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101-586: The term "walkability" was primarily invented in the 1960s due to Jane Jacobs' revolution in urban studies . In recent years, walkability has become popular because of its health, economic, and environmental benefits. It is an essential concept of sustainable urban design . Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of footpaths , sidewalks or other pedestrian rights-of-way , traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others. One proposed definition for walkability is: "The extent to which

202-449: A pseudoscience . This angered the male-dominated urban planning profession. Jacobs was criticized with ad hominem attacks, being called a "militant dame" and a "housewife": an amateur who had no right to interfere with an established discipline. One planner dismissed Jacobs's book as "bitter coffee-house rambling". Robert Moses, sent a copy, called it "intemperate and also libelous ... Sell this junk to someone else." Later, her book

303-505: A city replaces imports, it shifts its imports. It doesn't import less. And yet it has everything it had before. Reason : It's not a zero-sum game. It's a bigger, growing pie. Jacobs : That's the actual mechanism of it. The theory of it is what I explain in The Nature of Economies . I equate it to what happens with biomass, the sum total of all flora and fauna in an area. The energy, the material that's involved in this, doesn't just escape

404-423: A coalition of dozens of local neighborhood groups that opposed the roadway extension. Raymond S. Rubinow eventually took over the organization, changing its name to the "Joint Emergency Committee to Close Washington Square to Traffic". Jacob—recruited to the cause by Gerard La Mountain, a local Catholic priest whose church was in the path of the planned LOMEX route—had joined the committee under Hayes, but she took

505-443: A communications system to enable initiation of user information transfer. An access attempt itself begins with issuance of an access request by an access originator . An access attempt ends either in successful access or in access failure - an unsuccessful access that results in termination of the attempt in any manner other than initiation of user information transfer between the intended source and destination ( sink ) within

606-721: A contribution to global climate change . Further, cities that developed under guiding philosophies like walkability typically see lower levels of noise pollution in their neighborhoods. This goes beyond just making quieter communities to live, less noise pollution can also mean greater biodiversity. Studies have shown that noise pollution can disrupt certain senses that animals rely on to find food, reproduce, avoid predators, etc. which can weaken ecosystems in an already human dominated environment. Society depends on these ecosystem for many ecological services such as provisioning, regulation, cultural/tourism, and supporting services and any degradation of these services can go beyond just affecting

707-737: A decreased risk of heart-attacks . The World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research released a report that new developments should be designed to encourage walking, on the grounds that walking contributes to a reduction of cancer. A further justification for walkability is founded upon evolutionary and philosophical grounds, contending that gait is important to the cerebral development in humans. In addition, walkable neighborhoods have been linked to higher levels of happiness, health, trust, and social connections in comparison with more car-oriented places. In contrast to walkable environments, less walkable environments are associated with higher BMIs and higher rates of obesity. This

808-466: A development in Philadelphia designed by Edmund Bacon . Although her editors expected a positive story, Jacobs criticized Bacon's project, reacting against its lack of concern for the poor African Americans who were directly affected. When Bacon showed Jacobs examples of undeveloped and developed blocks, she determined that "development" seemed to end community life on the street. When Jacobs returned to

909-400: A field of possible relations between three primary functions that resonate with what economists have often called reproduction, production, and exchange (incorporating social exchange). They also identify primary relations between people and urban space – we become "residents", "workers", and "visitors", respectively, in different locations in everyday life. The key shift here lies in focusing on

1010-496: A household all influence walking travel. One of benefits of improving walkability is the decrease of the automobile footprint in the community. Carbon emissions can be reduced if more people choose to walk rather than drive or use public transportation, so proponents of walkable cities describe improving walkability as an important tool for adapting cities to climate change . The benefits of less emissions include improved health conditions and quality of life, less smog , and less of

1111-646: A judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit . After graduation from Scranton High School , she worked for a year as the unpaid assistant to the women's page editor at the Scranton Tribune . In 1935, during the Great Depression , she moved to New York City with her sister Betty. Jane Butzner took an immediate liking to Manhattan's Greenwich Village , which deviated some from

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1212-441: A large house), which are integrated throughout most walkable Pre-1940s neighborhoods, but became much less common after World War II, hence the term "missing." These housing types are often integrated into blocks with primarily single-family homes, to provide diverse housing choices and generate enough density to support transit and locally-serving commercial amenities. Auto-focused street design diminishes walking and needed "eyes on

1313-432: A lecture at Harvard University . She addressed leading architects, urban planners, and intellectuals (including Lewis Mumford ), speaking on the topic of East Harlem. She urged this audience to "respect – in the deepest sense – strips of chaos that have a weird wisdom of their own not yet encompassed in our concept of urban order". Contrary to her expectations, the talk was received with enthusiasm, but it also marked her as

