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69-506: The Vought OS2U Kingfisher is an American catapult-launched observation floatplane . It was a compact mid-wing monoplane , with a large central float and small stabilizing floats. Performance was modest because of its low-powered engine . The OS2U could also operate on fixed, wheeled, taildragger landing gear. The OS2U was the main shipboard observation seaplane used by the United States Navy during World War II , and 1,519 of

138-465: A CATOBAR (Catapult Assisted Take Off But Arrested Recovery) configuration. U.S. Navy tactical aircraft use catapults to launch with a heavier warload than would otherwise be possible. Larger planes, such as the E-2 Hawkeye and S-3 Viking , require a catapult shot, since their thrust-to-weight ratio is too low for a conventional rolling takeoff on a carrier deck. Types previously or still operated by

207-567: A compressed-air catapult system and mounted it on the Santee Dock in Annapolis, Maryland . The first attempt nearly killed Lieutenant Ellyson when the plane left the ramp with its nose pointing upward and it caught a crosswind, pushing the plane into the water. Ellyson was able to escape from the wreckage unhurt. On 12 November 1912, Lt. Ellyson made history as the Navy's first successful catapult launch, from

276-410: A heavy load. STOVL carriers are less expensive and generally smaller in size compared to CATOBAR carriers. The British Queen Elizabeth -class aircraft carriers were built to use STOVL aircraft due to the expected cost of an electromagnetic catapult; they do not have the means to generate steam for a conventional catapult. Chuuk Lagoon Chuuk Lagoon , previously Truk Atoll , is an atoll in

345-450: A pair) on a flexible Scarff ring mount. The aircraft could also carry two 100 lb (45 kg) bombs or two 325 lb (147 kg) depth charges . Additionally, the " Kingfisher ", as it was designated, served as a trainer in both its floatplane and landplane configurations. The first 54 Kingfishers were delivered to the U.S. Navy beginning in August 1940, and 6 had been assigned to

414-671: A population of 36,158 people and a maximal elevation of 443 metres (1,453 ft). Weno city on Weno (formerly Moen) Island functions as both the atoll's capital and the state capital, and is the largest city in the FSM with its 13,700 people. Chuuk Lagoon was the Empire of Japan 's main naval base in the South Pacific theatre during World War II . It was the site of a major U.S. attack during Operation Hailstone in February 1944, and Operation Inmate ,

483-593: A result, they must take off with a reduced load of fuel and armaments. All other navies with aircraft carriers operate short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft, such as the B variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II , the BAE Sea Harrier , and the AV-8B Harrier II . These aircraft can take off vertically with a light load, or use a ski jump to assist a rolling takeoff with

552-453: A small assault conducted by British and Canadian forces during June 1945. Chuuk means mountain in the Chuukese language . The lagoon was known mainly as Truk (a mispronunciation of Ruk ), until 1990. Other names included Hogoleu , Torres , Ugulat, and Lugulus . Chuuk Lagoon is part of the larger Caroline Islands group. The area consists of eleven major islands (corresponding to

621-466: A small population of foreign traders and missionaries. Spanish control over the islands was nominal. The Spaniards stopped to raise a flag over Chuuk in 1886 and returned in 1895 as part of an attempt to assert control and negotiate peace between warring Chuukese tribes. No permanent Spanish settlement was established, and tribal violence continued until the German colonial era. The Caroline Islands were sold to

690-467: A spring-operated catapult to launch his successful flying models and his failed Aerodrome of 1903. Likewise the Wright Brothers beginning in 1904 used a weight and derrick styled catapult to assist their early aircraft with a takeoff in a limited distance. On 31 July 1912, Theodore Gordon Ellyson became the first person to be launched from a U.S. Navy catapult system. The Navy had been perfecting

759-509: A stationary coal barge. On 5 November 1915, Lieutenant Commander Henry C. Mustin made the first catapult launch from a ship underway. The US Navy experimented with other power sources and models, including catapults that utilized gunpowder and flywheel variations. On 14 December 1924, a Martin MO-1 observation plane flown by Lt. L. C. Hayden was launched from USS  Langley using a catapult powered by gunpowder. Following this launch, this method

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828-502: A submarine would launch a small number of floatplanes for offensive operations or artillery spotting, to be recovered by the submarine once the aircraft has landed. The first launch off a Royal Navy battlecruiser was from HMAS  Australia on 8 March 1918. Subsequently, many Royal Navy ships carried a catapult and from one to four aircraft; battleships or battlecruisers like HMS  Prince of Wales carried four aircraft and HMS  Rodney carried two, while smaller warships like

