid up in 1981. In 1986, she was purchased by Basic Marine, Inc. The following year, she was towed to Lake Calumet in South Chicago to be used for cement storage. She sank from being overloaded. In 1988, L. E. Block

25650-439: The residential and retail buildings moved closer to the river. Due to these changes, the overall size of the project declined to 700,000 square feet (65,000 m) from 750,000 square feet (70,000 m). The CFA approved the redesign's basic plan on April 8, 1980, although Washington Harbour Associates (WHA) was required to submit final architectural drawings to the CFA and prove that the National Park Service still planned develop

25840-441: The rest of the waterfront as a park. WHA meeting these two requirements would delay construction about a year. GCA opposed the redesigned project as well. In November 1980, the GCA called for a two-year delay of the now $ 120 million project while a floodplain study was done. The GCA argued that the project was on such low land and so close to the water that it would regularly flood. Nine of the 13 D.C. City Council members sponsored

26030-450: The retail space shrank to 85,000 square feet (7,900 m) from 150,000 square feet (14,000 m) and residential space to 97,000 square feet (9,000 m) from 236,000 square feet (21,900 m). The number of condominia in the project dropped by 90 percent, although the remaining 38 units were built to be some of the most luxurious in the city. WHA intended to lease most of the retail space to restaurants, and had already leased space for

26220-614: The river. Architectural historians Pamela Scott and Antoinette Josephine Lee said the architectural elements looked "forced". Architect and Catholic University of America professor Peter Blake in 1987 derisively called Washington Harbour "theme-park architecture in search of an appropriate theme", and found it a "wacky, bizarre assemblage of columns, curves, battlements, domes, turrets, fountains, bollards, bastions, crescents, terraces, gun emplacements, alleys, promenades, boulevards, piazzas and more columns and columnets, plus too many other fantasies to mention or to describe". Although Blake called

26410-680: The rooftop terrace were edged with brick or metal parapets in a variety of styles. The roof consisted of curved metal set at various angles, and white-painted metal domes of various widths roofed the circular offices, round conference rooms, and rotunda -shaped living rooms below. The shape, size, and style of windows and doors throughout the Washington Harbour complex were highly variable. Windows were single in some places, and horizontal ribbons in others. Wraparound windows often adorned corners, and sliding glass or French doors were sometimes used in place of windows. Windowsills, too, varied in color, height, material, shape, and style. Entrances to

26600-422: The seawall. On this reclaimed land, the company intended to build a 700-foot (210 m) long boardwalk . The GCA and local rowing clubs opposed these requests, arguing that the boat basin and dock would attract too many powerboats — which would threaten the many kayakers and scullers who used the area. Most of these proposals were withdrawn by November, when WHA abandoned the elliptical boat basin in favor of

26790-434: The second plant. In 1928, Inland purchased limestone and dolomite quarries in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. This became Inland Lime & Stone Company. A new harbor and docks were built and given the name of Port Inland . A new stone-crushing and ship-loading plant was completed in 1930. Inland also secured its own source of coal , a small mining operation at Greenwood Mine, near Marquette, Michigan . A much larger source

26980-627: The shipping season as the first commercial vessel to go through the locks at Sault Ste. Marie. MV Adam E. Cornelius was leased from the American Steamship Company in 1994. Built in 1973 as the Roger M. Kyes, she was 680 feet in length. She was involved in many incidents that required repairs, most of them groundings. In one notable mishap in 1983, her aft mast struck the I-75 freeway bridge over Rouge River. Roger M. Kyes delivered its cargo, but

27170-629: The shipwreck of the S R Kirby . In 1917, she received damage after hitting an ice pack in Lake Superior. A 1919 November gale led to another trip to the shipyard. The Joseph Block grounded at the Death's Door Passage near Green Bay in 1968. Deciding against repairing the extensive damages, the company sold her to Kinsman Marine Transport. She was repaired and entered their service as the George Steinbrenner . The second boat purchased from Hawsgood

27360-621: The size of the parcel, the zoning categories involved, how adjacent properties are zoned and used, and expected benefits and harms to the landowner, neighbors, and community. Conditional zoning is a legislative process in which site-specific standards and conditions become part of the zoning ordinance at the request of the property owner. The conditions may be more or less restrictive than the standard zoning. Conditional zoning can be considered spot zoning and can be challenged on those grounds. Conditional zoning should not be confused with conditional-use permits (also called special-use permits ),