1414-600: A mention of Jane Jacobs,' I think, 'But I wrote a lot about her.' Every time I'm asked about that, I have this sick feeling." Soon after her arrest in 1968, Jacobs moved to Toronto , eventually settling at 69 Albany Avenue in The Annex from 1971 until her death in 2006. She decided to leave the US in part because she opposed the Vietnam War , she worried about the fate of her two draft -age sons, and she did not want to continue fighting

1515-455: A more prominent role under Rubinow, reaching out to media outlets such as The Village Voice , which provided more sympathetic coverage than The New York Times . The committee gained the support of Margaret Mead , Eleanor Roosevelt , Lewis Mumford , Charles Abrams , and William H. Whyte , as well as Carmine De Sapio , a Greenwich Village resident and influential Democratic leader. De Sapio's involvement proved decisive. On 25 June 1958,

1616-506: A pedestrian tunnel. Jacobs also was active in a campaign against a plan of Royal St. George's College (an established school very close to the Jacobs residence in Toronto's Annex district) to reconfigure its facilities. Jacobs suggested not only that the redesign be stopped but that the school be forced from the neighbourhood entirely. Although Toronto council initially rejected the school's plans,

1717-474: A people that we no longer care how things do work, but only what kind of quick, easy outer impression they give. If so, there is little hope for our cities or probably for much else in our society. But I do not think this is so. In her book 'Death and Life of Great American Cities,' written in 1961, Ms. Jacobs's enormous achievement was to transcend her own withering critique of 20th-century urban planning and propose radically new principles for rebuilding cities. At

1818-579: A recent award to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for studies of urban aesthetics that would culminate in the publication of Kevin A. Lynch 's Image of the City . In May 1958, Gilpatric invited Jacobs to begin serving as a reviewer for grant proposals. Later that year, the Rockefeller Foundation awarded a grant to Jacobs to produce a critical study of city planning and urban life in

1919-402: A small-grain urban fabric is linked to a more mixed neighborhood, large grains also need because some functions rely on those large grains to become part of the mix. The social mix has to do with how a good city brings together people of different ages, abilities, ethnicities, and social classes. Cities are places where differences rub together in walkable public spaces, and this mix of differences

2020-437: A stroke. She was survived by a brother, James Butzner (d. 2009); a daughter, Burgin Jacobs, her sons, James and Ned of Vancouver, and by two grandchildren and two great-grandchildren. Upon her death her family's statement noted: "What's important is not that she died but that she lived, and that her life's work has greatly influenced the way we think. Please remember her by reading her books and implementing her ideas". Jacobs

2121-418: A telephone connection reaches the customer) and the local telephone exchange . The local exchange contains banks of automated switching equipment which direct a call or connection to the consumer. The access network is perhaps one of the oldest assets a telecoms operator would own. In 2007–2008 many telecommunication operators experienced increasing problems maintaining the quality of the records which describe

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2222-445: A ten-story building on 10% of the site has the same floor area as a single-story building with 100% site coverage. Secondly, the measure of dwellings/hectare is common but particularly blunt. It depends on the functional mix, household size, and dwelling size in relation to building or population densities. Larger houses will produce higher building densities for the same population, and larger households will lead to higher populations for

2323-446: A threat to established urban planners, real estate owners, and developers. Architectural Forum printed the speech that year, along with photographs of East Harlem. After reading her Harvard speech, William H. Whyte invited Jacobs to write an article for Fortune magazine. The resulting piece, "Downtown Is for People", appeared in a 1958 issue of Fortune , and marked her first public criticism of Robert Moses . Her criticism of

2424-469: A three-story building at 555 Hudson Street . Jane continued to write for Amerika after the war, while Robert left Grumman and resumed work as an architect. The Jacobses rejected the rapidly growing suburbs as "parasitic", choosing to remain in Greenwich Village. They renovated their house, in the middle of a mixed residential and commercial area, and created a garden in the backyard. Working for

2525-410: A time when both common and inspired wisdom called for bulldozing slums and opening up city space, Ms. Jacobs's prescription was ever more diversity, density and dynamism – in effect, to crowd people and activities together in a jumping, joyous urban jumble. Samuel R. Delany 's book Times Square Red, Times Square Blue relies heavily on The Death and Life of Great American Cities in its analysis of

2626-536: A time when he was seen as a longshot . During the mayoral campaign, Jacobs helped lobby against the construction of a bridge to join the city waterfront to island airport on the Toronto Islands . Following the election, the Toronto City Council's earlier decision to approve the bridge was reversed and the bridge construction project was stopped. The airport instead upgraded the ferry service and later built

