Vučedol Culture Museum ( Croatian : Muzej vučedolske kulture ) is a museum of prehistoric culture in at Vučedol , near the city of Vukovar , Croatia .
186-509: The museum was formally established on the 30 June 2015 by a Croatian Government Decree and was first opened in 2015. In 2017, Vučedol Culture Museum was the most visited museum in Slavonia region, and the 7th most visited museum in Croatia. In 2022 museum was the winner of the prestigious European "Destination of Sustainable Cultural Tourism" award The Vučedol archaeological site is located on
372-509: A caste system , and land fell out of use in the East just as it had in the West. Yet the East stood its ground in the fifth century, fought back in the sixth, and even recovered some territory in the seventh. The East had only one apparent advantage: geography. It was less vulnerable, strategically, than the West. The narrowest sea crossing to its core territories was protected from the northern barbarians by
558-597: A decisive victory over the RSK in August 1995. The remaining occupied areas—eastern Slavonia—were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, with the process concluded in mid-January 1998. After the war, a number of towns and municipalities in the region were designated Areas of Special State Concern . The Croatian counties were re-established in 1992, but their borders changed in some instances, with
744-660: A volcanic arc related to Alpine orogeny —uplifting of the Dinaric Alps. The Đakovo – Vukovar loess plain, extending eastward from Dilj and representing the watershed between the Vuka and Bosut rivers, gradually rises to the Fruška Gora south of Ilok. The largest rivers in Slavonia are found along or near its borders—the Danube, Sava and Drava. The length of the Danube, flowing along
930-468: A Fall of empire. Like other Enlightenment thinkers and British citizens of the age steeped in institutional anti-Catholicism , Gibbon held in contempt the Middle Ages as a priest-ridden, superstitious Dark Age. It was not until his own era, the "Age of Reason", with its emphasis on rational thought, it was believed, that human history could resume its progress. He began an ongoing controversy about
1116-484: A breakdown in society. For centuries, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. His predecessors Constantine , Constantius II , and Valens had all been semi-Arians , whereas Theodosius supported Nicene Christianity which eventually became the orthodox version of Christology for most later Christian churches—his Edict of Thessalonica described Arian Christians as "foolish madmen". Therefore, as far as Ambrose and
1302-459: A ceasefire was agreed to on 2 January 1992, coming into force the next day. After the ceasefire, United Nations Protection Force was deployed to the occupied areas, but intermittent artillery and rocket attacks, launched from Serb-held areas of Bosnia , continued in several areas of Slavonia, especially in Slavonski Brod and Županja . The war effectively ended in 1995 with Croatia achieving
1488-499: A central Roman rump state ; in 271, Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube . The Rhine /Danube frontier also came under more effective threats from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed improved agriculture and increased their populations. The average stature of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of Northwestern Europe did not recover, though
1674-594: A collapsing field army, and the Empire divided between the warring ministers of his two incapable sons. Goths and other non-Romans became a force that could challenge either part of the Empire. Further barbarian groups crossed the Rhine and other frontiers. The armed forces of the Western Empire became few and ineffective, and despite brief recoveries under able leaders, central rule was never again effectively consolidated. By 476,
1860-531: A demoralized army, began his brief reign (363–364) while trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia , including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis . This fortress had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299. The brothers Valens ( r. 364–378 ) and Valentinian I ( r. 364–375 ) energetically tackled
2046-504: A distinct region of Croatia, and the traditional culture is preserved through folklore festivals, with prominence given to tamburica music and bećarac , a form of traditional song, recognized as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO . The cuisine of Slavonia reflects diverse influences—a blend of traditional and foreign elements. Slavonia is one of Croatia's winemaking areas, with Erdut , Ilok and Kutjevo recognized as centres of wine production. The name Slavonia originated in
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#17328547430392232-537: A geographical region, do not necessarily coincide with the borders of the five counties, except in the south and east where the Sava and Danube rivers define them. The international borders of Croatia are boundaries common to both definitions of the region. In the north, the boundaries largely coincide because the Drava River is considered to be the northern border of Slavonia as a geographic region, but this excludes Baranya from
2418-474: A great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century. This may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold-rich elite and a cash-poor peasantry . "Formerly, says Ammianus, Rome was saved by her austerity, by solidarity between rich and poor, by contempt for death; now she is undone by her luxury and greed (Amm. xxxi. 5. 14 and xxii. 4.). Salvianus backs up Ammianus by affirming that greed (avaritia)
2604-642: A greater defensive commitment by the Habsburg Monarchy. One year after the 1547 truce ended, Ivan Lenković devised a system of fortifications and troops in the border areas, a forerunner of the Croatian Military Frontier . Nonetheless, in 1552, the Ottoman conquest of Slavonia was completed when Virovitica was captured. Ottoman advances in the Croatian territory continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak ,
2790-618: A large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum , a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen had the opportunity to become familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well-rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle. City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at
2976-484: A large and powerful group as Christians had now become. Julian prepared for civil war against Constantius, who again encouraged the Germans to attack Gaul. However Julian's campaigns had been effective and only one small Alemannic raid, speedily dealt with by Julian, resulted. Constantius died before any serious fighting and Julian was acknowledged as master of the entire Empire. He launched an expensive campaign against
3162-402: A local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision-making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had
3348-482: A major centre for Jewish unrest. Nevertheless, it remained a culture based on an early subsistence economy , with only ineffective inklings of a germ theory of disease . Despite its aqueducts , the water supply did not allow good hygiene. Sewage was disposed of on the streets, in open drains, or by scavenging animals. Even in the Roman Climatic Optimum , local harvest failures causing famines were always
3534-538: A major part in the fall of the West". The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (r. 98–117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic Ocean . The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, drawn from a growing population. It had a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. The literate elite considered theirs to be
3720-399: A master-slave relationship. An elaborate court ceremonial developed, and obsequious flattery became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced, and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his courtiers . However, as Sabine MacCormack described,
3906-409: A possibility. And even in good times, Roman women needed to have, on average, six children each in order to maintain the population . Good nourishment and bodily cleanliness were privileges of the rich, advertised by their firm tread, healthy skin color, and lack of the "dull smell of the underbathed". Infant mortality was very high, and diarrhoeal diseases were a major cause of death. Malaria
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#17328547430394092-471: A reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal. At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting , in which the emperor's statues were destroyed. Nevertheless, he is represented as financially generous as emperor, though frugal in his personal life. By the end of the 380s, Theodosius and the court were in Mediolanum , and northern Italy
4278-864: A significant agricultural area. Apple orchards cover 1,261 hectares (3,120 acres), representing 42.3% of Croatia's apple plantations, plums are produced in orchards encompassing 450 hectares (1,100 acres) or 59.7% of Croatia's plum plantations and hazelnut orchards cover 319 hectares (790 acres), which account for 72.4% of hazelnut plantations in Croatia. Other significant permanent crops are cherries, pears, peaches and walnuts. In 2010, only two companies headquartered in Slavonia ranked among top 100 Croatian companies — Belje , agricultural industry owned by Agrokor , and Belišće , paper mill and paper packaging material factory, headquartered in Darda and Belišće respectively, both in Osijek-Baranja County. Belje ranks as
