War bonnets (also called warbonnets or headdresses ) are feathered headgear traditionally worn by male leaders of the American Plains Indians Nations who have earned a place of great respect in their tribe . Originally they were sometimes worn into battle, but they are now primarily used for ceremonial occasions. In the Native American and First Nations communities that traditionally have these items of regalia , they are seen as items of great spiritual and political importance, only to be worn by those who have earned the right and honour through formal recognition by their people .
49-552: Many Native American tribes consider the presentation of an eagle feather to be one of the highest marks of respect. An honored person must have earned their feather through selfless acts of courage and honour , or been gifted them in gratitude for their work or service to their community or Nation. Traditional deeds that bring honour can include acts of valor in battle (including contemporary military service), but also political and diplomatic gains, or acts that helped their community survive and prosper. The esteem attached to eagle feathers
98-465: A Year Zero , in which the past and its associated culture is deleted and history is "reset". The drafters of the 1948 Genocide Convention initially considered using the term, but later dropped it from inclusion. The term "cultural genocide" has been considered in various draft United Nations declarations, but it is not used by the UN Genocide Convention. The notion of 'cultural genocide'
147-448: A pipe bowl . Spears could be thrown, or used as lances . Other commonly used weapons included ball-topped clubs and gunstock war clubs decorated with brass thumbtacks taken from old trunks burned as firewood by American pioneers . Heroic deeds were recorded by carving notches into the club, or less commonly, by attaching an eagle feather. The basic weapon of the Indian warrior was
196-455: A war bonnet . Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains frequently decorated their buckskin war shirts with the scalps of their enemies, bone breastplates as protection from cold weapons, bear claws, porcupine quills or wolf teeth to demonstrate their hunting prowess, silver conchos made from Morgan Dollars or Mexican pesos , and elaborate glass beadwork . This attire served
245-526: A brave was not allowed to shave his head until he had seen battle. Tattooing and scarification were also in use among Southeastern tribes such as the Cherokee , Seminole and Creek to enable a warrior to demonstrate his resistance to pain, signify allegiance to a specific tribe or marital status, and to draw favours from totem spirit animals such as Raven , the Great Bear , or the serpent. Centuries before
294-511: A proven intent on the part of perpetrators to physically destroy [the] group. Cultural destruction does not suffice, nor does an intention to simply disperse a group, though this may constitute a crime against humanity as set out in the Rome Statute. It is this special intent, or dolus specialis , that makes the crime of genocide so unique. While not qualifying as genocide under the Convention,
343-608: A warrior or two was considered acceptable. Generally speaking, given the small sizes of the bands and the vast population of the United States, the Plains Indians sought to avoid casualties in battle and would avoid fighting if it meant losses. Due to their mobility, endurance, horsemanship, and knowledge of the vast plains that were their domain, the Plains Native Americans were often victors in their battles against
392-723: Is a concept described by Polish lawyer Raphael Lemkin in 1944, in the same book that coined the term genocide . The destruction of culture was a central component in Lemkin's formulation of genocide. Though the precise definition of cultural genocide remains contested, the United Nations does not include it in the definition of genocide used in the 1948 Genocide Convention . The Armenian Genocide Museum defines culturicide as "acts and measures undertaken to destroy nations ' or ethnic groups ' culture through spiritual, national, and cultural destruction", which appears to be essentially
441-550: Is kept, but distinct cultural elements are eliminated. Culturicide involves the eradication and destruction of cultural artifacts , such as books, artworks, and structures. The issue is addressed in multiple international treaties, including the Geneva Conventions and the Rome Statute , which define war crimes associated with the destruction of culture. Cultural genocide may also involve forced assimilation , as well as
490-461: Is necessary to go back to the indigenous perspective and evaluate what the headdress means specifically to the various tribes, Crow and Lakota to name two, that make and use them. Without such context, it's impossible for non-Indians in contemporary settings to grasp the offense and harm that indigenous people feel when sacred objects and imagery are co-opted, commercialized, and commodified for non-Indians' benefit. Indian brave#Insignia During
539-710: Is part of a wider effort by Native American activists to highlight what they view as the ongoing cultural genocide against indigenous peoples in the United States and Canada . The trend of musicians and festival-goers wearing warbonnets became fashionable in the 2010s, and has led to criticism by Native Americans, apologies by non-Natives, and the banning of the sale or wearing of them as costumes by several music festivals. An article by scholars Kristin A. Carpenter and Angela R. Riley states: To explain Native peoples' discomfort with non-Indians wearing headdresses, for example, it