2727-481: A trade magazine, as a secretary, then an editor. She sold articles to the Sunday Herald Tribune , Cue magazine, and Vogue . She studied at Columbia University 's School of General Studies for two years, taking courses in geology, zoology , law, political science , and economics. About the freedom to pursue study across her wide-ranging interests, she said: For the first time I liked school and for

2828-479: Is a charge made by a local exchange carrier for use of its local exchange facilities for a purpose such as the origination or termination of network traffic that is carried to or from a distant exchange by an interexchange carrier . Although some access charges are billed directly to interexchange carriers, a significant percentage of all access charges are paid by the local end users. A passive optical distribution network (PON) uses single-mode optical fiber in

2929-426: Is a correlation between the white exodus from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban regions with the growth of an automobile-centric urban planning. Jane Jacobs ' classic book The Death and Life of Great American Cities remains one of the most influential books in the history of American city planning, especially concerning the future developments of the walkability concept. She coined

3030-399: Is a differentiation of a previous thing, from a new shoe sole to changes in legal codes. Expansion is an actual growth in size or volume of activity. That is a different thing. I've gone at it two different ways. Way back when I wrote The Economy of Cities , I wrote about import replacing and how that expands, not just the economy of the place where it occurs, but economic life altogether. As

3131-579: Is a tool that some American cities, like Cincinnati , are employing to improve walkability. The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organization of the city, in particular in Barcelona with the publication of the Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the city -written by architecture theorist Massimo Paolini- in which the elimination of the car and the consequent pedestrianization of

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3232-404: Is again the main barrier to achieving these profits since operators worldwide have accurate records of only 40% to 60% of the network. Without understanding or even knowing the characteristics of these enormous copper spider webs, it is very difficult, and expensive to 'provision' (connect) new customers and assure the data rates required to receive next-generation services. Access networks around

3333-410: Is also examined based on the surrounding built environment . Reid Ewing and Robert Cervero 's five D's of the built environment—density, diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit—heavily influence an area's walkability. Combinations of these factors influence an individual's decision to walk. Before cars and bicycles were mass-produced, walking was the main way to travel. It

3434-401: Is contrasted with the core network , which connects local providers to one another. The access network may be further divided between feeder plant or distribution network, and drop plant or edge network. An access network, also referred to as an outside plant , refers to the series of wires, cables and equipment lying between a consumer/business telephone termination point (the point at which

3535-484: Is credited, along with Lewis Mumford , with inspiring the New Urbanist movement. She has been characterized as a major influence on decentralist and radical centrist thought. She discussed her legacy in an interview with Reason magazine. Reason : What do you think you'll be remembered for most? You were the one who stood up to the federal bulldozers and the urban renewal people and said they were destroying

3636-488: Is dependent on destinations and geared to metropolitan access through public transit nodes. While DMA is based on walkability measures, popular " walk score " or "rate my street" websites offer more metrics to connect urban morphology with better environmental and health outcomes. Density is an interrelated assemblage of buildings, populations, and street life. It is a crucial property of walkability because it concentrates more people and places within walkable distances. There

3737-513: Is difficulty determining density due to populations oscillating from the suburbs to the urban center. Moreover, measures of density can differ dramatically for different morphologies and building typologies . Density may be conflated with building height, contributing to the confusion. The ratio between the floor area and the site area is generally known as the Floor Area Ratio (FAR, also called Plot Ratio and Floor Space Index). For example,

3838-532: Is fundamental to the production of urban vitality. Again, there is no single index for mix in its impact on walkability. The concept is fundamentally relational, both between functions and the formal and social mix sustaining them. The access networks of a city enable and constrain pedestrian flows; it is the capacity or possibility to walk. Like density and mix, these are properties embodied in urban form and facilitate more efficient pedestrian flows. Access networks are also multi-modal and need to be understood from

3939-477: Is needed to find additional built environment factors in walkability indices. Walkability has also been found to have many socioeconomic benefits, including accessibility, cost savings both to individuals and to the public, student transport (which can include walking buses ), increased efficiency of land use, increased livability, economic benefits from improved public health, and economic development, among others. The benefits of walkability are best guaranteed if

4040-514: Is particularly true for the more car-dependent environments of US suburban sprawl. Compared to walking and biking, driving as a commuting option is associated with higher levels of obesity. There are well-established links between the design of an urban area (including its walkability and land use policy) and health outcomes for that community. Due to discrepancies between residents' health in inner city neighborhoods and suburban neighborhoods with similar walkability measures, further research