4464-500: A zone under German occupation for the duration of World War II . The regime introduced anti-semitic laws and conducted a campaign of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Serb and Roma populations, exemplified by the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška concentration camps, but to a much lesser extent in Slavonia than in other regions, due to strategic interests of the Axis in keeping peace in
4650-492: Is kulen , one of a handful Croatian products protected by the EU as indigenous products. Slavonia is one of Croatia's winemaking sub-regions, a part of its continental winegrowing region. The best known winegrowing areas of Slavonia are centered on Đakovo , Ilok and Kutjevo , where Graševina grapes are predominant, but other cultivars are increasingly present. In past decades, an increasing quantity of wine production in Slavonia
4836-495: Is Osijek, followed by other county seats—Slavonski Brod, Virovitica, Požega and Vukovar, as well as several other cities, especially Vinkovci. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the five counties in Slavonia combined (in year 2008) amounted to 6,454 million euro , or 8,005 euro per capita—27.5% below Croatia's national average. The GDP of the five counties represented 13.6% of Croatia's GDP. Several Pan-European transport corridors run through Slavonia: corridor Vc as
5022-412: Is a distinct region of Croatia in terms of ethnological factors in traditional music. It is a region where traditional culture is preserved through folklore festivals. Typical traditional music instruments belong to the tamburica and bagpipe family. The tamburica is the most representative musical instrument associated with Slavonia's traditional culture. It developed from music instruments brought by
5208-435: Is a remnant of this outcome. The Ottoman wars instigated great demographic changes. Croats migrated towards Austria and the present-day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers. The Muslim population in Slavonia at the end of Turkish rule accounted for almost half of Slavonia's population who was indigenous, primarily Croats, less immigrants from Bosnia and Serbia and rarely genuine Turks or Arabs. In
5394-507: Is a vice common to nearly all Romans". However, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (consul 133 BC) had already dated the start of Rome's moral decline to 154 BCE. Within the late Roman military , many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins. Soldiers are recorded as using possibly-barbarian rituals, such as elevating a claimant on shields. Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness. Others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with
5580-526: Is greatest in the production of cereals (53.5%), legumes (46.8%), oilseeds (88.8%), sugar beet (90%), tobacco (97.9%), plants used in pharmaceutical or perfume industry (80.9%), flowers, seedlings and seeds (80.3%) and plants used in the textile industry (69%). Slavonia also contributes 25.7% of cattle, 42.7% of pigs and 20% of the poultry stock of Croatia. There are 5,138 hectares (12,700 acres) of vineyards in Slavonia, representing 18.6% of total vineyards area in Croatia. Production of fruit and nuts also takes up
5766-574: Is home to one university— Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek — as well as three polytechnics in Požega, Slavonski Brod and Vukovar, as well as a college in Virovitica—all set up and run by the government . The University of Osijek, has been established in 1975, but the first institution of higher education in the city was Studium Philosophicum Essekini founded in 1707, and active until 1780. Another historical institution of higher education
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5952-474: Is largely based on processing industry , trade, transport, and civil engineering. Agriculture is a significant component of its economy: Slavonia contains 45% of Croatia's agricultural land and accounts for a significant proportion of Croatia's livestock farming and production of permanent crops . The gross domestic product (GDP) of the five counties of Slavonia is worth 6,454 million euro or 8,005 euro per capita, 27.5% below national average. The GDP of
6138-509: Is located in the Sava sub-basin. Most of Croatia, including Slavonia, has a moderately warm and rainy humid continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification . Mean annual temperature averages 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F ), with the warmest month, July, averaging just below 22 °C (72 °F ). Temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas—the lowest temperature of −27.8 °C (−18.0 °F )
6324-456: Is the Vučedol one, which also gave its name to this site. 45°20′11″N 19°03′32″E / 45.3363°N 19.0590°E / 45.3363; 19.0590 Slavonia Slavonia ( / s l ə ˈ v oʊ n i ə / ; Croatian : Slavonija ; Hungarian : Szlavónia) is, with Dalmatia , Croatia proper , and Istria , one of the four historical regions of Croatia . Located in
6510-401: Is the eastern half of Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia NUTS-2 statistical unit of Croatia , together with further areas of Central Croatia . Other statistical units correspond to the counties, cities and municipalities. The five counties combined cover area size of 12,556 square kilometres (4,848 square miles), representing 22.2% of territory of Croatia. The boundaries of Slavonia, as
6696-598: The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution , basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring movement, and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents. In 1947, when all borders of the former Yugoslav constituent republics had been defined by demarcation commissions, pursuant to decisions of the AVNOJ of 1943 and 1945, the federal organization of Yugoslav Baranya was defined as Croatian territory allowing its integration with Slavonia. The commissions also set up
6882-601: The A5 motorway , corridor X as the A3 motorway and a double-track railway spanning Slavonia from west to east, and corridor VII—the Danube River waterway. The waterway is accessed through the Port of Vukovar, the largest Croatian river port, situated on the Danube itself, and the Port of Osijek on the Drava River, 14.5 kilometres (9.0 miles) away from confluence of the rivers. Another major sector of
7068-607: The Croatian Army in operations named Otkos 10 , and Orkan 91 , which established a front line around Okučani and south of Pakrac that would hold virtually unchanged for more than three years until Operation Flash in May 1995. Armed conflict in the eastern Slavonia , culminating in the Battle of Vukovar and a subsequent massacre , also included heavy fighting and the successful defence of Osijek and Vinkovci. The front line stabilized and
7254-603: The Early Middle Ages . The area was named after the Slavs who settled there and called themselves *Slověne. The root *Slověn- appeared in various dialects of languages spoken by people inhabiting the area west of the Sutla river, as well as between the Sava and Drava rivers— South Slavs living in the area of the former Illyricum . The area bounded by those rivers was called *Slověnьje in
7440-521: The Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39. The greatest Serb concentrations were in the eastern Slavonia, and Sremski Karlovci became the see of Serbian Orthodox metropolitans. Part of the colonists came to Slavonia from area south of the Sava , especially from the Soli and Usora areas, continuing the process which already started after 1521. At beginning of the 17th century it seems that there
7626-503: The House of Esterházy , the House of Odescalchi , Philipp Karl von Eltz-Kempenich , the House of Prandau-Normann , the House of Pejačević and the House of Janković . That in turn encouraged an influx of contemporary European culture to the region. Subsequent development of the cities and society saw the influence of Neoclassicism , Historicism and especially of Art Nouveau . The heritage of
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7812-761: The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Croatia sided with the Austrians, Ban Josip Jelačić helping to defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849, and ushering in a period of Germanization policy. By the 1860s, failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . The treaty left
7998-564: The Huns . They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively relieved and resettled, and they took up arms and were joined by more Goths and some Alans and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army preparing for an assault on the Sasanian Empire. Redirection of the army and its logistic support would have required time, and Gratian's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across
8184-468: The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia . In 1918, when Austria-Hungary dissolved, Slavonia became a part of the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which in turn became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes , later renamed Yugoslavia . During the Croatian War of Independence of 1991–1995, Slavonia saw fierce fighting, including the 1991 Battle of Vukovar . The economy of Slavonia
8370-714: The Lands of the Hungarian Crown in the 12th century. The Ottoman conquest of Slavonia took place between 1536 and 1552. In 1699, after the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699, the Treaty of Karlowitz transferred Kingdom of Slavonia to the Habsburgs . After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , Slavonia became part of the Hungarian part of the realm , and a year later it became part of
8556-473: The Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as " Late Antiquity " emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century. Observing