27550-440: The southern edge of the structure was parallel to the Potomac River (which angled southeast to northwest). Through the center of these two buildings ran Thomas Jefferson Promenade (the former Thomas Jefferson Street). Originally designed to be of equal height, the existence of residential space in the west tower (which had different floor-to-ceiling heights) left the two structures unequal. The landscaping of Thomas Jefferson Promenade

27740-415: The southern part of the parcel, facing the Potomac River. Five other buildings, separated by pedestrian paths, were planned for areas to the east, northeast, north, northwest, and west of these curved structures. About 60 percent of the total project was to be residential, consisting of 350 to 400 condominia. Retail space would occupy 320,000 square feet (30,000 m) of the project. An elliptical yacht basin

27930-493: The steel industry. A large project to expand and upgrade facilities began in 1962 and was completed in 1966. The following year, a new research lab was opened in East Chicago and Philip D. Block, Jr. took over the leadership of Inland from cousin Joseph L. Block. Employment at the Indiana Harbor mill rose toward its peak of 25,000 in 1969. In the early 1970s, the steel industry saw a sharp decline in business. Inland began to invest in

28120-412: The steel warehouse business of Joseph T Ryerson & Sons, Inc. Edward L Ryerson became vice chairman of the board at Inland. Milcor Steel Company of Milwaukee was purchased in 1936. In that same year, Inland acquired Wilson & Bennett Manufacturing. The latter became Inland Container Company, which brought the addition of pails, barrels, and food containers to their list of products. By World War II,

28310-551: The striking workers at Republic Steel. In what became known as the " Memorial Day Massacre ", Chicago police opened fire on striking workers and their supporters. Ten men were killed and 125 more were injured. Among the dead were four Inland employees: Alfred Causey, Kenneth Reed, Earl Handley, and Sam Popovich. On July 1, the strike at Indiana Harbor was ended through the intervention of state governor M. Clifford Townsend . He had each party sign an agreement with him, then promised to resolve any grievances that could not be resolved at

28500-522: The strong sense of movement and vitality it created. Taken by itself, he said, the light tower in the fountain was also "the right object in the right place" and powerfully defined the elliptical plaza/fountain space. Even so, he found, its clean design didn't fit well with the "busyness" around it. Two years after the project opened, Forgey maintained his opinion that Washington Harbour was a "giant, busy architectural egg", but one "redeemed mightily by its fine urban design". Others have had varying opinions of

28690-407: The structure included more residential units. The zoning plan was slightly changed in August. The W-1 area expanded a block and a half north of K Street NW and a block and a half west of 31st Street NW. The W-2 area expanded north to M Street NW as well as east to include a section bounded by the Potomac River, 30th Street NW, M Street NW, Pennsylvania Avenue NW, and 29th Street NW. The W-3 area above

28880-452: The structure were somewhat less varied. Most exterior doors were glass. Door jambs were usually green metal but sometimes made of bronze or steel . Glass and metal canopies protected most doorways. The facades varied widely: Architect Arthur Cotton Moore said that massed, block-long building lines were necessary due to the need to use as much space as possible. To break up the monolithic, wall-like effect of this massing, each long facade

29070-435: The suggestions of the CFA, Moore said he would use a variety of colors for the project and possibly design smaller buildings with more space between them. Meanwhile, city officials backed off their unequivocal support for the project. In addition, the NCPC ordered that an environmental impact statement (EIS) be drawn up for the various development and park proposals, a study which would take at least six months to complete. With

29260-503: The total of furnaces owned to 2 modern blast furnaces and 6 open hearth furnaces. In 1911 in Plant 1 the bolt and rivet shop started operation, and the Inland Steamship Company was formed. On April 4, 1912, the Madeline No. 2 furnace was installed. She was placed 366 feet north of, and was slightly larger than, No. 1. In 1916, No. 2 Open Hearth started in Plant 2 with six furnaces along with

29450-404: The two curved towers and the five buildings attached to them — opened its doors. Seventy percent of the office space was leased (at top-of-the-market rates), and 32 of the 38 condominia were already sold. The complex included a $ 2 million "water dance" fountain designed by William Hobbs, and another $ 6 million to $ 7 million was spent on public spaces within the complex. Warner LeRoy announced that

29640-634: The walls were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived. Beyond distinguishing between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land types and uses inside their walls. This was practiced in many regions of the world – for example, in China during the Zhou Dynasty (1046 – 256 BC), in India during the Vedic Era (1500 – 500 BC), and in the military camps that spread throughout