4141-534: Is remembered as being an advocate for the mindful development of cities, and for leaving "a legacy of empowerment for citizens to trust their common sense and become advocates for their place". Despite the fact that Jacobs mainly focused on New York City, her arguments have been identified as universal. For instance, her opposition against the demolition of urban neighborhoods for projects of urban renewal had "special resonance" in Melbourne , Australia. In Melbourne in

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4242-640: The American Sociological Association awarded her its Outstanding Lifetime Contribution award in 2002. In 1997, the city government of Toronto sponsored a conference entitled, "Jane Jacobs: Ideas That Matter", which led to a book by the same name. At the end of the conference, the Jane Jacobs Prize was created. It includes an annual stipend of $ 5,000 for three years to be given to "celebrate Toronto's original, unsung heroes – by seeking out citizens who are engaged in activities that contribute to

4343-766: The HOPE VI Program, an effort by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development to demolish the high-rise public housing projects so reviled by Jacobs and to replace them with low-rise, mixed-income housing . Throughout her life, Jacobs fought to alter the way in which city development was approached. By arguing that cities were living beings and ecosystems, she advocated ideas such as "mixed use" development and bottom-up planning. Furthermore, her harsh criticisms of "slum clearing" and "high-rise housing" projects were instrumental in discrediting these once universally supported planning practices. Jacobs

4444-499: The Housing Act of 1949 , also called for several blocks to be razed and replaced with upscale high-rises. The plan forced 132 families out of their homes and displaced 1,000 small businesses – the result was Washington Square Village . As part of his efforts to revitalize the area, Moses had proposed the extension of Fifth Avenue through Washington Square Park in 1935. In the face of community opposition, Moses had shelved

4545-590: The Lincoln Center was not popular with supporters of urban renewal at Architectural Forum and Fortune . C. D. Jackson , the publisher of Fortune , was outraged and over the telephone, demanded of Whyte: "Who is this crazy dame?" The Fortune article brought Jacobs to the attention of Chadbourne Gilpatric, then associate director of the Humanities Division at the Rockefeller Foundation . The foundation had moved aggressively into urban topics, with

4646-605: The World Trade Center as a disaster for Manhattan's waterfront. During the 1950s and 1960s, her home neighborhood of Greenwich Village was being transformed by city and state efforts to build housing (see, for example, Jacobs's 1961 fight to build the West Village Houses in lieu of large apartment houses), private developers, the expansion of New York University , and by the urban renewal plans of Robert Moses . Moses' plan, funded as "slum clearance" by Title I of

4747-400: The outside plant , optical splitters and optical distribution frames , duplexed so that both upstream and downstream signals share the same fiber on separate wavelengths. Faster PON standards generally support a higher split ratio of users per PON, but may also use reach extenders/amplifiers where extra coverage is needed. Optical splitters creating a point to multipoint topology are also

4848-720: The 1960s, resident associations fought against large-scale high-rise housing projects of the Housing Commission of Victoria , which they argued had little regard for the impact on local communities. Jacobs fought an uphill battle against dominant trends of planning. Despite the United States remaining very much a suburban nation, the work of Jacobs has contributed to city living being rehabilitated and revitalized. Because of her ideas, today, many distressed urban neighborhoods are more likely to be gentrified than cleared for redevelopment. It may be that we have become so feckless as

4949-592: The Loyalty Security Board at the US Department of State. In her foreword to her answer, she said: The other threat to the security of our tradition, I believe, lies at home. It is the current fear of radical ideas and of people who propound them. I do not agree with the extremists of either the left or the right, but I think they should be allowed to speak and to publish, both because they themselves have, and ought to have, rights, and once their rights are gone,

5050-518: The New York City government. She and her husband chose Toronto because it was pleasant and offered employment opportunities, and they moved to an area of Toronto that included so many Americans avoiding the draft that it was called the "American ghetto". She quickly became a leading figure in her new city and helped stop the proposed Spadina Expressway . A frequent theme of her work was to ask whether cities were being built for people or for cars. She

5151-618: The State Department during the McCarthy era, Jacobs received a questionnaire about her political beliefs and loyalties. Jacobs was anti-communist and had left the Federal Workers Union because of its apparent communist sympathies. Nevertheless, she was pro-union and purportedly appreciated the writing of Saul Alinsky , and therefore she was under suspicion. On 25 March 1952, Jacobs delivered her response to Conrad E. Snow, chairman of