8742-511: The Orljava flowing through Požega, and the Bosut—whose 151-kilometre (94 mi) course in Slavonia takes it through Vinkovci. There are no large lakes in Slavonia. The largest ones are Lake Kopačevo whose surface area varies between 1.5 and 3.5 square kilometres (0.58 and 1.35 square miles), and Borovik Reservoir covering 2.5 square kilometres (0.97 square miles). The Lake Kopačevo is connected to
8928-561: The Pannonian Plain and taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with five Croatian counties : Brod-Posavina , Osijek-Baranja , Požega-Slavonia , Virovitica-Podravina , and Vukovar-Syrmia , although the territory of the counties includes Baranya , and the definition of the western extent of Slavonia as a region varies. The counties cover 12,556 square kilometres (4,848 square miles) or 22.2% of Croatia, inhabited by 806,192—18.8% of Croatia's population. The largest city in
9114-750: The Pleistocene during the uplift of the Transdanubian Mountains . Ultimately, up to 3,000 metres (9,800 feet) of the sediment was deposited in the basin, and the Pannonian sea eventually drained through the Iron Gate gorge. In the southern Pannonian Basin, the Neogene to Quaternary sediment depth is normally lower, averaging 500 to 1,500 metres (1,600 to 4,900 feet), except in central parts of depressions formed by subduction —around 4,000 metres (13,000 feet) in
9300-513: The Proto-Slavic language. The word subsequently evolved to its various present forms in the Slavic languages , and other languages adopted the term. Remnants of several Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions of Croatia, but most of the sites are found in the river valleys of northern Croatia, including Slavonia. The most significant cultures whose presence was found include
9486-621: The Roman Republic in 35 BC, when the Romans conquered Segestica, or modern-day Sisak . The conquest was completed in 11 BC, when the Roman province of Illyricum was established, encompassing modern-day Slavonia as well as a vast territory on the right bank of Danube. The province was renamed Pannonia and divided within two decades. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire , which included
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#17328547430399672-539: The Roman Republic , controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople. That war had ended with the near-extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each supposed to have more than 100,000 warriors. ) The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief, even the official panegyrist admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status. Instead they were either recruited into
9858-591: The Senate sent the imperial insignia to the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno . While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again. The Eastern Roman, or Byzantine , Empire, survived and remained for centuries an effective power of the Eastern Mediterranean , although it lessened in strength. Additionally, while
10044-742: The Starčevo culture whose finds were discovered near Slavonski Brod and dated to 6100–5200 BC , the Vučedol culture , the Baden culture and the Kostolac culture . Most finds attributed to the Baden and Vučedol cultures are discovered in the area near the right bank of the Danube near Vukovar , Vinkovci and Osijek . The Baden culture sites in Slavonia are dated to 3600–3300 BC, and Vučedol culture finds are dated to 3000–2500 BC. The Iron Age left traces of
10230-587: The crisis of the third century . Heavy mortality in 165–180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire. From 376, massive populations moved into the Empire, driven by the Huns who themselves may have been driven by climate change in the Eurasian steppe . These barbarian invasions led ultimately to barbarian kingdoms over much of
10416-443: The diocese of Macedonia to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to Ambrose of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius. Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as Augustus of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked, winning
10602-491: The fall of the Western Roman Empire , which ruled the area of modern-day Slavonia until the 5th century, Ostrogoths and Lombards controlled the area before the arrival of Avars and Slavs , when the Principality of Lower Pannonia was established in the 7th century. It was later incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia ; after its decline, the kingdom was ruled through a personal union with Hungary . It became part of
10788-548: The horst and graben structures, believed to have broken the Pannonian Sea surface as islands . The tallest among such landforms in Slavonia are 984-metre (3,228 ft) Psunj , and 953-metre (3,127 ft) Papuk—flanking the Požega Valley from the west and the north. These two and Krndija , adjacent to Papuk, consist mostly of Paleozoic rocks which are 350 – 300 million years old. Požeška Gora and Dilj , to
10974-431: The sack of Rome in 410 , and the death of Julius Nepos in 480. When Gibbon published his landmark work, it quickly became the standard. Peter Brown has written that "Gibbon's work formed the peak of a century of scholarship which had been conducted in the belief that the study of the declining Roman Empire was also the study of the origins of modern Europe". Gibbon was the first to attempt an explanation of causes of
11160-444: The 101st and headquartered in Virovitica, is the largest company in Virovitica-Podravina County. Đuro Đaković Montaža d.d., a part of metal processing industry Đuro Đaković Holding of Slavonski Brod, ranks the 171st among the Croatian companies and it is the largest business in Brod-Posavina County. Another agricultural industry company, Kutjevo d.d. , headquartered in Kutjevo , is the largest company in Požega-Slavonia County, ranks
11346-415: The 194th in Croatia by business income. Finally, the largest company by income in Vukovar-Syrmia county is another Agrokor owned agricultural production company— Vupik , headquartered in Vukovar, and ranking the 161st among the companies headquartered in Croatia. The cultural heritage of Slavonia represents a blend of social influences through its history, especially since the end of the 17th century, and
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#173285474303911532-454: The 19th century is the Đakovo Cathedral —hailed by the Pope John XXIII as the most beautiful church situated between Venice and Istanbul . Slavonia significantly contributed to the culture of Croatia as a whole, both through works of artists and through patrons of the arts—most notable among them being Josip Juraj Strossmayer . Strossmayer was instrumental in the establishment of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts , later renamed
11718-434: The 2nd half of the 12th century, Croatia and the territory between the Drava and the Sava were governed by the ban of all Slavonia , appointed by the king. From the 13th century, a separate ban governed parts of present-day central Croatia , western Slavonia, and northwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina , an area where a new entity emerged named Kingdom of Slavonia ( Latin : regnum Sclavoniae ), while modern-day eastern Slavonia
11904-444: The 44th and Belišće as the 99th largest Croatian company by income . Other significant businesses in the county include civil engineering company Osijek-Koteks (rank 103), Saponia detergent and personal care product factory (rank 138), Biljemerkant retail business (rank 145), and Našicecement cement plant (rank 165), a part of Nexe Grupa construction product manufacturing company. Sugar refining company Viro , ranked
12090-512: The Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Virovitica-Podravina and Vukovar-Syrmia counties, including Baranya. Slavonia is entirely located in the Pannonian Basin , one of three major geomorphological parts of Croatia. The Pannonian Basin took shape through Miocenian thinning and subsidence of crust structures formed during Late Paleozoic Variscan orogeny . The Paleozoic and Mesozoic structures are visible in Papuk , Psunj and other Slavonian mountains. The processes also led to
12276-429: The Christian literary tradition that followed him were concerned, Theodosius deserved most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. Modern scholars see this as a Christian interpretation of history. Theodosius did not stamp out paganism, which continued into the seventh century. Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West; Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from
12462-685: The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, and the reestablishment of the University of Zagreb . A number of Slavonia's artists, especially writers, made considerable contributions to Croatian culture. Nineteenth-century writers who are most significant in Croatian literature include Josip Eugen Tomić , Josip Kozarac , and Miroslav Kraljević —author of the first Croatian novel. Significant twentieth-century poets and writers in Slavonia were Dobriša Cesarić , Dragutin Tadijanović , Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić and Antun Gustav Matoš . Painters associated with Slavonia, who contributed greatly to Croatian art, were Miroslav Kraljević and Bela Čikoš Sesija . Slavonia
12648-459: The Croatian-Hungarian Settlement. At that time, the easternmost point of Croatia-Slavonia became Zemun , as all of Syrmia was encompassed by the kingdom. On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Sabor declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs , which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes . The Treaty of Trianon