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#1732852404912588-445: Is to pluck the most mature tail feathers of young eagles while still in the nest. This can be done three times before the feathers do not grow back. As many as thirty-six feathers can be collected in this manner. If care is taken in not disturbing the nest, this method can be repeated yearly. Plains Indians use eagle feathers as the most significant part of the headdress to represent honor and respect. Some Plains-style bonnet forms are
637-537: Is traditionally so high that in many cases, such as a warrior (e.g. Dog Soldiers of the Cheyenne ), only two or three honour feathers might be awarded in a person's whole lifetime. Historically, the warrior who was the first to touch an enemy in battle and escape unscathed received an eagle feather. When enough feathers were collected, they might be incorporated into a headdress or some other form of worn regalia. Historically, headdresses were usually reserved exclusively for
686-557: The American Indian Wars of the mid to late 19th century, Native American warriors of the Great Plains , sometimes referred to as braves in contemporary colonial sources , resisted westward expansion onto their ancestral land by settlers from the United States. Though a diverse range of peoples inhabited the Great Plains, there were a number of commonalities among their warfare practices. The earliest Spanish explorers in
735-809: The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (DRIP) uses the phrase "cultural genocide" but does not define what it means. The complete article in the draft read as follows: This wording only ever appeared in a draft. The DRIP—which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly during its 62nd session at UN Headquarters in New York City on 13 September 2007—only makes reference to genocide once, when it mentions "genocide, or any other act of violence" in Article 7. Though
784-995: The Winchester yellowboy or Spencer carbine . United States Army Indian Scouts and trackers had served the US government since the Civil War . During the Indian Wars, the Pawnee people , the Crow people and the Tonkawa people allied with the American cavalry against their old rivals the Apache and Sioux . Sgt. I-See-O of the Kiowa people was still in active service during the World War I era. Many Native Americans joined
833-407: The "horned" bonnet, "flaring" eagle feather bonnet, and the "fluttering feather" bonnet. The "horned" bonnet can consist of a buckskin skull cap, shaved bison or cow horns, and dyed horsehair with bunches of owl feathers beneath the skull cap. The "flaring" eagle feather bonnet is often made of golden eagle tail feathers connected to a buckskin or felt crown. There are slits at the base of
882-454: The "human rights" will then ignore one of man's most fundamental rights, the right to be himself and speak the language of his nation. And with that attitude France, the "grande France" that calls itself the champion of liberty, will pass the 20th century, indifferent to the timid protest movements of the various linguistic communities it submitted and the literary prestige they may have given birth to. [...] France, that under Franco 's reign
931-760: The 16th century did not find the Plains Native Americans especially warlike . The Wichita in Kansas and Oklahoma lived in dispersed settlements with no defensive works. The Spanish initially had friendly contacts with the Apache ( Querechos ) in the Texas Panhandle. Three factors led to a growing importance of warfare in Plains Indian culture. First, was the Spanish colonization of New Mexico which stimulated raids and counter-raids by Spaniards and Indians for goods and slaves. Second,
980-644: The American armed forces during World War I and World War II . Joe Medicine Crow wore warpaint into battle and was awarded eagle feathers and the rank of chief by the elders of his tribe because each of the four heroic deeds he performed in Europe mirrored the traditional counting coup requirements. The name Peace of the Braves has been used to refer to several peace agreements with First Nations in Canada. Cultural genocide Cultural genocide or culturicide
1029-435: The American settlers. To qualify as a warrior, and thus earn the right to wear an eagle feather, Native American youths in some tribes were required to perform an act of courage on behalf of their tribe . For Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains such as the Crow people , Cheyenne people , Lakota people or Apache this included killing and scalping an enemy, capturing a horse, disarming an opponent, infiltrating
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#17328524049121078-425: The Convention describes genocide as a crime committed with the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, in whole or in part. It does not include political groups or so called "cultural genocide". This definition was the result of a negotiating process and reflects the compromise reached among United Nations Member States while drafting the Convention in 1948...To constitute genocide, there must be
1127-569: The Indian Agency would sell the Plains Indians guns for hunting, but unlicensed traders would exchange guns for buffalo hides. The braves of the First Nations Wars made use of many different types of gun, including flintlock horse pistols , long rifles , Colt revolvers , Springfield muskets , Remington rolling blocks , Sharps carbines taken from the US cavalry , and repeating rifles such as
1176-542: The Plains Indians as warriors were the Comanche whom The Economist noted in 2010: "They could loose a flock of arrows while hanging off the side of a galloping horse, using the animal as protection against return fire. The sight amazed and terrified their white (and Indian) adversaries." The American historian S. C. Gwynne called the Comanche "the greatest light cavalry on the earth" in the 19th century whose raids in Texas terrified