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5252-551: The Struggle over Separation . Jacobs was an advocate of a Province of Toronto to separate the city proper from Ontario . Jacobs said, "Cities, to thrive in the twenty-first century, must separate themselves politically from their surrounding areas." She was selected to be an officer of the Order of Canada in 1996 for her seminal writings and thought-provoking commentaries on urban development . The community and urban sociology section of

5353-585: The US. (From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, the foundation's Humanities Division sponsored an "Urban Design Studies" research program, of which Jacobs was the best known grantee.) Gilpatric encouraged Jacobs to "explor[e] the field of urban design to look for ideas and actions which may improve thinking on how the design of cities might better serve urban life, including cultural and humane value." Affiliating with The New School (then called The New School for Social Research), she spent three years conducting research and writing drafts. In 1961, Random House published

5454-456: The aesthetic of a neighborhood or community but can have serious implications for livability and wellbeing on entire regions. Cities that have a relatively high walkability score also tend to have a higher concentration of green spaces which facilitate a more walkable city. These green spaces can assist in regulatory ecological services such as flooding, improving the quality of both air and water, carbon sequestration, etc. all while also improving

5555-480: The areas of a metropolis which can be reached from a given starting point, in a given amount of travel time. Such maps are useful for evaluating how well-connected a given address is to other possible urban destinations, or conversely, how large a territory can quickly get to a given address. The calculation of transit time maps is computationally intensive , and considerable work is being done on more efficient algorithms for quickly producing such maps. To be useful,

5656-412: The associated network of expressways in Toronto that were planned and under construction. As a woman and a writer who criticized experts in the male-dominated field of urban planning , Jacobs endured scorn from established figures. Routinely, she was described first as a housewife, as she did not have a college degree or any formal training in urban planning; as a result, her lack of credentials

5757-460: The attractiveness of the city or town in which it's implemented in. Many communities have embraced pedestrian mobility as an alternative to older building practices that favor automobiles. This shift includes a belief that dependency on cars is ecologically unsustainable. Automobile-oriented environments engender dangerous conditions for motorists and pedestrians and are generally bereft of aesthetics. A type of zoning called Form-based coding

5858-680: The average time it has taken American commuters to get to work has actually increased from 25 minutes in 2006 to 27.6 minutes in 2019, so much is still to be done if walkability is to be realized and a lessened reliance on cars comes into fruition. Walkability indices have been found to correlate with both lower Body Mass Index (BMI) and high levels of physical activity of local populations. Physical activity can prevent chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease , diabetes , hypertension , obesity , depression , and osteoporosis . Thus for instance, an increase in neighborhood Walk Score has linked with both better Cardio metabolic risk profiles and

5959-491: The built environment is friendly to the presence of people living, shopping, visiting, enjoying or spending time in an area". A study attempted to comprehensively and objectively measure subjective qualities of the urban street environment. Using ratings from an expert panel, it was possible to measure five urban design qualities in terms of physical characteristics of streets and their edges: imageability , enclosure, human scale , transparency and complexity. Walkability relies on

6060-564: The city closed Washington Square Park to traffic, and the joint committee held a ribbon tying (not cutting) ceremony. Plans for LOMEX expressway continued despite growing community opposition in areas such as Little Italy. In the 1960s, Jacobs chaired the Joint Committee to Stop the Lower Manhattan Expressway . The New York Times was sympathetic to Moses, while The Village Voice covered community rallies and advocated against

6161-457: The city's grid structure . The sisters soon moved there from Brooklyn. During her early years in Manhattan, Jacobs held a variety of jobs working as a stenographer and freelance writer , writing about working districts in the city. These experiences, she later said, "gave me more of a notion of what was going on in the city and what business was like, what work was like". Her first job was for

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6262-435: The city's vitality". Jacobs never shied away from expressing her political support for specific candidates. She opposed the 1997 amalgamation of the cities of Metro Toronto , fearing that individual neighbourhoods would have less power with the new structure. She backed an ecologist, Tooker Gomberg , who lost Toronto's 2000 mayoralty race , and she was an adviser to David Miller's successful mayoral campaign in 2003 , at

6363-428: The community as an export. It continues being used in a community, just as in a rainforest the waste from certain organisms and various plants and animals gets used by other ones in the place. While Jacobs saw her greatest legacy to be her contributions to economic theory, it is in the realm of urban planning that she has had her most extensive effect. Her observations about the ways in which cities function revolutionized

6464-520: The complete failure of the wire to transport data. Access is essential to the future profitability of operators who are experiencing massive reductions in revenue from plain old telephone services , due in part to the opening of historically nationalized companies to competition, and in part to increased use of mobile phones and voice over IP (VoIP) services. Operators offered additional services such as xDSL based broadband and IPTV ( Internet Protocol television ) to guarantee profit. The access network