12834-413: The Danube via Hulovski canal, situated within the Kopački Rit wetland , while the Lake Borovik is an artificial lake created in 1978 in the upper course of the Vuka River. The entirety of Slavonia belongs to the Danube basin and the Black Sea catchment area, but it is divided in two sub-basins. One of those drains into the Sava—itself a Danube tributary—and the other into the Drava or directly into
13020-441: The Danube. The drainage divide between the two sub-basins runs along the Papuk and Krndija mountains, in effect tracing the southern boundary of the Virovitica-Podravina County and the northern boundary of Požega-Slavonia County, cuts through the Osijek-Podravina County north of Đakovo, and finally bisects the Vukovar-Syrmia County running between Vukovar and Vinkovci to reach Fruška Gora southwest of Ilok. All of Brod-Posavina County
13206-420: The East, but these failed. In the ensuing bloody civil war Magnentius marched against Constantius with as many troops as he could mobilize, stripping the Rhine frontier of its most effective troops. Magnentius died and so did many of his men. Meanwhile, Constantius sent messages to the German tribes east of the Rhine, inviting them to attack Gaul, which they did. In the next few years a strip some 40 miles wide to
13392-472: The Mediterranean region". A synthesis by Harper (2017) gave four decisive turns of events in the transformation from the height of the empire to the early Middle Ages: The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio ,
13578-461: The Mediterranean regions did. The Empire survived the "Crisis of the Third Century", directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state . Excessive military expenditure, coupled with civil wars due to unstable succession, caused increased taxes to the detriment of the industry. Under Gallienus (Emperor from 253 to 268)
13764-457: The Ottomans during their rule of Slavonia, becoming an integral part of the traditional music, its use surpassing or even replacing the use of bagpipes and gusle . A distinct form of traditional song, originating in Slavonia, the bećarac , is recognized as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO . Out of 122 Croatia's universities and other institutions of higher education , Slavonia
13950-620: The Rhine. In 378, Valens attacked the invaders with the Eastern field army, now perhaps 20,000 men, probably much fewer than the forces that Julian had led into Mesopotamia a little over a decade before, and possibly only 10% of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces. In the Battle of Adrianople (9 August 378), Valens lost much of that army and his own life. All of the Balkan provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from
14136-667: The Roman Empire The fall of the Western Roman Empire , also called the fall of the Roman Empire or the fall of Rome , was the loss of central political control in the Western Roman Empire , a process in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided among several successor polities . The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces ; modern historians posit factors including
14322-510: The Roman position in the East. These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust—between 379 and 380, Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum . Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. (In contrast, during the Cimbrian War ,
14508-605: The Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians. After a diligent inquiry, I can discern four principal causes of the ruin of Rome, which continued to operate in a period of more than a thousand years. I. The injuries of time and nature. II. The hostile attacks of the Barbarians and Christians. III. The use and abuse of the materials. And, IV. The domestic quarrels of the Romans. Modern historiography diverges from Gibbon. While most of his ideas are no longer accepted in totality, they have been foundational to later discourse and
14694-571: The Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become the unrecognized self-declared Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence in June 1991; however the declaration came into effect on 8 October 1991. Tensions escalated into the Croatian War of Independence when the Yugoslav National Army and various Serb paramilitaries attacked Croatia. By
14880-578: The Sasanian Persians . He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , but, at the suggestion of a Persian agent, burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations. The Sassanids then burned crops so the Roman army had no food. Finding himself cut off without supplies in enemy territory, Julian began a land retreat, and during the Battle of Samarra , he was mortally wounded. Julian's successor Jovian , acclaimed by
15066-513: The Slavonia-Syrmia depression, 5,500 metres (18,000 feet) in the Sava depression and nearly 7,000 metres (23,000 feet) in the Drava depression, with the deepest sediment found between Virovitica and Slatina. The results of those processes are large plains in eastern Slavonia, Baranya and Syrmia, as well as in river valleys, especially along the Sava, Drava and Kupa . The plains are interspersed by
15252-605: The Streim Vineyard and the Streim Cornfield. Artificially separated from the pass, a little plateau known as Gradac, which through archeological excavations was confirmed as being the metallurgical and cultural centre of the site. It gives its name to the Vučedol culture that existed in Copper Age Europe . The first investigations of the site dates back to 1897. The location was first inhabited around 6,000 B.C. and
15438-584: The West refused to intervene in Christian controversy. In the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. He tolerated paganism, even keeping some of Julian's associates in their trusted positions. He confirmed the rights and privileges of the pagan priests, and confirmed the right of pagans to be the exclusive caretakers of their temples. Valentinian died of an apoplexy while shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in
15624-518: The West were children, his sons Gratian ( r. 375–383 ) and Valentinian II ( r. 375–392 ). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training", removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House . He also rejected the pagan title of Pontifex Maximus . In 376, the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly Goths , who were fleeing from
15810-525: The accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron". Since the age of humanism , the process of the Fall has been thought to have begun with Constantine the Great , or with the soldier emperors who seized power through command of the army from 235 through 284, or with Commodus , or even with Augustus . Gibbon was uncertain about when decline began. "In
15996-594: The agreement, the Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed 'Ban'. In April 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Germany and Italy . Following the invasion the territory of Slavonia was incorporated into the Independent State of Croatia , a Nazi-backed puppet state and assigned as
16182-548: The agricultural economy was generally doing well. On January 18 350, the imperial magister officiorum gave a banquet in Augustodunum while his master, Western Emperor Constans , was away hunting. During the feast Magnus Magnentius , commander of the imperial household troops , appeared in an imperial purple toga and announced himself to be the new Emperor. Constans was soon murdered and Magnentius took over most of his western domains. He made peace overtures to Constantius in
16368-586: The area and encompassing meat packing , fruit and vegetable processing , sugar refining , confectionery and dairy industry . In addition, there are wineries in the region that are significant to economy of Croatia . Other types of the processing industry significant to Slavonia are wood processing , including production of furniture , cellulose , paper and cardboard ; metalworking , textile industry and glass production . Transport and civil engineering are two further significant economic activities in Slavonia. The largest industrial centre of Slavonia
16554-650: The area. The largest massacre occurred in 1942 in Voćin . Armed resistance soon developed in the region, and by 1942, the Yugoslav Partisans controlled substantial territories, especially in mountainous parts of Slavonia. The Serbian royalist Chetniks , who carried out genocide against Croat civilian population, struggled to establish a significant presence in Slavonia throughout the war. Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito took full control of Slavonia in April 1945. After
16740-464: The areas north of the Drava river, and Baranja County where they represented the majority before World War I. Since the end of the 19th century there was substantial economic emigration abroad from Croatia in general. After World War I, the Yugoslav regime confiscated up to 50 percent of properties and encouraged settlement of the land by Serb volunteers and war veterans in Slavonia, only to have them evicted and replaced by up to 70,000 new settlers by
16926-481: The border between Habsburg and Ottoman empires, with Virovitica becoming the most significant defensive Habsburg fortress and Požega the most significant Ottoman centre in Slavonia, as Ottoman advances to Sisak and Čazma were made, including a brief occupation of the cities. Further westward efforts of the Turkish forces presented a significant threat to Zagreb and the rest of Croatia and the Hungarian kingdom, prompting
17112-571: The climate worsened further in the Late Antique Little Ice Age that may have directly contributed to the variety of factors that brought Rome down. The Roman Empire was built on the fringes of the tropics . Its roads and its pirate-free seas, which produced an abundance of trade, also unknowingly created an interconnected disease ecology that unleashed the evolution and spread of pathogens. Pandemics contributed to massive demographic changes, economic crises , and food shortages in