29830-535: The way Moore fragmented the bulk of the buildings with recessed and projecting facades of widely different colors, materials, and styles. He also voiced strong approval for the way the complex was designed for wealthy tenants, and yet contained space for the public. However, he felt the building did not fit in with stylistically with the rest of Georgetown, even though Moore drew on the many architectural styles found there. Washington Post architectural critic Benjamin Forgey

30020-498: The western side. A 600-foot (180 m) long boardwalk was built 6 feet (1.8 m) above the average water level, slightly overhanging the river. Architect Roger K. Lewis , writing for The Washington Post , generally praised the structure, calling it an "incredibl[y] diverse, complicated, at times overwhelming architectural collage". He called Moore's willingness to divide the complex with pedestrian walkways "a masterful stroke of urbanism" and praised its "architectural exuberance" —

30210-545: Was a six-story, squat, heavily massed set of buildings (connected by bridges on the upper level) which utilized as much of the development area as possible. The CFA voiced concern about the massing of the complex, and GMR Limited lowered its height to just three stories. The changes were not enough, however, and the CFA rejected the proposed design in December. A month later, Western Development hired nationally known architect Arthur Cotton Moore to redesign Washington Harbour. Taking up

30400-543: Was acquired next to the existing plant. Also acquired was the Laura ore mine on the Mesabi range . The company's fifth open hearth furnace had just been completed, and the daily production capacity of open hearth steel was 500 tons. The "Madeline" blast furnace, with a rated capacity of 350 tons/day, was blown in on August 31, 1907. A blast furnace heats iron ore, limestone, and coke to a temperature of at least 3000 degrees. Impurities in

30590-572: Was also the year that Local 1010 joined the Coordinated Committee of Steel Companies (CCSC) for industrywide bargaining in wages and benefits. When the contract expired in 1959, the company and the union were once again at odds. Striking workers demanded a wage increase, along with better insurance and pensions. After 116 days, the company relented and met those demands. This strike was the union's longest and its last against Inland Steel or any of its predecessors. Local 1010 continued to serve as

30780-528: Was an American steel company active from 1893 until 1998. Its history as an independent firm thus spanned much of the 20th century. Originally based in East Chicago, Indiana , it was eventually headquartered in Chicago at the landmark Inland Steel Building . The company began with the founders' purchase of the land and machinery associated with a failed steel mill in 1893. Inland Steel initially expanded through

30970-570: Was being driven into the ground by the riverbank to help protect the site from water. The cost of the project rose to $ 200 million by late 1983. Washington Harbour Associates received financing for the project from KanAm Realty, a division of KanAm International (a German real estate development firm). Due to economic pressures, residential space in the complex had been turned into office space (for which higher rents could be charged). The amount of office space had jumped to 480,000 square feet (45,000 m) from 306,000 square feet (28,400 m), while

31160-416: Was broken in multiple smaller facades and different architectural styles used to make the buildings visually interesting. Moore said he designed the walkways so that pedestrians see only one facade at a time, so consistency in architectural vision is maintained. The pedestrian spaces around and weaving through the complex consisted of brick, ceramic , flagstone , and granite tiles. Thomas Jefferson Promenade

31350-560: Was closed. A new research facility in East Chicago was completed in 1967. In 1980, Madeline No. 7, at the time the largest blast furnace in the Western Hemisphere , was brought online along with the No. 11 coke battery built 2 years prior. In that same year, the Caland Ore Company shipped its final taconite pellets to Indiana Harbor. With the exception of its other iron ore sources, Inland sold all of its interests in raw materials. In 1986,

31540-473: Was complete in June 1986. Critical reception of Washington Harbour was mixed, but the public quickly embraced it. Washington Harbour suffered significant management problems in its first two years, which led to the removal of one of its developers as property manager. The complex was sold to local real estate magnate Conrad Cafritz in 1988 in a controversial purchase-like lease agreement. Cafritz subsequently sold

31730-724: Was designed by Colonel William Light in 1836 in order to physically separate the city centre from its suburbs. Low density residential areas surround the park, providing a pleasant walk between work in the city within and the family homes outside. Sir Ebenezer Howard , founder of the garden city movement , cited Adelaide as an example of how green open space could be used to prevent cities from expanding beyond their boundaries and coalescing. His design for an ideal city, published in his 1902 book Garden Cities of To-morrow , envisaged separate concentric rings of public buildings, parks, retail space, residential areas and industrial areas, all surrounded by open space and farmland. All retail activity