6565-491: The corners of the triangle – the dysfunctional parts of cities where one can- not walk between living, work, and visiting functions. While the functional mix is crucial to any approach to walkability, it is important to note here that function is itself but one dimension of the urban mix, including the formal and social mix. A formal mix emerges from how a city produces different plot sizes, which are linked to different building styles, floor plate sizes, and building heights. While

6666-421: The customer. In some instances, these wires may even consist of aluminum , which was commonly used in the 1960s and 1970s following a massive increase in the cost of copper. The price increase was temporary, but the effects of this decision are still felt today as electromigration within the aluminum wires can cause an increase in on-state resistance. This resistance causes degradation which can eventually lead to

6767-623: The decision later was reversed – and the project was given the go-ahead by the Ontario Municipal Board (OMB) when opponents failed to produce credible witnesses and tried to withdraw from the case during the hearing. She also had an influence on Vancouver 's urban planning. Jacobs has been called "the mother of Vancouverism ", referring to that city's use of her "density done well" philosophy. Jacobs died in Toronto Western Hospital aged 89, on 25 April 2006, apparently of

6868-413: The diversity of people, and especially the presence of children, seniors and people with disabilities, denotes the quality, completeness and health of a walkable space. A number of commercial walkability scores also exist: A newly developing concept is the transit time map (sometimes called a transit shed map), which is a type of isochrone map . These are maps (often online and interactive) that display

6969-480: The entire system of public corridors is walkable - not limited to certain specialized routes. More sidewalks and increased walkability can promote tourism and increase property value. In recent years, the demand for housing in a walkable urban context has increased. The term " Missing Middle Housing " as coined by Daniel Parolek of Opticos Design, Inc., refers to multi-unit housing types (such as duplexes, fourplexes, bungalow courts, and mansion apartments not bigger than

7070-538: The expressway. Jacobs continued to fight the expressway when plans resurfaced in 1962, 1965, and 1968, and she became a local hero for her opposition to the project. She was arrested by a plainclothes police officer on 10 April 1968, at a public hearing during which the crowd had charged the stage and destroyed the stenographer's notes. She was accused of inciting a riot, criminal mischief, and obstructing public administration. After months of trials conducted in New York City (to which Jacobs commuted from Toronto), her charge

7171-415: The first time I made good marks. This was almost my undoing because after I had garnered, statistically, a certain number of credits I became the property of Barnard College at Columbia, and once I was the property of Barnard I had to take, it seemed, what Barnard wanted me to take, not what I wanted to learn. Fortunately my high-school marks had been so bad that Barnard decided I could not belong to it and I

7272-575: The interdependencies between density, mix, and access in synergy. The urban DMA (Density, Mix, Access) is a set of synergies between the ways cities concentrate people and buildings, how they mix different people and activities, and the access networks used to navigate through them. These factors cannot be taken singularly. Rather than an ideal functional mix, there is a mix of mixes and interdependencies between formal, social, and functional mixes. Likewise, walk-able access cannot be reduced to any singular measure of connectivity, permeability, or catchment but

7373-482: The lifeblood of these cities. Is that what it will be? Jacobs : No. If I were to be remembered as a really important thinker of the century, the most important thing I've contributed is my discussion of what makes economic expansion happen. This is something that has puzzled people always. I think I've figured out what it is. Expansion and development are two different things. Development is differentiation of what already existed. Practically every new thing that happens

7474-403: The mix rather than their functions. Such mapping offers an empirical understanding of the mix that enables us to expose different kinds and levels of a mix. It is tempting to construct an index for an ideal mix measured by the degree of lightness as the mix approaches the center of the triangle. However, we suggest that the best cities comprise a mix of mixes. Our attention should focus instead on

7575-511: The nature of social relations within the realm of urban studies. After the death of Jacobs in April 2006, New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg announced a Jane Jacobs Day, held on 28 June 2006. The City of Toronto proclaimed her birthday the following year, 4 May 2007, as Jane Jacobs Day. Access network An access network is a type of telecommunications network which connects subscribers to their immediate service provider . It

7676-414: The network. In 2006, according to an independent Yankee Group report, globally operators experience profit leakage in excess of $ 17 billion each year. The access network is also perhaps the most valuable asset an operator owns since this is what physically allows them to offer a service. Access networks consist largely of pairs of copper wires , each traveling in a direct path between the exchange and