17298-430: The collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure . In 376, a large migration of Goths and other non- Roman people, fleeing from the Huns , entered the Empire . Roman forces were unable to exterminate, expel or subjugate them (as was their normal practice). In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died. He left
17484-528: The court culture that developed with Diocletian was still subject to pressure from below. Imperial proclamations were used to stress the traditional limitations of the imperial office, while imperial ceremonies "left room for consensus and popular participation". Official cruelty , supporting extortion and corruption , may also have become more commonplace; one example being Constantine 's law that slaves who betrayed their mistress's confidential remarks should have molten lead poured down their throats. While
17670-444: The daily life and customs of four cultural phenomena which in that time swept through the sites of the Vučedol culture - Baden, Kostolac, Vučedol and Vinkovci. It was a turbulent time of the immigration of the first Indo-Europeans and their relationship with the natives, the blending of material cultures and religions. Each of the aforementioned settlements had its own characteristics, however the most detailed one able to be reconstructed
17856-523: The demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and suggested that only
18042-401: The distribution of precipitation throughout the year normally result in snow cover, and freezing rivers—requiring use of icebreakers , and in extreme cases explosives, to maintain the flow of water and navigation. Slavonia receives more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year on average. Prevailing winds are light to moderate, northeasterly and southwesterly. According to the 2011 census,
18228-669: The early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture . Much later, the region was settled by Illyrians and other tribes, including the Pannonians , who controlled much of present-day Slavonia. Even though archaeological finds of Illyrian settlements are much sparser than in areas closer to the Adriatic Sea , significant discoveries, for instance in Kaptol near Požega have been made. The Pannonians first came into contact with
18414-460: The east of Psunj and enveloping the valley from the south, consist of much more recent Neogene rocks, but Požeška Gora also contains Upper Cretaceous sediments and igneous rocks forming the main, 30-kilometre (19 mi) ridge of the hill and representing the largest igneous landform in Croatia. A smaller igneous landform is also present on Papuk, near Voćin. The two mountains, as well as Moslavačka gora , west of Pakrac, are possible remnants of
18600-556: The eastern border of Slavonia and through the cities of Vukovar and Ilok, is 188 kilometres (117 miles), and its main tributaries are the Drava 112-kilometre (70 mi) and the Vuka. The Drava discharges into the Danube near Aljmaš , east of Osijek, while mouth of the Vuka is located in Vukovar. Major tributaries of the Sava, flowing along the southern border of Slavonia and through cities of Slavonski Brod and Županja are 89-kilometre (55 mi)
18786-657: The economy of Slavonia is agriculture, which also provides part of the raw materials for the processing industry. Out of 1,077,403 hectares (2,662,320 acres) of utilized agricultural land in Croatia, 493,878 hectares (1,220,400 acres), or more than 45%, are found in Slavonia, with the largest portion of the land situated in the Osijek-Baranja and Vukovar-Syrmia counties. The largest areas are used for production of cereals and oilseeds , covering 574,916 hectares (1,420,650 acres) and 89,348 hectares (220,780 acres) respectively. Slavonia's share in Croatia's agriculturally productive land
18972-500: The effectiveness and numbers of the army , the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy , the competence of the emperors , the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from invading peoples outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. Climatic changes and both endemic and epidemic disease drove many of these immediate factors. The reasons for
19158-481: The effectiveness or loyalty of the army, at least while that army was effectively led, disciplined, trained, paid, and supplied by officers who identified as Roman. A. H. M. Jones has pointed out that the earlier scholarly views are Western. Most of the weaknesses discussed by scholars were "common to both halves of the empire", with Christianity even more prevalent in the East than the West. Religious disputes were bitter, bureaucracy corrupt and extortionate, it had
19344-561: The end of 1991, a high intensity war fought along a wide front reduced Croatia to controlling about two-thirds of its territory. In Slavonia, the first armed conflicts were clashes in Pakrac , and Borovo Selo near Vukovar. Western Slavonia was occupied in August 1991, following an advance by the Yugoslav forces north from Banja Luka across the Sava River. This was partially pushed back by
19530-432: The end of hostilities is not complete—a majority of Croat refugees returned, while fewer Serbs did. In addition, ethnic Croats moved to Slavonia from Bosnia and Herzegovina and from Serbia. The economy of Slavonia is largely based on wholesale and retail trade and processing industry . Food processing is one of the most significant types of the processing industries in the region, supporting agricultural production in
19716-525: The end of the fourth century, Christianity had become the religion of any ambitious civil official. The wealth of the Christian Church increased dramatically in the fifth century. Immense resources, both public and private, were used for building churches, storage barns for the grain used for charity, new hospitals for the poor, and in support of those in religious life without other income. Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer patronage in
19902-459: The end of the fourth century. Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine . Their communities required a line of fortifications to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control. Under Constantius, bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria , which were well within the empire. The tribes of Germania also became more populous and more threatening. In Gaul , which did not really recover from
20088-523: The entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times. Theodor Mommsen excluded the imperial period from his Nobel Prize-winning History of Rome (1854–1856). As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other key dates for the fall of the Roman Empire in the West include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405),
20274-507: The estates of persons condemned for treason and other capital crimes . This practice reduced future, though not immediate, income; those close to the emperor also gained a strong incentive to encourage his suspicion of conspiracies . The new supreme rulers disposed of the legal fiction of the early Empire (seeing the emperor as but the first among equals ); emperors from Aurelian (r. 270–275) onwards openly styled themselves as dominus et deus , "lord and god", titles appropriate for
20460-496: The ethnic composition of Slavonian counties occurred between censuses conducted in 1991 and 2001. The 1991 census recorded a heterogenous population consisting mostly of Croats and Serbs—at 72 percent and 17 percent of the total population respectively. The Croatian War of Independence, and the ethnic fracturing of Yugoslavia that preceded it, caused an exodus of the Croat population followed by an exodus of Serbs. The return of refugees since
20646-521: The fall of the Avar Khaganate at the beginning of the 9th century, in Lower Pannonia there was a principality , governed by Slavic rulers who were vassals of Francs . The invasion of the Hungarian tribes overwhelmed this state. The eastern part of Slavonia in the 9th century may have been ruled by Bulgars . The first king of Croatia Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions and spread
20832-563: The figure of 62,000 recorded in the 1953 census. The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by colonisation of settlements where the displaced Germans used to live, by people from the mountainous parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, and migrations to larger cities spurred on by the development of industry. In the 1960s and 1970s, another wave of economic migrants left—largely moving to Canada , Australia , New Zealand and Western Europe . The most recent changes to
21018-454: The first decisive Ottoman defeat, and a more lasting stabilisation of the frontier. During the Great Turkish War (1683–1698), Slavonia was regained in between 1684 and 1691 when the Ottomans abandoned the region—unlike western Bosnia , which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest . The present-day southern border of Slavonia and the border between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
21204-425: The first emperor to increase the arrogance of the military, raising their rank and power to excess, severely punishing the minor crimes of the common soldiers, while sparing those of higher rank who felt able to commit shameful and monstrous crimes. Despite a possible decrease in the Empire's ability to assemble and supply large armies, Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to