31920-460: Was designed by Joe Brown and Michael Vergason of the landscape architecture firm EDAW, in cooperation with Arthur Cotton Moore Associates. Washington Harbour drew on a postmodernist mix of Art Deco , Art Nouveau , Baroque Revival , Gothic Revival , Greek Revival , Renaissance Revival , Romanesque Revival , and Victorian architectural styles. The exterior walls were mostly brickwork (in beige and brown) and limestone (in pale beige). The brick

32110-437: Was established in 1936. Viewed as the most left-leaning of all steelworkers' unions, Local 1010 focused on improving workplace conditions and bargaining for benefits and wage increases for employees. On the occasions that negotiations failed, Local 1010 organized repeated labor strikes . Inland Steel was founded in 1893 through the purchase of a small failed Chicago Heights steel mill, Chicago Steel Works. After its closing,

32300-521: Was formed by eight members of the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, & Tin Workers. Among these original eight members was a man named William Young. He would later become the first black person to sit at the negotiation table with Inland and the first in the U.S. to serve as chairman of a basic grievance committee of a steelworkers' union. In 1937, "big steel" company U.S. Steel signed

32490-451: Was heavily landscaped. It also contained numerous benches, and the concrete planters along the promenade had lips purposefully designed to be wide enough to encourage seating. Cast-iron grillwork in the Beaux-Arts style covered street-level drains. Thomas Jefferson Promenade ended at the giant elliptical water-dance fountain, which contained a five-story high Greek Revival temple-like tower on

32680-460: Was largely a commercial harbor . Most of the land was occupied by warehouses. Between 1900 and 1960, the harbor largely closed as commercial river traffic declined sharply. The warehouses were demolished and a number of coal gas , cement , steel , and other medium and light industrial manufacturing plants were erected in their place. By 1960, many of these plants closed, and the waterfront fell into disuse. A city-owned waste incineration plant,

32870-479: Was more equivocal. He called the structure "pop architecture [that] is proudly idiosyncratic", arguing that it failed as a piece of consistent architecture but succeeded in creating a unique and popular space. The overall impression, Forgey argued, was of disunity, although some elements (notably the rooftop chimneys and cupolas and the southwestern corner and western facade) worked very well together. Forgey had strong praise, however, for Thomas Jefferson Promenade and

33060-486: Was named president. Shareholders voted to increase stock from $ 2,000,000 to $ 2,500,000. Inland began to secure their own primary materials with the lease of land in Minnesota's Laura Iron Mine from 1906. The following year marked the debut of the Madeline No. 1 furnace. Named after the daughter of Philip D Block, it was the first blast furnace in northern Indiana. On December 6, 1914, founder Joseph Block died. In 1917, during World War I , Inland Steel's production broke

33250-405: Was no longer fully vertically integrated. Operations at the Indiana Harbor steel mill were reduced to running at 70 percent of steelmaking capacity. Inland Steel entered into two joint venture partnerships with Nippon Steel to create the I/N Tek cold rolling mill and the I/N Kote steel sheet galvanizing facility. This strategic partnership gave the company access to Japanese automakers based in

33440-466: Was not even, but rather recessed and projecting and of varying geometric shapes. Some of the columns , buttresses , and pilasters used in the complex were structural, but many were not. Round and flat arches of varying width and height, brackets , incomplete cornices , gables , pediments , and decorative scrollwork were used throughout the complex. The roof featured fluted brick chimneys of varying height, adorned with corbels . Balconies and

33630-448: Was offered to employees beginning in 1930, with life insurance policies being the first. A pension plan was implemented in 1936. Sickness, accident, and hospitalization insurances were added in 1940. Death and dismemberment insurance was included in 1942. In 1960, all insurance benefits became noncontributory. An early retirement plan, based on age and length of employment, was put into effect in 1966. Beginning in 1970, employees received

33820-408: Was planned for the area embraced by the buildings, and a riverfront park was intended for the strip of land between the development and the river. Altogether, the project occupied just 3.43 acres (13,900 m), rather than the 5.9 acres (24,000 m) in the previous proposal. The GCA vehemently opposed the design. A week later, the CFA partially approved Moore's redesign. It did not, however, approve

34010-453: Was received favorably by President Richard M. Nixon , who in April 1971 issued a message to Congress on the District of Columbia in which he called for "an overall preservation and development plan for the Georgetown waterfront" lest Georgetown's historic character be lost forever. Nixon's message provided a new impetus for planning in Georgetown, and in January 1972 the federal government funded