7777-553: The offices of Architectural Forum , she began to question the 1950s consensus on urban planning. In 1955, Jacobs met William Kirk, an Episcopal minister who worked in East Harlem . Kirk came to the Architectural Forum offices to describe the impact that "revitalization" had on East Harlem, and he introduced Jacobs to the neighborhood. In 1956, while standing in for Douglas Haskell of Architectural Forum , Jacobs delivered

7878-863: The perspective of those who choose between modes of walking, cycling, public transport, and cars. Public transport trips are generally coupled with walkable access to the transit stop. Walking will primarily be chosen for up to 10 minutes if it is the fastest mode and other factors are equal. Walking has the advantage that it is a much more predictable trip time than public transport or cars, where we have to allow for delays caused by poor service, congestion, and parking. Major infrastructural factors include access to mass transit , presence and quality of footpaths , buffers to moving traffic (planter strips, on-street parking or bike lanes ) and pedestrian crossings , aesthetics , nearby local destinations, air quality, shade or sun in appropriate seasons, street furniture , traffic volume and speed. and wind conditions. Walkability

7979-443: The production of a transit time map must take into consideration detailed transit schedules , service frequency , time of day, and day of week. Moreover, the recent development of computer vision and street view imagery has provided significant potential to automatically assess spaces for pedestrians from the ground level. Jane Jacobs Jane Isabel Jacobs OC OOnt ( née Butzner ; 4 May 1916 – 25 April 2006)

8080-589: The project, but revived the idea in the 1950s. Moses argued that the Fifth Avenue extension would improve the flow of traffic through the neighborhood and provide access to the planned Lower Manhattan Expressway (LOMEX), which would connect the Manhattan Bridge and Williamsburg Bridge with the Holland Tunnel . In response, local activist Shirley Hayes created the "Committee to Save Washington Square Park",

8181-433: The result: The Death and Life of Great American Cities . The Death and Life of Great American Cities remains one of the most influential books in the history of American city planning. She coined the terms "mixed primary uses", and "eyes on the street", which were adopted professionally in urban design, sociology, and many other fields. Jacobs painted a devastating picture of the profession of city planning, labeling it

8282-591: The right of workers to unionize. She became a feature writer for the Office of War Information and then a reporter for Amerika , a publication of the US State Department in the Russian language. While working there she met Robert Hyde Jacobs Jr., a Columbia-educated architect who was designing warplanes for Grumman . They married in 1944. Together they had a daughter, Burgin, and two sons, James and Ned. They bought

8383-420: The rights of the rest of us are hardly safe. Jacobs left Amerika in 1952 when it announced its relocation to Washington, DC . She then found a well-paying job at Architectural Forum , published by Henry Luce of Time Inc. She was hired as an associate editor. After early success in that position, Jacobs began to take assignments on urban planning and " urban blight ". In 1954, she was assigned to cover

8484-440: The same number of dwellings. In functionally mixed neighborhoods, housing will be just one component of the mix and therefore not a measure of building or population density. The census -based density of residents/hectare is another common measure, but it does not include those who work there. Functional mix, like density, shortens the distances between wherever we are and where we need to be. The live/work/visit triangle constructs

8585-409: The same technology regardless of the type of PON system, making any PON network upgradable by changing the optical network terminals (ONT) and optical line terminal (OLT) terminals at each end, with minimal change to the physical network. Access networks usually also must support point-to-point technologies such as Ethernet , which bypasses any outside plant splitter to achieve a dedicated link to

8686-458: The specified maximum access time. Access time is the time delay or latency between a requested access attempt and successful access being completed. In a telecommunications system, access time values are measured only on access attempts that result in successful access. Access failure can be the result of access outage, user blocking , incorrect access, or access denial . Access denial ( system blocking ) can include: An access charge

8787-515: The street" provided by the steady presence of people in an area. Walkability increases social interaction, mixing of populations, the average number of friends and associates where people live, reduced crime (with more people walking and watching over neighborhoods, open space and main streets), increased sense of pride, and increased volunteerism. Socioeconomic factors contribute to willingness to choose walking over driving. Income, age, race, ethnicity, education, household status, and having children in

8888-442: The terms " social capital ", "mixed primary uses", and "eyes on the street", which were adopted professionally in urban design, sociology, and many other fields. While there has been a push towards better walkability in cities in recent years, there are still many obstacles that need to be cleared to achieve more complete and cohesive communities where residents won't have to travel as far to get to where they need to go. For example,

8989-587: The urban planning profession and discredited many accepted planning models that had dominated mid-century planning. The influential Harvard economist Edward Glaeser , known for his work on urban studies, acknowledged that Jane Jacobs (1960s) had been prescient in attacking Moses for "replacing well-functioning neighborhoods with Le Corbusier -inspired towers". Glaeser agreed that these housing projects proved to be Moses' greatest failures, "Moses spent millions and evicted tens of thousands to create buildings that became centers of crime, poverty, and despair." She also