21390-550: The first paragraph of his text, Gibbon wrote that he intended to trace the decline from the golden age of the Antonines"; later text has it beginning about A.D. 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius; while in chapter 7, he pushes the start of the decline to about 52 B.C., the time of Julius Caesar and Pompey and Cicero. Gibbon placed the western empire's end with the removal of the man Gibbon referred to as "the helpless Augustulus" in 476. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that
21576-420: The five counties represents 13.6% of Croatia's GDP. The cultural heritage of Slavonia represents a blend of historical influences, especially those from the end of the 17th century, when Slavonia started recovering from the Ottoman wars , and its traditional culture. Slavonia contributed to the culture of Croatia through art, writers, poets, sculptors, and art patronage . In traditional music, Slavonia comprises
21762-583: The fleeing Croats the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier. Serb migration into this region peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the Hungarian population declined, due to emigration and ethnic bias. The changes were especially significant in
21948-484: The fleets, and numbers may have increased later. With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own supreme commanders . Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior ( Augustus ) and junior ( Caesar ) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of tetrarchy broke down within one generation and
22134-470: The force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects. The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth. Their followers displayed mutual tolerance , producing a polyphonous religious harmony. Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136, after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be
22320-656: The formation of a stratovolcanic chain in the basin 17 – 12 Mya (million years ago) and intensified subsidence observed until 5 Mya as well as flood basalts about 7.5 Mya. Contemporary uplift of the Carpathian Mountains prevented water flowing to the Black Sea , and the Pannonian Sea formed in the basin. Sediments were transported to the basin from uplifting Carpathian and Dinaric mountains , with particularly deep fluvial sediments being deposited in
22506-522: The former territory of the Western Empire. But the final blow came only with the Late Antique Little Ice Age and its aftermath, when Rome was already politically fragmented and materially depleted. Aurelian reunited the empire in 274, and from 284 Diocletian and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military. John the Lydian , writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in
22692-506: The fortifications and the sea and land forces of Constantinople , while the European frontier from the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Danube is some 2000 kilometres great-circle distance and could be crossed with much less difficulty. "The devastations of the barbarians impoverished and depopulated the [Western] frontier provinces, and their unceasing pressure imposed on the empire a burden of defense which overstrained its administrative machinery and its economic resources. ... [playing]
22878-409: The freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and
23064-413: The geographic region's definition even though this territory is part of a county otherwise associated with Slavonia. The western boundary of the geographic region is not specifically defined and it was variously defined through history depending on the political divisions of Croatia. The eastern Croatia, as a geographic term, largely overlaps most definitions of Slavonia. It is defined as the territory of
23250-403: The hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results. Thereafter civil war became again the main method of establishing new imperial regimes . Although Constantine the Great (in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between
23436-569: The highest density recorded in Brod-Posavina county and the lowest in Virovitica-Podravina county. Osijek is the largest city in Slavonia, followed by Slavonski Brod, Vinkovci and Vukovar. Other cities in Slavonia have populations below 20,000. According to the 2001 census, Croats account for 85.6 percent of population of Slavonia, and the most significant ethnic minorities are Serbs and Hungarians , comprising 8.8 percent and 1.4 percent of
23622-444: The imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established. In some later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire, in which they retained their political and military cohesion. No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement
23808-423: The imperial system. In this way many groups provided unfree workers ( coloni ) for Roman landowners, and recruits ( laeti ) for the Roman army . Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance. Cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two. The Empire suffered multiple serious crises during
23994-498: The influence of Croatian kings northward to Slavonia. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089). When Stjepan II died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown. Opposition to the claim led to a war and personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, ruled by Coloman . In
24180-575: The invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s, perhaps worst in Armorica . By 350, after decades of pirate attacks, virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted. Local use of money ceased around 360. Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians. Except in
24366-630: The issue of Croatia's status to Hungary as a part of Transleithania —and the status was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united as the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia . After Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , the Military Frontiers were abolished and the Croatian and Slavonian Military Frontier territory returned to Croatia-Slavonia in 1881, pursuant to provisions of
24552-554: The joining of the Habsburg monarchy in 1527, the Hungarian and German speaking population of Croatia began gradually increasing in number. The processes of Magyarization and Germanization varied in intensity but persisted until the beginning of the 20th century. The Ottoman conquests initiated a westward migration of parts of the Croatian population; the Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of some of those settlers. To replace
24738-421: The latest revision taking place in 2006. Slavonia consists of five counties— Brod-Posavina , Osijek-Baranja , Požega-Slavonia , Virovitica-Podravina and Vukovar-Syrmia counties—which largely cover the territory historically associated with Slavonia. The western borders of the five-county territory lie in the area where the western boundary of Slavonia generally has been located since the Ottoman conquest, with
24924-486: The long-established manner of Roman aristocrats. Ammianus described some who "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings". But the move to Christianity probably had no significant effects on public finances. The large temple complexes, with professional full-time priests, festivals, and large numbers of sacrifices (which became free food for
25110-475: The loss of political unity and military control is universally acknowledged, the fall of Rome is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as late antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse. Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , Decline and Fall has been
25296-622: The masses), had also been expensive to maintain. They had already been negatively impacted by the empire's financial struggles in the third century. The numbers of clergy , monks , and nuns increased to perhaps half the size of the actual army, and they have been considered as a drain on limited manpower. The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century. Payrolls were inflated, so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold. The soldiers' opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, while their effectiveness
25482-453: The modern synthesis with archaeology, epidemiology, climatic history, genetic science, and many more new sources of history beyond the documentary sources that were all that was available to Gibbon. While Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, twenty-first century scholarship classifies the primary possibilities more concisely: A recent summary interprets disease and climate change as important drivers of
25668-1158: The most representative ones among them being manor house in Virovitica and the Pejačević manor house in Našice . Further east, along the Danube, there are Odescalchi manor house in Ilok, and Eltz manor house in Vukovar—the latter sustained extensive damage during the Battle of Vukovar in 1991, but it was reconstructed by 2011. In the southeast of the region, the most prominent are Kutjevo Jesuit manor house , and Cernik manor house , located in Kutjevo and Cernik respectively. The period also saw construction of Tvrđa and Brod fortifications in Osijek and Slavonski Brod. Older, medieval fortifications are preserved only as ruins —the largest among those being Ružica Castle near Orahovica . Another landmark dating to
25854-526: The need for two emperors and their mutual mistrust . Until late in the fourth century, the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch powerful attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sasanian Empire . Receptio of barbarians became widely practised: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within
