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84-682: The origin is not clear, but due to the name it may be named after the Vlachs who inhibited the region historically. Some 70-200 Serbs were brutally massacred by Ustaše forces in Vlasenica's Rašića Gaj municipality between 22 June and 20 July 1941, after raping women and girls. At the end of July and beginning of August 1941 another group of 50 Serbs from Vlasenica District (mostly from Milići ) were imprisoned and murdered. Between 2,000 and 3,000 Muslims were massacred by Serb Chetniks in Vlasenica, from December 1941 until February 1942. The Susica detention camp

168-465: A Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. Portugal and north-central Spain ( Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León , Extremadura ). Continental Celts are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are

252-682: A Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the La Tène period . Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia , are in Gaulish , which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest. Celtiberian inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic

336-559: A borrowing from Frankish * Walholant , 'Roman-land' (see Gaul: Name ) , the root of which is Proto-Germanic * walha- , 'foreigner, Roman, Celt', whence the English word Welsh ( Old English wælisċ ). Proto-Germanic * walha comes from the name of the Volcae , a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul. This means that English Gaul , despite its superficial similarity,

420-798: A collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia , identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included the Gauls ; the Celtiberians and Gallaeci of Iberia; the Britons , Picts , and Gaels of Britain and Ireland; the Boii ; and the Galatians . The interrelationships of ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world are unclear and debated; for example over

504-752: A common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common. Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall , the Isle of Man , and Brittany ; also called the Celtic nations . These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton ; plus two recent revivals, Cornish (a Brittonic language ) and Manx (a Goidelic language ). There are also attempts to reconstruct Cumbric ,

588-563: A people living around the Volga . Vlachs were present in large numbers, on the Chalcidice peninsula around 1000, according to monastic documents from Mount Athos . On the peninsula, the Vlachs were famous for their cheese and meat products. In these texts sometimes they are called " Vlachorynhinii ", which may be a mixture of the name "Vlach" and " Rynhini " a Slavic tribe who settled in the same area in

672-728: A result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'". This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in Gallo-Roman artifacts . In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in Insular art . The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in

756-615: A rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic". John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the lingua franca of the Atlantic Bronze Age cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with

840-524: A revival. The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) in Ancient Greek – was by Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille ), southern Gaul . In the fifth century BC, Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the source of the Danube and in the far west of Europe. The etymology of Keltoi

924-651: A single culture or ethnic group. A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, Armorica and Iberia ), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the Bell Beaker culture of the Copper and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC). Martín Almagro Gorbea (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in

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1008-536: A tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. A Latin name for the Gauls, Galli ( pl. ), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansion into Italy from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be Proto-Celtic *galno , meaning "power, strength" (whence Old Irish gal "boldness, ferocity", Welsh gallu "to be able, power"). The Greek name Γαλάται ( Galatai , Latinized Galatae ) most likely has

1092-715: Is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe —south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula ) and north of the Danube . Although it has also been used to name present-day Romanians , the term "Vlach" today refers primarily to speakers of the Eastern Romance languages who live south of

1176-638: Is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians, as well as for Morlachs and Istro-Romanians . The word Vlach / Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah , Valah , Valach , Voloh , Blac , oláh , Vlas , Ulah , etc. ) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, adopted into Proto- Germanic * Walhaz , which meant 'stranger', from *Wolkā- ( Caesar 's Latin : Volcae , Strabo and Ptolemy 's Greek : Ouolkai ). Via Latin , in Gothic , as * walhs ,

1260-546: Is called "Upper Vlachia". According to Niketas Choniates, the Vlachs are the barbarians who live in the Balkan mountains , in Moesia . In 1183 Hungarian documents mention, that King Béla III of Hungary , in his campaign against the Byzantine Empire , sacked Sofia , and among the defenders there were many Vlachs. The King used the opportunity and "... took home a number of these valiant mountain soldiers, and settled them in

1344-502: Is not actually derived from Latin Gallia (which should have produced * Jaille in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region. Celtic refers to a language family and, more generally, means 'of the Celts' or 'in the style of the Celts'. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by

1428-526: Is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the second millennium BC , probably somewhere in Gaul [centered in modern France] ... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in

1512-664: Is still used in Polish ( Włochy, Włosi, włoskie ) and Hungarian ( Olasz, Olaszország ) as an exonym for Italy, while in Slovak ( Vlach - pl. Vlasi , Valach - pl. Valasi ), Czech ( Vlachy ) and Slovenian ( Laško , Láh, Láhinja, laško ) it was replaced with the endonym Italia . Other forms which were recognised by linguists to designate the "Vlachs" are: Blaci, Blauen, Blachi found in Western medieval sources, Balachi, Walati found in Western sources derived from medieval German, while

1596-497: Is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European * kʲel 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish ceilid , and Modern Welsh celu ), * kʲel 'to heat' or * kel 'to impel'. It may come from the Celtic language . Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of Vercingetorix . He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting

1680-903: Is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia. In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah , plural Vlasi ) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia. In modern Slovak , Valasi , other than denoting people of Vlachian ethnicity or origin, is synonymously and even more prominently used to describe shepherds , more commonly apprentice shepherds. The term originated following Vlachian arrival in mounts and hills of present-day Slovakia in 14th century and coinciding development in sheep herding and dairy industry. Further west, in Czech Republic ,

1764-641: The Histories of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the source of the Danube . However, Stephen Oppenheimer shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees , which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia). The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in