9090-488: The walkability of a block, corridor or neighborhood is to count the number of people walking, lingering and engaging in optional activities within a space. This process is a vast improvement upon pedestrian level of service (LOS) indicators, recommended within the Highway Capacity Manual . However it may not translate well to non-Western locations where the idea of "optional" activities may be different. In any case,

9191-472: The whole city is one of the critical elements, as well as the proposed inversion of the concept of the sidewalk . There are several ways to make a community more walkable: One way of assessing and measuring walkability is to undertake a walking audit . An established and widely used walking audit tool is PERS (Pedestrian Environment Review System) which has been used extensively in the UK. A simple way to determine

9292-410: The world evolved to include more and more optical fiber technology. Optical fiber already makes up the majority of core networks and will start to creep closer and closer to the customer, until a full transition is achieved, delivering value-added services over fiber to the home (FTTH). The process of communicating with a network begins with an access attempt , in which one or more users interact with

9393-488: Was an American-Canadian journalist, author, theorist, and activist who influenced urban studies , sociology, and economics. Her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) argued that " urban renewal " and " slum clearance " did not respect the needs of city-dwellers. Jacobs organized grassroots efforts to protect neighborhoods from urban renewal and slum clearance, in particular plans by Robert Moses to overhaul her own Greenwich Village neighborhood. She

9494-540: Was arrested twice during demonstrations. She also had considerable influence on the regeneration of the St. Lawrence neighbourhood, a housing project regarded as a major success. She became a Canadian citizen in 1974 and later, she told writer James Howard Kunstler that dual citizenship was not possible at the time, implying that her US citizenship was lost. In 1980, she offered a more urban perspective on Quebec 's sovereignty in her book, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and

9595-573: Was criticized from the left for leaving out race and openly endorsing gentrification , which Jacobs referred to as "unslumming". In 1962, she resigned her position at Architectural Forum to become a full-time author and concentrate on raising her children. In other political activities she became an opponent of the Vietnam War , marched on the Pentagon in October 1967, and criticized the construction of

9696-539: Was famous for introducing concepts such as the "Ballet of the Sidewalk" and "Eyes on the Street", a reference to what would later be known as natural surveillance . The concept had a huge influence on planners and architects such as Oscar Newman , who prepared the idea through a series of studies that would culminate in his defensible space theory . The work of Jacobs and Newman would go on to affect American housing policy through

9797-542: Was instrumental in the eventual cancellation of the Lower Manhattan Expressway , which would have passed directly through the area of Manhattan that would later become known as SoHo , as well as part of Little Italy and Chinatown . She was arrested in 1968 for inciting a crowd at a public hearing on that project. After moving to Toronto in 1968, she joined the opposition to the Spadina Expressway and

9898-555: Was reduced to disorderly conduct. New York: A Documentary Film devoted an hour of the eight-part, seventeen-and-a-half-hour series to the battle between Moses and Jacobs. Robert Caro 's biography of Moses, The Power Broker , gives only passing mention to this event, however, despite Jacobs's strong influence on Caro. In 2017, Caro told an interviewer about the difficulty in cutting more than 300,000 words from his initial manuscript: "The section that I wrote on Jane Jacobs disappeared. To this day, when someone says: 'There's hardly

9999-498: Was seized upon as grounds for criticism. The influence of her concepts eventually was acknowledged by highly respected professionals, such as Richard Florida and Robert Lucas . Jane Isabel Jacobs was born Jane Isabel Butzner in Scranton, Pennsylvania , the daughter of Bess Robison Butzner, a former teacher and nurse, and John Decker Butzner, a physician. They were a Protestant family. Her brother, John Decker Butzner Jr. , served as

10100-579: Was the only way to get from place to place for much of human history. In the 1920s, economic growth led to increased automobile manufacturing. Cars were also becoming more affordable, leading to the rise of the automobile during the Post–World War II economic expansion . The detrimental effects of automobile emissions soon led to public concern over pollution. Alternatives, including improved public transportation and walking infrastructure, have attracted more attention from planners and policymakers. There

10201-717: Was therefore allowed to continue getting an education. After attending Columbia University's School of General Studies for two years, Butzner found a job at Iron Age magazine. Her 1943 article on economic decline in Scranton was well publicized and led the Murray Corporation of America to locate a warplane factory there. Encouraged by this success, Butzner petitioned the War Production Board to support more operations in Scranton. Experiencing job discrimination at Iron Age , she also advocated for equal pay for women and for

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