26040-506: The new kingdom. The political situation in the new kingdom deteriorated, leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929. The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitarian constitution transferring executive power to the king, and changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia. The Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 created the autonomous Banovina of Croatia incorporating Slavonia. Pursuant to
26226-559: The new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he provide protection to Croatia against the Ottoman Empire, while respecting its political rights. The period saw the rise to prominence of a native nobility such as the Frankopans and the Šubićs , and ultimately to numerous bans from the two families. The present coat of arms of Slavonia, used in an official capacity as a part of the coat of arms of Croatia , dates from this period—it
26412-541: The only worthwhile form of civilization, giving the Empire ideological legitimacy and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric . The Empire's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status. Its wide-ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away. The empire had both strength and resilience. Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported
26598-520: The outlying regions of Roman Britain (probably replacing some with federate chieftains and their war-bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of Christian heretics . To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the diocese of Dacia and
26784-418: The political collapse of the empire. There was a Roman climatic optimum from about 200 BCE to 150 CE, when lands around the Mediterranean were generally warm and well-watered. This made agriculture prosperous, army recruitment easy, and the collection of taxes straightforward. From about 150, the climate became on average somewhat worse for most of the inhabited lands around the Mediterranean. After about 450,
26970-411: The political reality of lost control (and the attendant fragmentation of commerce, culture, and language), but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall. The "perception of Late Antiquity has significantly changed: the period is no longer seen as an era of decline and crisis but as an epoch of metamorphosis in
27156-633: The political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro . In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation. In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, with Franjo Tuđman 's win raising nationalist tensions further. The Serbs in Croatia , intent on achieving independence from Croatia, left
27342-625: The population respectively. The largest portion of the Serb minority was recorded in Vukovar-Syrmia county (15 percent), while the largest Hungarian minority, in both relative and absolute terms, was observed in Osijek-Baranja county. The census recorded 85.4% of the population declaring themselves as Catholic , with further 4.4% belonging to Serbian Orthodox Church and 0.7% Muslims . 3.1% declared themselves as non-religious , agnostics or declined to declare their religion. The most widely used language in
27528-484: The position of Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power, and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman. Barbarian kingdoms had established their own power in much of the area of the Western Empire. In 476, the Germanic barbarian king Odoacer deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire in Italy, Romulus Augustulus , and
27714-569: The present-day 317.6-kilometre (197.3 mi) border between Serbia and Croatia in Syrmia, and along the Danube River between Ilok and mouth of the Drava and further north to the Hungarian border, the section south of confluence of the Drava matching the border between the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and the Bács-Bodrog County that existed until 1918 and the end of World War I. In the 1980s
27900-399: The rare case of a determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians. Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay. As they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and their pay gave much less stimulus to the frontier economy. However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine,
28086-534: The regime during World War II. During World War II and in the period immediately following the war, there were further significant demographic changes, as the German-speaking population, the Danube Swabians , were either forced or otherwise compelled to leave—reducing their number from the prewar German population of Yugoslavia of 500,000, living in Slavonia and other parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia, to
28272-400: The region includes numerous landmarks , especially manor houses built by the nobility in largely in the 18th and the 19th centuries. Those include Prandau-Normann and Prandau-Mailath manor houses in Valpovo and Donji Miholjac respectively, manor houses in Baranja—in Bilje , at a former Esterházy estate in Darda, in Tikveš , and in Kneževo . Pejačevićs built several residences,
28458-426: The region is Croatian , declared as the first language by 93.6% of the total population, followed by Serbian (2.6%) and Hungarian (1.0%). The demographic history of Slavonia is characterised by significant migrations, as is that of Croatia as a whole, starting with the arrival of the Croats, between the 6th and 9th centuries. Following the establishment of the personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, and
28644-410: The region is Osijek , followed by Slavonski Brod and Vinkovci . Slavonia is located in the Pannonian Basin , largely bordered by the Danube , Drava , and Sava rivers. In the west, the region consists of the Sava and Drava valleys and the mountains surrounding the Požega Valley , and plains in the east. Slavonia enjoys a moderate continental climate with relatively low precipitation. After
28830-940: The remaining borders being at the international borders of Croatia . This places the Croatian part of Baranya into the Slavonian counties, constituting the Eastern Croatia macroregion . Terms Eastern Croatia and Slavonia are increasingly used as synonyms. The Brod-Posavina County comprises two cities —Slavonski Brod and Nova Gradiška —and 26 Municipalities of Croatia . The Osijek-Baranja County consists of seven cities— Beli Manastir , Belišće , Donji Miholjac , Đakovo, Našice, Osijek and Valpovo—and 35 municipalities. The Požega-Slavonia County comprises five cities— Kutjevo , Lipik , Pakrac, Pleternica and Požega—and five municipalities. The Virovitica-Podravina County covers three cities—Orahovica, Slatina and Virovitica—and 13 municipalities. The Vukovar-Srijem County encompasses five cities—Ilok, Otok , Vinkovci, Vukovar and Županja—and 26 municipalities. The whole of Slavonia
29016-407: The remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep". Cities were able to hold their own defensive walls against barbarians who had no siege equipment , therefore the cities generally remained intact, although the countryside suffered. Gratian appointed a new Augustus , a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius . During the next four years, he partially re-established
29202-399: The right bank of the Danube River , four kilometres downriver from the city of Vukovar , at the spot where an intermittent watercourse in a loess Vukovar Plateau has cut a 25 metre high narrow steep valley that runs to the Danube river. Both sides along this steep pass make up the archaeological site, on the left is the Karasović Vineyard, and on the right is a large complex which includes
29388-410: The role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to attacks from outside the Empire . The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed
29574-446: The role of the administrative and military centre of the newly formed Kingdom of Slavonia from Požega. The 1830s and 1840s saw romantic nationalism inspire the Croatian National Revival , a political and cultural campaign advocating unity of all South Slavs in the empire. Its primary focus was the establishment of a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian , along with the promotion of Croatian literature and culture. During
29760-428: The scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched, the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it . Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies
29946-441: The second half of the 16th century Vlachs from Slavonia were no longer an exclusive part of population because the Vlach privileges were attractive for many non-Vlachs who mixed with the Vlachs in order to get their status. To replace the fleeing Croats, the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier. Serb migration into this region peaked during
30132-408: The senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders. Its typical members lacked interest in military service, and showed incompetence at command. Under Constantine, the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under Constantius II (r. 337–361) their endowments of property. This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and
30318-420: The services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned. Public building projects had declined since the second century. There is no evidence of state participation in, or support for, restoration and maintenance of temples and shrines . Restorations were funded and accomplished privately, which limited what was done. A further financial abuse was Constantius's habit of granting to his immediate entourage
30504-409: The territory occupied by modern-day Slavonia, the area became a part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom by the end of the 5th century. However, control of the area proved a significant task, and Lombards were given increasing control of Pannonia in the 6th century, which ended in their withdrawal in 568 and the arrival of Pannonian Avars and Slavs, who established control of Pannonia by the year 582. After
