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44-527: The Wakefield Rattan Company was the world's leading manufacturer of rattan furniture and objects in the second half of the 19th century. Founded by Cyrus Wakefield in 1851 in South Reading, Massachusetts (now Wakefield ), it perfected machinery for working with rattan, developing looms for weaving chair seats and mats. Its products also included wicker furniture and baby carriages. The company also successfully found uses for previously wasted portions of

88-426: A choice of weapon, even against bladed objects. Rattan shields were historically used in ancient, medieval and early modern China and Korea. According to some contemporary sources, they were reasonably effective against both arrows and early firearms. It sees also prominent use in battle re-enactments as stand-ins to potentially lethal weapons. Rattan can also be used to build a functional sword that delivers

132-427: A furnace. Calcium and carbon are added. The wood is then further heated under intense pressure in another oven-like machine, and a phosphate solution is introduced. This process produces almost an exact replica of bone material. The process takes about 10 days. At the time of the announcement the bone was being tested in sheep, and there had been no signs of rejection. Particles from the sheep's bodies have migrated to

176-442: A great deal of basic introductory information is available. Available rattan floras and monographs by region (2002 ): Uses by taxon . The major commercial species of rattan canes as identified for Asia by Dransfield and Manokaran (1993) and for Africa, by Tuley (1995) and Sunderland (1999) ( Desmoncus not treated here): Utilized Calamus species canes: Other traditional uses of rattans by species: The name "rattan"

220-446: A hormonal signal to initiate tendril coiling. This cascade can activate plasma membrane H+-ATPase , which also plays a role in the contact coiling mechanism as a proton pump. This pump activity establishes an electrochemical of H+ ions from inside the cell to the apoplast , which in turn creates an osmotic gradient. This leads to loss of turgor pressure; the differences in cell size due to the loss of turgor pressure in some cells creates

264-452: A non-lethal but similar impact compared to steel counterparts. Tendril The earliest and most comprehensive study of tendrils was Charles Darwin's monograph On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants , which was originally published in 1865. This work also coined the term circumnutation to describe the motion of growing stems and tendrils seeking supports. Darwin also observed

308-479: A profitable crop that complements rather than competes with trees. However, the long-term profitability and utility of rattan compared to other alternatives remain subjects of ongoing evaluation and study. Cleaned rattan stems with the leaf sheaths removed are superficially similar to bamboo . Unlike bamboo, rattan stems are not hollow. Most (70%) of the world's rattan population exists in Indonesia , distributed among

352-422: A single stem. Clustering rattan, on the other hand, develop clumps of up to 50 stems via suckers , similar to bamboo and bananas . These clusters can produce new stems continually as individual stems die. The impact of harvesting is much greater in solitary species, since the whole plant dies when harvested. An example of a commercially important single-stemmed species is Calamus manan . Clustering species, on

396-525: A strand of rattan, the skin is usually peeled off, to be used as rattan weaving material. The remaining "core" of the rattan can be used for various purposes in furniture making. Rattan is a very good material, mainly because it is lightweight, durable, and, to a certain extent, flexible and suitable for outdoor use. Traditionally, the women of the Wemale ethnic group of Seram Island , Indonesia wore rattan girdles around their waist. Thin rattan canes were

440-510: A tendril comes in contact with a neighboring conspecific plant (of the same species) signaling molecules released by the host plant bind to chemoreceptors on the climbing plant’s tendrils. This generates a signal that prevents the thigmotropic pathway and therefore prevents the tendril from coiling around that host. Studies confirming this pathway have been performed on the climbing plant Cayratia japonica . Research demonstrated that when two C. japonica plants were placed in physical contact,

484-414: A vine-like habit, scrambling through and over other vegetation. However, they are different from true woody lianas in several ways. Because rattans are palms, they do not branch and they rarely develop new root structures upon contact of the stem with soil. They are monocots , and thus, do not exhibit secondary growth . This means the diameter of the rattan stem is always constant: juvenile rattan palms have

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528-577: A wood with a light peach hue. In the Indian state of Assam , the shoot is also used as vegetable. The stem tips are rich in starch , and can be eaten raw or roasted. Long stems can be cut to obtain potable water. The palm heart can also be eaten raw or cooked. In early 2010, scientists in Italy announced that rattan wood would be used in a new "wood to bone" process for the production of artificial bone . The process takes small pieces of rattan and places them in

572-587: A young industry and only constitutes a minority of the rattan resources harvested annually. In forests where rattan grows, its economic value can play a crucial role in conservation efforts. By offering an alternative source of income, rattan harvesting can deter loggers from engaging in timber logging. Harvesting rattan canes is simpler and requires less sophisticated tools compared to logging operations. Furthermore, rattan grows rapidly, which facilitates quicker replenishment compared to tropical wood species.This economic incentive supports forest maintenance by providing