34200-614: Was renamed Joseph Block. During her years of service, the Joseph Block was involved in numerous incidents. In 1913, she needed to be placed in the drydock for repairs after striking a pier at the Canadian lock in Sault Ste. Marie. Two months later, she ran aground and was struck by steamer Calcite of the Bradley fleet. In May 1916, the crew of the Joseph Block rescued one of two survivors from

34390-444: Was secured when land and equipment was purchased from Elkhorn Coal Company. Inland was responsible for introducing a water supply, sanitation, and paved roads into the mine's nearby town of Wheelwright, Kentucky . In 1932 a 76" hot strip mill was added, a tin mill in 1933, and in 1938, a 2.5 minutes per mile 44" hot strip mill, 59 coke ovens, and 5 open hearth furnaces were put in at Indiana Harbor. On January 3, 1939, Madeline No. 5,

34580-400: Was similar in design, except that the top floors contained condominia. By May 1985, Washington Harbour was nearing completion. Contractors rushed to complete the floodgates at the base of the Washington Harbour towers in early November 1985 after the Potomac River, swollen by heavy rains, reached 7 feet (2.1 m) above flood stage. One of the requirements of the complex's building permit

34770-569: Was struck by the departing G. A. Tomlinson while docked in Indiana Harbor. G. A. Tomlinson suffered damages to her hull, while Philip D. Block only needed cosmetic repairs. She remained in service until she was laid up in 1981. In 1985, she was sold to the scrap yard in Port Colborne . The navigational equipment was removed, and the Philip D. Block was sold to be scrapped in Brazil in 1986. Along with

34960-439: Was that it pay for an archeological assessment of undeveloped waterfront land. On the west side of the development (which was scheduled to become parkland), archeologists unearthed in summer 1985 the brick foundations and flooring of three buildings from the early 1800s. The ruins, as well as remains of a cobblestone street, were found 6 feet (1.8 m) down. On June 13, 1986, phase one of Washington Harbour — which consisted of

35150-456: Was the W. R. Woodford, which was a little shorter at 552 feet. She was renamed N. F. Leopold. Like the Joseph Block, the N. F. Leopold was involved in several mishaps. In 1915, she grounded near Port Calcite. Two years later, an ice pack caused damage to her hull. In a 1924 collision with the Charles L. Hutchinson, both ships received minor damage, Two separate groundings in 1928 necessitated

35340-535: Was tied to the definition of economy, which caused a much greater mixing of uses within the residential quarters of cities. Separation between uses is a feature of many planned cities designed before the advent of zoning. A notable example is Adelaide in South Australia , whose city centre, along with the suburb of North Adelaide , is surrounded on all sides by a park, the Adelaide Park Lands . The park

35530-516: Was to be conducted within a single glass-roofed building, an early concept for the modern shopping centre inspired by the Crystal Palace . However, these planned or ideal cities were static designs embodied in a single masterplan . What was lacking was a regulatory mechanism to allow the city to develop over time, setting guidelines to developers and private citizens over what could be built where. The first modern zoning systems were applied in

35720-681: Was towed back to Escanaba. She remained there until she was towed to the Port Colborne scrap yard in 2006. Steamship Philip D. Block , also built at the American Ship Building Company of Lorain, entered service in 1925. First owned by the Pioneer Steamship Company, she was acquired by Inland in 1936. Built at the length of 600 feet, 72 more were added to her midsection in 1950. Additional work modernized her navigational equipment, engines, and accommodations. In 1955, she

35910-505: Was unable to clear the bottom of the bridge on the way out. She returned to the dock, and a work crew was called in to remove the mast. In 1989, she was renamed Adam E. Cornelius . While leased by Inland, she retained her name, but was repainted with the Inland paint scheme and its logo. Shortly after starting with Inland, repairs were needed on a ballast tank that was punctured in a grounding. In 1997, ice damage caused severe flooding in her forward compartments, necessitating another trip to

36100-427: Was undertaken to modernize existing facilities, acquire more resources, and erect new buildings. Clarence B. Randall was named president of Inland in 1952. A Canadian subsidiary, Caland Ore Company, was founded in 1953. In 1956–1957, the firm constructed a new corporate headquarters, the Inland Steel Building , in downtown Chicago. Joseph L. Block was named as company president in 1959. The 1960s began profitably for

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