30690-477: The theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears." From at least the time of Henri Pirenne (1862–1935), scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476. Pirenne postponed
30876-420: The third century. The rising Sassanid Empire inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries. Other disasters included repeated civil wars , barbarian invasions, and more mass-mortality in the Plague of Cyprian (from 250 onwards). For a short period, the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West (260–274), a Palmyrene Empire in the East (260–273), and
31062-409: The threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers. They also tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year. Both of them were Christians, and re-confiscated the temple lands which Julian had restored. But they were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in
31248-463: The total population of the five counties of Slavonia was 806,192, accounting for 19% of population of Croatia. The largest portion of the total population of Slavonia lives in Osijek-Baranja county, followed by Vukovar-Syrmia county. Požega-Slavonia county is the least populous county of Slavonia. Overall the population density stands at 64.2 persons per square kilometre. The population density ranges from 77.6 to 40.9 persons per square kilometre, with
31434-417: The traditional culture. A particular impact was made by Baroque art and architecture of the 18th century, when the cities of Slavonia started developing after the Ottoman wars ended and stability was restored to the area. The period saw great prominence of the nobility, who were awarded estates in Slavonia by the imperial court in return for their service during the wars. They included Prince Eugene of Savoy ,
31620-450: The war, the new Yugoslav government interned local Germans in camps in Slavonia, the largest of which were in Valpovo and Krndija, where many died of hunger and diseases. After World War II, Croatia—including Slavonia—became a single-party Socialist federal unit of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , ruled by the Communists , but enjoying a degree of autonomy within the federation. The autonomy effectively increased after
31806-443: The west of the Rhine was occupied by the Germans, and a further 120 miles into Gaul the surviving population and garrisons had fled. Julian ( r. 360–363 ) won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul. He launched a drive against official corruption, which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one-third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met. In civil legislation, Julian
31992-681: Was Academia Posegana operating in Požega between 1761 and 1776, as an extension of a gymnasium operating in the city continuously, since it opened in 1699 as the first secondary education school in Slavonia. The cuisine of Slavonia reflects cultural influences on the region through the diversity of its culinary influences. The most significant among those were from Hungarian , Viennese , Central European, as well as Turkish and Arab cuisines brought by series of conquests and accompanying social influences. The ingredients of traditional dishes are pickled vegetables, dairy products and smoked meats . The most famous traditional preserved meat product
32178-441: Was a new wave of colonization, about 10,000 families which are assumed to come from Sanjak of Klis or with less possibility from area of Sanjak of Bosnia . The areas acquired through the Treaty of Karlowitz were assigned to Croatia, itself in the union with Hungary and the union ruled by the Habsburgs. The border area along the Una , Sava and Danube rivers became the Slavonian Military Frontier . At this time, Osijek took over
32364-403: Was a part of Hungary. Croatia and Slavonia were in 1476 united under the same ban ( viceroy ), but kept separate parliaments until 1558. The Ottoman conquests in Croatia led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and 1526 Battle of Mohács , both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King Louis II of Hungary died at Mohács, and Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg was elected in 1527 as
32550-553: Was accompanied by increasing quality and growing recognition at home and abroad. Grape vines were first grown in the region of Ilok, as early as the 3rd century AD. The oldest Slavonian wine cellar still in continuous use for winemaking is located in Kutjevo—built in 1232 by Cistercians . Slavonian oak is used to make botti , large barrels traditionally used in the Piedmont region of Italy to make nebbiolo wines. 45°27′N 17°55′E / 45.450°N 17.917°E / 45.450; 17.917 Decline of
32736-451: Was actually made. When the Goths are next mentioned in Roman records, they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort. In 391, Alaric , a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over. Theodosius's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from
32922-608: Was endemic in many areas, notably in the city of Rome itself, possibly encouraged by the enthusiasm of rich Romans for water features in their gardens. In 313, Constantine the Great declared official toleration of Christianity . This was followed over the ensuing decades by the search for a definition of Christian orthodoxy all could agree upon. Creeds were developed, but Christianity has never agreed upon an official version of its Bible or its doctrine; instead it has had many different manuscript traditions. Christianity's disputes may have effected decline. Official and private action
33108-481: Was experiencing a period of prosperity for the great landowners who took advantage of the court's need for food, "turning agrarian produce into gold", while repressing and misusing the poor who grew it and brought it in. Paulinus the Deacon , notary of Ambrose the bishop of Milan , described these men as creating a court where "everything was up for sale". Ambrose himself preached a series of sermons aimed at his wealthy constituents, asserting that avarice leads to
33294-433: Was granted to Slavonia by king Vladislaus II Jagiellon on 8 December 1496. Following the Battle of Mohács, the Ottomans expanded their possessions in Slavonia seizing Đakovo in 1536 and Požega in 1537, defeating a Habsburg army led by Johann Katzianer , who was attempting to retake Slavonia, at Gorjani in September 1537. By 1540, Osijek was also under firm control of the Ottomans, and regular administration in Slavonia
33480-402: Was inhabited intensively through the whole of prehistory. During the period between 3,350 – 2,300 B.C. it was a significant centre of human settlement in Europe. This period coincides with the early settlements of Troy (Troy I and II) and many similarities can be found between the archaeological material from Troy and Vučedol. Archaeological excavations to date are able to precisely reconstruct
33666-431: Was introduced by establishing the Sanjak of Pojega . The Ottoman control in Slavonia expanded as Novska surrendered the same year. Turkish conquest continued— Našice were seized in 1541, Orahovica and Slatina in 1542, and in 1543, Voćin , Sirač and, after a 40-day siege, Valpovo . In 1544, Ottoman forces conquered Pakrac . Lessening hostilities brought about a five-year truce in 1547 and temporary stabilization of
33852-466: Was notable for his pro-pagan policies. Julian lifted the ban on sacrifices , restored and reopened temples, and dismantled the privileged tax status and revenue concessions of the Christians. He gave generous tax remissions to the cities which he favored, and disfavor to those who remained Christian. Julian ordered toleration of varieties of Christianity banned as heretical by Constantius; possibly, he would not have been able to persecute effectively such
34038-445: Was recorded on 24 January 1963 in Slavonski Brod, and the highest temperature of 40.5 °C (104.9 °F ) was recorded on 5 July 1950 in Đakovo. The lowest level of precipitation is recorded in the eastern parts of Slavonia at less than 700 millimetres (28 inches) per year, mostly during the growing season . The western parts of Slavonia receive 900 to 1,000 millimetres (35 to 39 inches) precipitation. Low winter temperatures and
34224-522: Was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of military exercises . However, extortion , gross corruption , and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army. There is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376. Ammianus Marcellinus , himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to individual size or strength. He also accuses Valentinian I of being
34410-495: Was signed in 1920, at the end of World War I , between the Allies of World War I and Hungary as one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary. The treaty established the southern border of Hungary along the Drava and Mura rivers, except in Baranya , where only the northern part of the county was kept by Hungary. The territorial acquisition in Baranya was not made a part of Slavonia, even though adjacent to Osijek, because pre-1918 administrative divisions were disestablished by
34596-419: Was taken against heterodox Christians (heretics) from the fourth century up to the modern era. Limited action against pagans , who were mostly ignored, was based on the contempt that accompanied Christianity's sense of triumph after Constantine. Christianity opposed sacrifice and magic, and Christian emperors made laws that favored Christianity. Constantine's successors generally continued this approach, and by
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