897-595: A territory subsequently claimed by Germany as New Swabia . All of Lufthansa 's catapult ships were taken over by the Luftwaffe in 1939 and used as seaplane tenders in World War II along with three catapult ships built for the military. After World War II, Supermarine Walrus amphibian aircraft were also briefly operated by a British whaling company, United Whalers. Operating in the Antarctic, they were launched from

966-760: A torpedo boat station, submarine repair shops, a communications center and a radar station were constructed during the war. Protecting these various facilities were coastal defense guns and mortar emplacements. A significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based at Truk, with its administrative center on Tonoas (south of Weno). At anchor in the lagoon were battleships , aircraft carriers , cruisers , destroyers , tankers , cargo ships , tugboats , gunboats , minesweepers , landing craft , and submarines . In particular, Yamato and Musashi were stationed at Truk for months around 1943, unable to participate in battle. The Japanese garrison consisted of 27,856 IJN men, under

1035-413: A track or slot built into the flight deck , below which is a large piston or shuttle that is attached through the track to the nose gear of the aircraft, or in some cases a wire rope , called a catapult bridle , is attached to the aircraft and the catapult shuttle. Other forms have been used historically, such as mounting a launching cart holding a seaplane on a long girder-built structure mounted on

1104-672: A week before the US raid, the Japanese had withdrawn their larger warships (heavy cruisers and aircraft carriers) to Palau . Once the American forces captured the Marshall Islands , they used them as a base from which to launch an early morning attack on 17 February 1944 against Truk Lagoon. Operation Hailstone lasted for three days, as American carrier-based planes sank 12 smaller Japanese warships (light cruisers, destroyers, and auxiliaries) and 32 merchant ships, while destroying 275 aircraft, mainly on

1173-668: Is credited with sinking any enemy submarines; however, they were successful in rescuing sailors from ships sunk by enemy torpedoes. The Coast Guard operated Kingfishers until October 1944. Australia received 18 Kingfishers from a batch of aircraft ordered by the Dutch East Indies that was diverted to Australia in 1942. They were initially used as training aircraft for pilots destined for flying boats , but in 1943 they were used to equip No. 107 Squadron RAAF , which carried out convoy escort duties until disbanded in October 1945. One Kingfisher

1242-409: Is served by United Airlines . The government operates a radio station. Interisland communication is often accomplished using citizens' band radio . Telephone services are limited on Chuuk, though a cellular network is established within some islands of the lagoon and in the near future on the outer islands. High speed Internet access via ADSL has been made available on a monthly subscription basis on

1311-468: Is the wreck of the submarine I-169 Shinohara which was lost when diving to avoid the bombing. The submarine had participated in the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The coral encrusted wrecks attract a diverse array of marine life, including manta rays, turtles, sharks and corals. In 2007, 266 species of reef fish were recorded by an Earthwatch team, and in 2006 the rare coral Acropora pichoni

1380-547: The Heinkel Flugzeugwerke to launch mail-planes. These ships served the route between Germany and the United States. The aircraft, carrying mail–bags, would be launched as a mail tender while the ship was still many hundreds of miles from its destination, thus speeding mail delivery by about a day. Initially, Heinkel He 12 aircraft were used before they were replaced by Junkers Ju 46 , which were in turn replaced by

1449-589: The Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) with the construction of the Gerald R. Ford -class aircraft carriers, and a similar system has also been developed for the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy 's Type 003 aircraft carrier . Historically it was most common for seaplanes to be catapulted, allowing them to land on the water near the vessel and be hoisted on board, although in

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1518-824: The German Empire in 1899, after Spain withdrew from the Pacific in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War . During the First World War , the Japanese Navy was tasked with pursuing and destroying the German East Asia Squadron and protection of the shipping lanes for Allied commerce in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. During the course of this operation, the Japanese Navy seized the German possessions in

1587-645: The Marianas , Carolines, Marshall Islands and Palau groups by October 1914. Chuuk then became a possession of the Empire of Japan under the South Seas Mandate following Germany 's defeat. Naval Base Truk in the Truk Lagoon was the Empire of Japan 's main base in the South Pacific theatre of World War II. There was a myth that Truk was heavily fortified, and it was given nicknames like "the Gibraltar of