616-437: Is available in many colours, and it can be worked into many styles. Moreover, the inner core can be separated and worked into wicker . A typical braiding pattern is called Wiener Geflecht , Viennese Braiding, as it was invented in 18th century Vienna and later most prominently used by Thonet for their No. 14 chair . Generally, raw rattan is processed into several products to be used as materials in furniture making. From

660-846: Is first attested in English in the 1650s. It is derived from the Malay name rotan . Probably ultimately from rautan (from raut , "to trim" or "to pare"). Many rattan species also form mutualistic relationships with ant species. They provide ant shelters ( myrmecodomatia ) like hollow spines, funnel-shaped leaves, or leaf sheath extensions ( ochreae ). The rattans in turn, gain protection from herbivores. Rattans are threatened with overexploitation , as harvesters are cutting stems too young and reducing their ability to resprout. Unsustainable harvesting of rattan can lead to forest degradation , affecting overall forest ecosystem services . Processing can also be polluting. The use of toxic chemicals and petrol in

704-453: Is heavily used as a housing material in rural areas. The skin of the plant or wood is primarily used for weaving . Rattan cane is also used traditionally to make polo mallets , though only a small portion of cane harvested (roughly 3%) is strong, flexible, and durable enough to be made into sticks for polo mallets, and popularity of rattan mallets is waning next the more modern variant, fibrecanes. Fire-hardened rattan were commonly used as

748-409: Is modified from whole inflorescence. The mechanism of tendril coiling begins with circumnutation of the tendril in which it is moving and growing in a circular oscillatory pattern around its axis. Circumnutation is often defined as the first main movement of the tendril, and it serves the purpose of increasing the chance that the plant will come in contact with a support system (physical structure for

792-813: Is not restricted to Calamoideae, but has also evolved in three other evolutionary lines—tribes Cocoseae ( Desmoncus with c. 7–10 species in the New World tropics) and Areceae ( Dypsis scandens in Madagascar) in subfamily Arecoideae, and tribe Hyophorbeae (climbing species of the large genus Chamaedorea in Central America) in subfamily Ceroxyloideae. They do not have spinose stems and climb by means of their reflexed terminal leaflets. Of these only Desmoncus spp. furnish stems of sufficiently good quality to be used as rattan cane substitutes. There are 13 different genera of rattans that include around 600 species. Some of

836-430: Is the preferred natural material used to wick essential oils in aroma reed diffusers (commonly used in aromatherapy , or merely to scent closets, passageways, and rooms), because each rattan reed contains 20 or more permeable channels that wick the oil from the container up the stem and release fragrance into the air, through an evaporation diffusion process. In contrast, reeds made from bamboo contain nodes that inhibit

880-1026: The National Register of Historic Places . In 2005, they were demolished and replaced by a supermarket. Rattan Rattan , also spelled ratan (from Malay : rotan ), is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae . The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed- canopy old-growth tropical forests of Southeast Asia , though they can also be found in other parts of tropical Asia and Africa . Most rattan palms are ecologically considered lianas due to their climbing habits, unlike other palm species. A few species also have tree-like or shrub-like habits. Around 20% of rattan palm species are economically important and are traditionally used in Southeast Asia in producing wickerwork furniture, baskets, canes , woven mats, cordage , and other handicrafts . Rattan canes are one of

924-710: The angiosperms , gymnosperms , and fern , tendrils are often shown in angiosperms and little in fern. Based on their molecular basis of tendril development, studies showed that tendrils helical growth performance is not correlated with ontogenetic origin, instead, there are multiple ontogenetic origins. 17 types of tendrils have been identified by their ontogenetic origins and growth pattern, and each type of tendril can be involved more than once within angiosperms. Common fruits and vegetables that have tendrils includes watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus )'s derived from modified stem, pea ( Pisum sativum )'s derived from modified terminal leaflets and common grape vine ( Vitis vinifera )'s

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968-425: The rachis of a compound leaf as a tendril, such as members of the genus Clematis . The specialised pitcher traps of Nepenthes plants form on the end of tendrils. The tendrils of aerial pitchers are usually coiled in the middle. If the tendril comes into contact with an object for long enough it will usually curl around it, forming a strong anchor point for the pitcher. In this way, the tendrils help to support

1012-456: The "wood bone" and formed long, continuous bones. The new bone-from-wood programme is being funded by the European Union . By 2023, experimental implants into humans were taking place. Rattans are extensively used for making baskets and furniture . When cut into sections, rattan can be used as wood to make furniture. Rattan accepts paints and stains like many other kinds of wood, so it