1225-562: The Spanish colonies, and, increasingly, the encroaching frontier of the Anglos for horses and other property. They acquired guns and other European goods primarily by trade. Their principal trading products were buffalo hides and beaver pelts. The most famous victory ever won by Plains Indians over the United States, the Battle of Little Bighorn , in 1876, was won by the Lakota (Sioux) and Cheyenne fighting on
1274-564: The State, it is also made clear that only French will be taught, and the teachers will severely punish any pupil speaking in patois . The aim of the French educational system will consequently not be to dignify the pupils' natural humanity, developing their culture and teaching them to write their language, but rather to humiliate them and morally degrade them for the simple fact of being what tradition and their nature made them. The self-proclaimed country of
1323-432: The U.S. army in the era of American Westward expansion from 1803 to about 1890. However, although Indians won many battles, they could not undertake lengthy campaigns. Native American armies could only be assembled for brief periods of time as warriors also had to hunt for food for their families. The exception to that was raids into Mexico by the Comanche and their allies in which the raiders often subsisted for months off
1372-433: The arrival of the first pioneers, the shaman would tattoo braves using cactus spines dipped in a carbon -based ink. At close range, Native American warriors favoured edged weapons such as knives. Tomahawks were originally carved from stone , but by the 18th century forged iron axes could be acquired through trade. Some had decorative star or heart-shaped cutouts, and the tomahawks of tribal chiefs sometimes featured
1421-507: The battles of Adobe Walls in Texas in 1874 and Rosebud in Montana in 1876, the Indians broke off battle despite the fact that they were winning as the casualties were not considered worth a victory. Decisions whether to fight or not were based on a cost-benefit ratio; even the loss of one warrior was not considered to be worth taking a few scalps, but if a herd of horses could be obtained, the loss of
1470-569: The concept of "ethnocide" and "cultural genocide" was removed in the version adopted by the General Assembly, the sub-points from the draft noted above were retained (with slightly expanded wording) in Article 8 that speaks to "the right not to be subject to forced assimilation." The United Nations does not include cultural genocide in the definition of genocide used in the 1948 Genocide Convention : The definition contained in Article II of
1519-536: The crown that allow the bonnet to have a "flaring" look. An unusual form of bonnet is the "fluttering feather" bonnet, with the feathers loosely attached to a felt or buckskin cap, hanging at the sides. Native American cultural representatives and activists have expressed offense at what they deem the cultural appropriation of wearing and displaying of such headdresses, and other "indigenous traditional arts and sacred objects" by those who have not earned them, especially by non- Natives as fashion or costume. The controversy
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1568-410: The defensive. Although they could be tenacious in defense, Plains Native American warriors took the offensive mostly for material gain and individual prestige. The highest military honors were for " counting coup "—touching a live enemy. Battles between Indians often consisted of opposing warriors demonstrating their bravery rather than attempting to achieve concrete military objectives. The emphasis
1617-523: The dual purpose of terrifying their enemies, and ensuring the warrior looked his best before the Great Spirit if he was killed in battle. Common bead patterns, believed to protect the wearer in battle, included the thunderbird , diamonds and crosses, or zigzags in white, cyan, black, red, orange and yellow. Among tribes such as the Pawnee , Iroquois and Mohawk , warriors received a Mohican as part of their initiation into manhood. In these cultures,
1666-549: The enemy's camp, taking a prisoner, or striking an opponent in battle without killing him. The awarding of an eagle feather , the traditional insignia of a Native American warrior, was an important rite of passage into manhood, after which the warrior assumed a new name. Few Native Americans received more than three eagle feathers during their lifetime due to the bird's rarity and sacred status, but exceptionally courageous and talented warriors such as Sitting Bull , Geronimo or Cochise could ultimately earn enough feathers to make
1715-482: The first because they speak a despicable patois , and no element of the grandparents' culture has been transmitted to the younger generation, as if they were born out of a completely new world. This is the French State that has just entered the 21st century, a country where stone monuments and natural landscapes are preserved and respected, but where many centuries of popular creation expressed in different tongues are on
1764-576: The greatest and most powerful of all birds. Under current United States federal legislation, the eagle feather law enables Native Americans to continue using eagle feathers in their traditional spiritual and cultural practices. The exemption is contained within the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 . In the United States, only enrolled members of a federally recognized Native American tribe may legally collect or possess eagle feathers. One traditional method of acquiring feathers for war bonnets