1656-474: The Naval Aircraft Factory . The Kingfisher was widely used as a shipboard, catapult-launched scout plane on U.S. Navy battleships , heavy cruisers , and light cruisers during World War II and played a major role in support of shore bombardments and air-sea rescue. Two examples showing the plane's rescue capabilities include the recovery of World War I ace Eddie Rickenbacker and his crew from

1725-473: The Pearl Harbor –based Battle Force before the end of the same year. Many of the following 158 OS2U-2s were attached to flight training at Naval Air Station Pensacola , Florida, but 53 were assigned to equip the newly established Inshore Patrol Squadrons, based at Naval Air Station Jacksonville , Florida. In 1942, nine more Inshore Patrol Squadrons were established, all exclusively equipped with OS2N-1s built by

1794-583: The Second World War (before the advent of the escort carrier ) conventional fighter aircraft (notably the Hawker Hurricane ) would sometimes be catapulted from " catapult-equipped merchant " (CAM) vessels to drive off enemy aircraft, forcing the pilot to either divert to a land-based airstrip , or to jump out by parachute or ditch in the water near the convoy and wait for rescue. Aviation pioneer and Smithsonian Secretary Samuel Langley used

1863-557: The Vought V-85G . German airline Lufthansa subsequently used dedicated catapult ships SS  Westfalen , MS  Schwabenland , Ostmark and Friesenland to launch larger Dornier Do J Wal (whale), Dornier Do 18 and Dornier Do 26 flying boats on the South Atlantic airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany to Natal, Brazil. On route proving flights in 1933, and a scheduled service beginning in February 1934, Wals flew

1932-512: The factory ship FF Balaena , which had been equipped with an ex-navy aircraft catapult. The Chinese, Indian, and Russian navies operate conventional aircraft from " short take-off but arrested landing " (STOBAR) aircraft carriers. Instead of a catapult, they use a ski jump to assist aircraft in taking off with a positive rate of climb. Carrier aircraft such as the J-15 , Mig-29K , and Su-33 rely on their own engines to accelerate to flight speed. As

2001-508: The fighter catapult ships of the Royal Navy, then armed merchantmen known as CAM ships from "catapult armed merchantmen". These were used for convoy escort duties to drive off enemy reconnaissance bombers. CAM ships carried a Hawker Sea Hurricane 1A , dubbed a "Hurricat" or "Catafighter", and the pilot bailed out unless he could fly to land. While imprisoned in Colditz Castle during

2070-466: The 2010 census: It is not known when the islands of Chuuk were first settled, but archaeological evidence indicates that islands of Feefen and Wééné had human settlements in the first and second century BC. Later evidence indicates that widespread human settlements appeared in Chuuk during the 14th century AD. The first recorded sighting by Europeans was made by Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on board

2139-465: The British, U.S. and French navies include: The protruding angled ramps (Van Velm Bridle Arresters or horns) at the catapult ends on some aircraft carriers were used to catch the bridles (connectors between the catapult shuttle and aircraft fuselage) for reuse. There were small ropes that would attach the bridle to the shuttle, which continued down the angled horn to pull the bridle down and away from

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2208-529: The Island of Weno from May 2010. Tourism, especially scuba diving among the many wrecks of Truk Lagoon, is the island's main industry. Copra (dried coconut meat) is the only cash crop , and output is relatively insignificant. Most of the inhabitants of outlying islands engage in subsistence activity only. In 1969, William A. Brown and French oceanographer Jacques Cousteau and his team explored Truk Lagoon. Following Cousteau's 1971 television documentary about

2277-619: The OS2U-3 aircraft built by the Naval Aircraft Factory in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . The OS2U first flew on 1 March 1938. In the late 1930s, Vought engineer Rex Beisel was tasked with designing an observation monoplane aircraft for the U.S. Navy suitable for many tasks, including directing battleship fire. In replacing the standard biplane observation aircraft with a more modern monoplane design, Beisel incorporated innovations making it

2346-617: The Pacific in November 1942 and Lieutenant John A. Burns' unique use of the aircraft on 30 April 1944 to taxi airmen rescued from Truk Lagoon to the submarine Tang , which was serving rescue duty near the atoll. In all, Burns rescued ten survivors on two trips and was awarded the Navy Cross for his efforts. The United States Coast Guard received 76 OS2U-3 Kingfishers starting in 1942 and employed them in anti-submarine warfare, reconnaissance, and search and rescue roles. No Coast Guard Kingfisher