1056-538: The ability to climb wide-diameter trees, unlike other vines which use tendrils or twining which can only climb narrower supports. Rattans have been known to grow up to hundreds of metres long. A few species of rattans are non-climbing. These range from free-standing tree-like species (like Calamus dumetosa ) to acaulescent shrub -like species with short subterranean stems (like Calamus pygmaeus ). Rattans can also be solitary (single-stemmed), clustering (clump-forming), or both. Solitary rattan species grow into

1100-435: The coiling response. This contractile movement is also influenced by gelatinous fibers, which contract and lignify in response to the thigmotropic signal cascade. Although tendrils twine around hosts based on touch perception , plants have a form of self-discrimination and avoid twining around themselves or neighboring plants of the same species – demonstrating chemotropism based on chemoreception . Once

1144-458: The direction of the support stimulus. Therefore, it was concluded that tendrils are able to change the direction of their circumnutation based on the presence of a support stimulus. The process of circumnutation in plants is not unique to tendril plants, as almost all plant species show circumnutation behaviors. Thigmotropism is the basis of the input signal in the tendril coiling mechanism. For example, pea tendrils have highly sensitive cells in

1188-480: The growing stem of the plant. Tendrils of Cuscuta , a parasitic plant, are guided by airborne chemicals, and only twine around suitable hosts. Climbing habits in plants support themselves to reach the canopy in order to receive more sunlight resources and increase the diversification in flowering plants. Tendril is a plant organ that is derived from various morphological structures such as stems, leaves and inflorescences. Even though climbing habits are involved in

1232-516: The islands Borneo , Sulawesi , and Sumbawa . The rest of the world's supply comes from the Philippines , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Bangladesh and Assam, India . Some rattan fruits are edible, with a sour taste akin to citrus. The fruit of some rattans exudes a red resin called dragon's blood ; this resin was thought to have medicinal properties in antiquity and was used as a dye for violins , among other things. The resin normally results in

1276-907: The other hand, have more potential to become sustainable if the rate of harvesting does not exceed the rate of stem replacement via vegetative reproduction . Rattans display two types of flowering: hapaxanthy and pleonanthy . All the species of the genera Korthalsia , Laccosperma , Plectocomia , Plectocomiopsis , and Myrialepis are hapaxanthic; as well as a few species of Calamus . This means they only flower and fruit once then die. All other rattan species are pleonanthic, being able to flower and fruit continually. Most commercially harvested species are pleonanthic, because hapaxanthic rattans tend to have soft piths making them unsuitable for bending. Calamoideae includes tree palms such as Raffia (raphia) and Metroxylon (sago palm) and shrub palms such as Salacca (salak) (Uhl & Dransfield 1987 Genera Palmarum ). The climbing habit in palms

1320-593: The passage of essential oils. Many of the properties of rattan that make it suitable for furniture also make it a popular choice for handicraft and art pieces. Uses include rattan baskets, plant containers, and other decorative works. Due to its durability and resistance to splintering, sections of rattan can be used as canes , crooks for high-end umbrellas , or staves for martial arts . Rattan sticks 70 cm (28 inches) long, called baston , are used in Filipino martial arts , especially Arnis/Eskrima/Kali and for

1364-450: The phenomenon now known as tendril perversion , in which tendrils adopt the shape of two sections of counter-twisted helices with a transition in the middle. In the garden pea , it is only the terminal leaflets that are modified to become tendrils. In other plants such as the yellow vetch ( Lathyrus aphaca ), the whole leaf is modified to become tendrils while the stipules become enlarged and carry out photosynthesis . Still others use

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1408-471: The plant, using shavings to create baling fabric and floor coverings. Its products were available throughout the United States . In 1868, Cyrus Wakefield donated a new town hall to South Reading, which renamed itself Wakefield in his honor. He was also a major benefactor and investor in the town. When Wakefield died in 1873, his company employed 1,000 workers at an 11 acres (4.5 ha) site just outside

1452-560: The processing of rattan affects soil, air and water resources, and also ultimately people's health. Meanwhile, the conventional method of rattan production is threatening the plant's long-term supply, and the income of workers. Rattans also exhibit rapid population growths in disturbed forest edges due to higher light availability than in the closed- canopy old-growth tropical forests . Although this can mean increased rattan abundance for economic exploitation, it can also be problematic in long-term conservation efforts. Rattan harvesting from