1813-421: The issue is addressed in multiple international treaties, including the Geneva Conventions and the Rome Statute , which define war crimes associated with the destruction of culture. The term has been used to describe the destruction of cultural heritage in connection with various events which mostly occurred during the 20th century: When at the mid-19th century, primary school is made compulsory all across
1862-442: The riches of Mexican haciendas and settlements. Native Americans of the Great Plains learned to ride from a young age, on small cayuse horses originally introduced by the Spanish conquistadors . These were usually ridden bareback , with only a blanket for comfort. At long range, a warrior would cling to the side of his horse and use it as a shield, while returning fire with his own gun or bow and arrow. The most renowned of all
1911-407: The same as ethnocide . Some ethnologists , such as Robert Jaulin , use the term ethnocide as a substitute for cultural genocide , although this usage has been criticized as risking the confusion between ethnicity and culture. Cultural genocide and ethnocide have in the past been utilized in distinct contexts. Cultural genocide without ethnocide is conceivable when a distinct ethnic identity
1960-465: The short, stout bow , designed for use on horseback and deadly, but only at short range. Guns were usually in short supply and ammunition scarce for Native warriors. The shortages of ammunition together with the lack of training to handle firearms meant the preferred weapon was the bow and arrow. After the American Civil War , however, firearms were in widespread use. The U.S. government through
2009-430: The suppression of a language or cultural activities that do not conform to the destroyer's notion of what is appropriate. Among many other potential reasons, cultural genocide may be committed for religious motives (e.g., iconoclasm which is based on aniconism ); as part of a campaign of ethnic cleansing in an attempt to remove the evidence of a people from a specific locale or history; as part of an effort to implement
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2058-404: The term in 1993 and again in 2008 . The concept of cultural genocide was originally included in drafts of the 1948 Genocide Convention . Genocide was defined as the destruction of a group's language, religion, or culture through one of several methods. This definition of genocide was rejected by the drafting committee by a vote of 25 to 16, with 4 abstentions. Article 7 of a 1994 draft of
2107-527: The tribe's chosen political and spiritual leaders . Roman Nose , who was one of the most influential Cheyenne warriors of the Plains Indian Wars of the 1860s, was known for his illustrious warbonnet that was said to protect him during battle. Several instances record how while wearing his war bonnet, he rode back and forth before soldiers of the United States Army and, despite being fired upon,
2156-461: The wearing of headdresses without the express permission of tribal leaders to be an affront to their culture and traditions. Consequently, in cases where non-Native political leaders have been symbolically allowed to wear the headdress, this has caused controversy. Plains-style war bonnets are made out of eagle feathers because the eagle is considered by most tribes of the Interior Plains to be
2205-410: Was acknowledged as early as 1944, when lawyer Raphael Lemkin distinguished a cultural component of genocide. In 1989, Robert Badinter , a French criminal lawyer known for his stance against the death penalty, used the term "cultural genocide" on a television show to describe what he said was the disappearance of Tibetan culture in the presence of the 14th Dalai Lama . The Dalai Lama would later use
2254-486: Was left unscathed. While women have traditional regalia that can include other types of headdresses , historically women did not wear the most common style of Plains warbonnet. However, in recent years a few First Nations women who have attained a very high level of respect in their communities have been ceremonially gifted with headdresses of the type that were formerly only worn by men. Due to their historical importance and status, traditional Native Americans now consider
2303-407: Was on ambush and hit-and-run actions rather than closing with an enemy. Success was often counted by the number of horses or property obtained in the raid. Casualties were usually light. "Indians consider it foolhardiness to make an attack where it is certain some of them will be killed." Given their smaller numbers, the loss of even a few men in battle could be catastrophic for a band, and notably at
2352-461: Was seen here [in Catalonia ] as the safe haven of freedom, has the miserable honour of being the [only] State of Europe—and probably the world – that succeeded best in the diabolical task of destroying its own ethnic and linguistic patrimony and moreover, of destroying human family bonds: many parents and children, or grandparents and grandchildren, have different languages, and the latter feel ashamed of
2401-629: Was the contact of the Indians with French fur traders which increased rivalry among Native tribes to control trade and trade routes. Third, was the acquisition of the horse and the greater mobility it afforded the Plains Indians. What evolved among the Plains Native Americans from the 17th to the late 19th century was warfare as both a means of livelihood and a sport. Young men gained both prestige and plunder by fighting as warriors, and this individualistic style of warfare ensured that success in individual combat and capturing trophies of war were highly esteemed The Plains Native Americans raided each other,
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