2415-455: The Pacific," or Japan's equivalent of the Americans' Pearl Harbor . In fact: [T]he reality was somewhat different. (...) The lack of fortifications was less due to Japan's regard for international law than to Japan's economic limitations. It could not afford both a large navy and extensive naval fortifications. It opted to build up its naval forces, neglecting fixed defenses. Nevertheless, Truk

2484-431: The Royal Navy was developing a new catapult system for their fleet of carriers. Commander C. C. Mitchell , RNV , recommended a steam-based system using a slotted cylinder as an effective and efficient means to launch the next generation of naval aircraft. Trials on HMS  Perseus , flown by pilots such as Eric "Winkle" Brown , from 1950 showed its effectiveness. Navies introduced steam catapults, capable of launching

2553-516: The Super Étendards but only to catch and recover the Vought F-8 Crusader 's bridles. The size and manpower requirements of steam catapults place limits on their capabilities. A newer approach is the electromagnetic catapult, such as Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) developed by General Atomics. Electromagnetic catapults place less stress on the aircraft and offer more control during

2622-504: The aircraft to keep it from damaging the underbelly. The bridle would then be caught by nets aside the horn. Bridles have not been used on U.S. aircraft since the end of the Cold War , and all U.S. Navy carriers commissioned since then have not had the ramps. The last U.S. carrier commissioned with a bridle catcher was USS Carl Vinson ; starting with USS Theodore Roosevelt the ramps were omitted. During Refueling and Complex Overhaul refits in

2691-842: The aircraft were built. It served on battleships and cruisers of the U.S. Navy, with the United States Marine Corps in Marine Scouting Squadron Three (VMS-3), with the United States Coast Guard at coastal air stations; at sea with the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy ; with the Soviet Navy ; and with the Royal Australian Air Force . The Naval Aircraft Factory OS2N was the designation of

2760-500: The central Pacific . It lies about 1,800 kilometres (970 nautical miles) northeast of New Guinea and is part of Chuuk State within the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). A protective reef, 225 kilometres (140 mi) around, encloses a natural harbour 79 by 50 km (43 nmi × 27 nmi), with an area of 2,130 km (820 sq mi). It has a land area of 93.07 square kilometres (35.93 square miles), with

2829-471: The command of Vice Admiral Masami Kobayashi, then Vice Admiral Chuichi Hara , and 16,737 Imperial Japanese Army men, under the command of Major General Kanenobu Ishuin. At one point, dropping a nuclear weapon on Truk was discussed by the United States government. In 1944, Truk's capacity as a naval base was destroyed through naval air attack in Operation Hailstone . Forewarned by intelligence

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2898-503: The cruiser HMNZS  Leander carried one. The aircraft carried were the Fairey Seafox or Supermarine Walrus . Some like HMS  Nelson did not use a catapult, and the aircraft was lowered onto the sea for takeoff. Some had their aircraft and catapult removed during World War II e.g. HMS  Duke of York , or before ( HMS  Ramillies ). During World War II a number of ships were fitted with rocket-driven catapults, first

2967-562: The dangers posed by using pressurized steam. On gas-turbine powered ships, an electromagnetic catapult would eliminate the need for a separate steam boiler for generating catapult steam. The U.S. Navy's Gerald R. Ford -class aircraft carriers and PLA Navy's Type 003 aircraft carrier included electromagnetic catapults in their design. From 1929, the German Norddeutscher Lloyd -liners SS  Bremen and Europa were fitted with compressed air-driven catapults designed by

3036-409: The deck of a warship or merchant ship , but most catapults share a similar sliding track concept. Different means have been used to propel the catapult, such as weight and derrick , gunpowder , flywheel , compressed air , hydraulic , steam power , and solid fuel rocket boosters. The United States Navy is developing the use of a linear motor -based electromagnetic catapult system called

3105-495: The eleven municipalities of Truk lagoon, which are Tol , Udot , Fala-Beguets, Romanum, and Eot of Faichuk group, and Weno , Fefen , Dublon , Uman , Param, and Tsis of Nomoneas group) and 46 smaller ones within the lagoon, plus 41 on the fringing coral reef, and is known today as the Chuuk islands, part of the Federated States of Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean. This is a list of islands, villages and population following