1496-441: The same width as when adult, usually around 2–5 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 4 –2 inches) in diameter, with long internodes between the leaves . This also means juvenile rattan palms are rigid enough to remain free-standing, unlike true lianas which always need structural support, even when young. Many rattans also have spines which act as hooks to aid climbing over other plants, and to deter herbivores . The spines also give rattans

1540-576: The shafts of Philippine spears collectively known as sibat . They were fitted with a variety of iron spearheads and ranged from short throwing versions to heavy thrusting weapons. They were used for hunting, fishing, or warfare (both land and naval warfare). The rattan shafts of war spears are usually elaborately ornamented with carvings and metal inlays. Arnis also makes prominent use of rattan as "arnis sticks", commonly called yantok or baston . Their durability and weight makes it ideal for training with complex execution of techniques as well as being

1584-959: The species in these "rattan genera" have a different habit and do not climb, they are shrubby palms of the forest undergrowth; nevertheless they are close relatives to species that are climbers and they are hence included in the same genera. The largest rattan genus is Calamus , distributed in Asia except for one species represented in Africa. From the remaining rattan genera, Korthalsia , Plectocomia , Plectocomiopsis , and Myrialepis are centered in Southeast Asia with outliers eastwards and northwards; and three are endemic to Africa: Laccosperma (syn. Ancistrophyllum ), Eremospatha and Oncocalamus . The rattan genera and their distribution (Uhl & Dransfield 1987 Genera Palmarum , Dransfield 1992): In Uhl & Dransfield (1987 Genera Palmarum , 2ºed. 2008), and also Dransfield & Manokaran (1993 ),

1628-709: The standard implement for school corporal punishment in England and Wales, and are still used for this purpose in schools in Malaysia, Singapore, and several African countries. The usual maximum number of strokes was six, traditionally referred to as getting "Six of the best". Similar canes are used for military punishments in the Singapore Armed Forces . Heavier canes, also of rattan, are used for judicial corporal punishments in Aceh , Brunei , Malaysia , and Singapore . Rattan

1672-482: The striking weapons in the Society for Creative Anachronism 's full-contact " armoured combat ". Along with birch and bamboo, rattan is a common material used for the handles in percussion mallets, especially mallets for keyboard percussion , e.g. , marimba , vibraphone , xylophone , etc. Most natives or locals from the rattan rich countries employ the aid of this sturdy plant in their home building projects. It

1716-458: The surfaces of cell walls that are exposed. These sensitized cells are the ones that initiate the thigmotropic signal, typically as a calcium wave. The primary touch signal induces a signaling cascade of other phytohormones, most notably gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and Jasmonate (JA). In grapevine tendrils, it recently has been shown that GABA can independently promote tendril coiling. It has also been shown that jasmonate phytohormones serve as

1760-420: The tendril to coil around). In a 2019 study done by Guerra et al., it was shown that without a support stimulus, in this case a stake in the ground, the tendrils will circumnutate towards a light stimulus. After many attempts to reach a support structure, the tendril will eventually fall to the ground. However, it was found that when a support stimulus is present, the tendril’s circumnutation oscillation occurs in

1804-531: The tendrils would not coil around the conspecific plant. Researchers tested this interaction by isolating oxalate crystals from the leaves of a C. japonica plant and coating a stick with the oxalate crystals. The tendrils of C. japonica plants that came in physical contact with the oxalate-coated stick would not coil, confirming that climbing plants use chemoreception for self-discrimination. Self-discrimination may confer an evolutionary advantage for climbing plants to avoid coiling around conspecific plants. This

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1848-470: The town center. In the 1890s, the company merged with Heywood Brothers, becoming the Heywood-Wakefield Company . The manufacturing facilities were updated after several fires did significant damage to the plant. By 1930, the company's business had declined, and its facilities were redeveloped for other uses. In 1972, a fire destroyed all but four buildings. In 1989, those buildings were listed on

1892-514: The wild in most rattan-producing countries requires permits. These include the Philippines , Sri Lanka , India , Malaysia , Laos , Ghana , and Cameroon . In addition, the Philippines also imposes an annual allowable cut in an effort to conserve rattan resources. Rattan cultivation (both monoculture and intercropping ) is also being researched and pioneered in some countries, though it is still

1936-624: The world's most valuable non-timber forest products. Some species of rattan also have edible scaly fruit and heart of palm . Despite increasing attempts in the last 30 years at commercial cultivation, almost all rattan products still come from wild-harvested plants. Rattan supplies are now rapidly threatened due to deforestation and overexploitation . Rattan were also historically known as Manila cane or Malacca cane , based on their trade origins, as well as numerous other trade names for individual species. Most rattan palms are classified ecologically as lianas because most mature rattan palms have

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