3174-412: The first production type to be assembled with spot welding , a process Vought and the Naval Aircraft Factory jointly developed to create a smooth fuselage that resisted buckling and generated less drag. Beisel also introduced high-lift devices and spoilers . In a unique arrangement, deflector plate flaps and drooping ailerons were located on the trailing edge of the wing to increase the camber of

3243-465: The flying boats. From September 1934, Lufthansa had a support ship at each end of the trans-ocean stage, providing radio navigation signals and catapult launchings after carrying aircraft out to sea overnight. From April 1935 the Wals were launched directly offshore, and flew the entire distance across the ocean. This was possible as the flying boats could carry more fuel when they did not have to take off from

3312-425: The ground. The consequences of the attack made "Truk lagoon the biggest graveyard of ships in the world". The attacks for the most part ended Truk as a major threat to Allied operations in the central Pacific. The Japanese garrison on Eniwetok was denied any realistic hope of reinforcement and support during the invasion that began on 18 February, greatly assisting U.S. forces in their conquest of that island. Truk

3381-404: The hangar deck that fired athwartships , but they were unpopular because of their short run, low clearance of the hangar decks, inability to add the ship's forward speed to the aircraft's airspeed for takeoff, and lower clearance from the water (conditions which afforded pilots far less margin for error in the first moments of flight). They were mostly used for experimental purposes, and their use

3450-408: The heavier jet fighters , in the mid-1950s. Powder -driven catapults were also contemplated, and would have been powerful enough, but would also have introduced far greater stresses on the airframes and might have been unsuitable for long use. At launch, a release bar holds the aircraft in place as steam pressure builds up, then breaks (or "releases"; older models used a pin that sheared), freeing

3519-533: The introduction of the Curtiss SC Seahawk , the first examples reaching the U.S. Navy in October 1944. At least eight Kingfishers survive in collections of historic aircraft around the world. Data from Jane's Fighting aircraft of World War II General characteristics Performance Armament Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Aircraft catapult The catapult used on aircraft carriers consists of

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3588-564: The lagoon and its ghostly remains, the atoll became a scuba diving lure, drawing wreck diving enthusiasts from around the world to see its numerous, virtually intact sunken ships. The shipwrecks and remains are sometimes referred to as the "Ghost Fleet of Truk Lagoon". Scattered mainly around the Dublon (Tonowas), Eten , Fefan and Uman islands within the Truk group, several shipwrecks lie in crystal clear waters less than fifteen metres (50 ft) below

3657-459: The late 1990s–early 2000s, the bridle catchers were removed from the first three Nimitz -class aircraft carriers. USS Enterprise was the last U.S. Navy operational carrier with the ramps still attached before her inactivation in 2012. Like her American counterparts, the French aircraft carrier Charles De Gaulle is not equipped with bridle catchers because the modern aircraft operated on board use

3726-582: The launch by allowing gradual and continual acceleration. Electromagnetic catapults are also expected to require significantly less maintenance through the use of solid state components. Linear induction motors have been experimented with before, such as Westinghouse's Electropult system in 1945. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, navies again started experimenting with catapults powered by linear induction motors and electromagnets . Electromagnetic catapult would be more energy efficient on nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and would alleviate some of

3795-527: The piston to pull the aircraft along the deck at high speed. Within about two to four seconds, aircraft velocity by the action of the catapult plus apparent wind speed (ship's speed plus or minus "natural" wind) is sufficient to allow an aircraft to fly away, even after losing one engine. Nations that have retained large aircraft carriers, i.e., the United States Navy and the French Navy , are still using

3864-408: The roads and transportation systems are poor or in disrepair; an extensive infrastructural redevelopment plan began, consisting of a five-phase project to completely reconstruct the existing sewer, water and storm drainage systems as well as pour concrete roadways in the majority of the villages of Weno. Chuuk International Airport ( IATA airport code TKK) is on the administrative island of Moen. It

3933-663: The same launch systems as in US Navy. Because of this mutual interoperability, American aircraft are also capable of being catapulted from and landing on Charles De Gaulle , and conversely, French naval aircraft can use the US Navy carriers' catapults. At the time when the Super Étendard was operated on board of the Charles de Gaulle , its bridles were used only once, as they were never recovered by bridle catchers. The carriers Clemenceau and Foch were also equipped with bridle catchers, not for

4002-527: The ship Florida during August or September 1528. They were later visited by Spaniard Alonso de Arellano on 15 January 1565 on board of galleon patache San Lucas . As part of the Caroline Islands , Truk was claimed by the Spanish Empire , which made an effort to control the islands in the late 19th century. Chuuk Lagoon was inhabited by several tribes that engaged in intermittent warfare, as well as

4071-445: The surface. In waters devoid of normal ocean currents, divers can easily swim across decks littered with gas masks and depth charges , and below decks can be found evidence of human remains. In the massive ships' holds are the remnants of fighter aircraft, tanks, bulldozers, railroad cars, motorcycles, torpedoes, mines, bombs, boxes of munitions, radios, plus thousands of other weapons, spare parts, and other artifacts. Of special interest

4140-502: The trans-ocean stage of the route, between Bathurst , the Gambia in West Africa and Fernando de Noronha , an island group off South America. At first, there was a refueling stop in mid-ocean. The flying boat would land on the open sea, be winched aboard by a crane, refueled, and then launched by catapult back into the air. However, landing on the big ocean swells tended to damage the hull of

4209-454: The war, British prisoners of war planned an escape attempt using a falling bathtub full of heavy rocks and stones as the motive power for a catapult to be used for launching the Colditz Cock glider from the roof of the castle. Ground-launched V-1s were typically propelled up an inclined launch ramp by an apparatus known as a Dampferzeuger ("steam generator"). Following World War II,

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4278-548: The water under their own power, and cut the time it took for mail to get from Germany to Brazil from four days down to three. From 1936 to 1938, tests including the Blohm & Voss Ha 139 flying boat were conducted on the North Atlantic route to New York. Schwabenland was also used in an Antarctic expedition in 1938/39 with the main purpose of finding an area for a German whaling station, in which catapult-launched Wals surveyed

4347-472: The wing and thus create additional lift. Beisel's first prototype flew in 1938, powered by an air-cooled, 450 hp (340 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-985-4 Wasp Junior radial engine. For combat missions, the pilot had a 0.30 in (7.62 mm) Browning M1919 machine gun , the receiver mounted low in the right front cockpit, firing between the engine cylinder heads, while the radio operator/gunner manned another 0.30 in (7.62 mm) machine gun (or

4416-435: Was entirely discontinued during the latter half of the war. Many naval vessels apart from aircraft carriers carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and spotting. They were catapult-launched and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. Additionally, the concept of submarine aircraft carriers was developed by multiple nations during the interwar period, and through until WW2 and beyond, wherein

4485-593: Was identified. On 12 April 2011, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Foreign Correspondent screened a report on Chuuk Lagoon likening the effect of the impending massive release of tens of thousands of tonnes of oil from the rusting Japanese warships into the coral reef to that of the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska. However, given the poor state of the Japanese war effort in 1944, many of

4554-501: Was isolated by Allied forces, as they continued their advance towards Japan by invading other Pacific islands, such as Guam , Saipan , Palau , and Iwo Jima . Truk was attacked again from 12 to 16 June 1945 by part of the British Pacific Fleet during Operation Inmate . Cut off, the Japanese forces on Truk and other central Pacific islands ran low on food and faced starvation before Japan surrendered in August 1945. Most of

4623-709: Was the main base for Japanese operations against Allied forces in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands , serving as the forward anchorage for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), and Truk Lagoon was considered the most formidable of all Japanese strongholds in the Pacific. On the various islands, the Japanese Civil Engineering Department and Naval Construction Department had built roads, trenches, bunkers and caves. Five airstrips, seaplane bases,

4692-709: Was used aboard both cruisers and battleships . By 1929, the German ocean liners SS Bremen and Europa had been fitted with compressed-air catapults designed by the Heinkel aviation firm of Rostock, with further work with catapult air mail across the South Atlantic Ocean , being undertaken during the first half of the 1930s, with Dornier Wal twin-engined flying boats. Up to and during World War II , most catapults on aircraft carriers were hydraulic. United States Navy catapults on surface warships, however, were operated with explosive charges similar to those used for 130-millimeter (5-inch) guns. Some carriers were completed before and during World War II with catapults on

4761-426: Was used in support of the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition in 1947–48. Throughout its U.S. Navy service, the OS2U and even its predecessor, the Curtiss SOC Seagull , served much longer than planned, as the planned successor, the Curtiss SO3C Seamew , suffered from an insufficiently powerful engine which was a complete failure. The OS2U was only slowly replaced in the latter stages of World War II with

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