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1848-520: The 3rd millennium BC , suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples. Using a multidisciplinary approach, Alberto J. Lorrio and Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing

1932-677: The Gaels ( Irish , Scots and Manx ) and the Celtic Britons ( Welsh , Cornish , and Bretons ) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as Galicia . Today, Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while Cornish and Manx are undergoing

2016-528: The Iberian Peninsula , Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into Celtiberian , Goidelic and Brittonic branches, among others. The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the proto-Celtic language arose out of the Urnfield culture of central Europe around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years. The Urnfield culture

2100-533: The Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic languages are attested from the 4th century AD in Ogham inscriptions , though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of Celtic mythology are recorded in early Irish and early Welsh literature. Most written evidence of

2184-513: The Migration Period . On the other hand, opponents of this theory say that the Romanians and the Vlachs, including the ancestors of present-day Aromanians, were originally part of the same group of speakers of Eastern Romance languages, and that their origins should be sought in the southern Balkans. Early Romanian-speakers would have then moved northwards from the 12th century onwards. During

2268-511: The North Sea to the Danube . The Byzantine princess and scholar Anna Komnene , in her book Alexiad , mentions a Vlach settlement called Ezeba, which was near Larissa and Androneia. In the same work she also describes the Vlachs as "the nomadic tribes, called Vlachs in popular parlance". In 1109, monks on Mount Athos mention the Vlachs in Chalkidiki and that the presence of women disturbed

2352-659: The Szeben County ." A Byzantine church document mentions that in 1190, "the Cumans and the Vlachs take the relics of Saint Ryli from Sofia to Tirnovo with a great pomp." According to the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , the authenticity of which is highly disputed by historians, c.  600 AD the Avars conquered Salona , then, attacking further south, ravaged Macedonia and

2436-577: The Vlachs . Omeljan Pritsak , however, point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people, since the "Blakumen" in the texts are "non-christian heathens" and nomadic horsemans. Spinei contrasts Pritsak's view by claiming that there are several mentions of the Blakumen or Blökumen in contexts taking place decades before the earliest appearance of the Cumans in the Pontic steppe, and that translating

2520-535: The Western Balkans , during the High Middle Ages , the word also acquired a socio-economic component, being used as an internal name for the pastoral population in the medieval Kingdom of Serbia , one that was also often engaged in the transport of goods, colonisation of empty lands, and military service. It will then expand to local interpretations with religious, ethnic, and social status particularities across

2604-591: The endonym rumân or român , from the Latin romānus , meaning ' Roman '. Also Aromanians use the endonym armãn ( pl. : armãni ) or rãmãn ( pl. : rãmãni ), from romānus . From Latin romānus are also the Albanian forms rëmen and rëmër , 'vlach'. Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla ( pl. : Vlaš ) in their own language. In historical sources

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2688-805: The ethnonym took on the meaning 'foreigner' or 'Romance-speaker' and later "shepherd', 'nomad'. The term was adopted into Greek as Vláhoi or Blachoi ( Βλάχοι ), Albanian vllah , Slavic as Vlah ( pl.   Vlasi ) or Voloh , Hungarian as oláh and olasz , etc. The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon , and in Switzerland for Romansh -speakers ( German : Welsch ), and in Poland Włochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians. The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians. The same name

2772-457: The first millennium BC ". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that Italic and Celtic were in some way linked ". The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of

2856-587: The "land of the black Latins, now called Morvlachs ". The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of Stefan Nemanjić , most probably 1198–1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of Hilandar monastery with aid from the inhabitants of the area of Prizren . The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick mention the Vlachs as people living in

2940-522: The 7th century. In 1013, a Byzantine document mentions the settlement of "Kimbalongu" in the mountains near Strumitsa , which was a Vlach settlement. The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th and 13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to

3024-650: The Alexiad, in 1094–1095, Emperor Alexius Komnenos was notified by a Vlach chieftain called Poudila about the crossing of the Danube by a Cuman army, and that to prepare himself for the attack, then the Vlachs likewise led the Cumans through the gorges of the Balkan Mountains. Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in Moglena region is made, the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos. According to this Emperor Alexios I Komnenos replies to

3108-430: The Annales Barenses describes that in 1027 the Byzantine army led by Orestes that tried to recapture Sicily from the Arabs , also included many Vlachs recruited from Macedonia . Kekaumenos writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of Thessaly led by Nikoulitzas Delphinas , nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander, and father in law of the writer. In 1071, a Byzantine document mentions that

3192-415: The Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on glottochronology , the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the Tartessian language was Celtic. However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified. Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt'

3276-424: The Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion. For at least 1,000 years the name Celt was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and

3360-449: The Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly. The Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages . By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe,

3444-414: The Celts with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which followed it ( c.  1200 –500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt , Austria, and with the following La Tène culture ( c.  450 BC onward), named after the La Tène site in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by diffusion or migration . A newer theory, " Celtic from

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3528-443: The Dacians and Vlachs had a perfectly matching nature, treachery and political unreliability, so much that in his opinion they should not be believed even if the Vlachs take an oath. Kekaumenos arbitrarily identified the Vlachs with the Dacians according to the archaizing efforts of his time, because the tendency to refer to later peoples with classical names was common in Byzantium at the time of Kekaumenos. Kekaumenos also confused

3612-424: The Danube, in Albania , Bulgaria , northern Greece , North Macedonia and eastern Serbia . These people include the ethnic groups of the Aromanians , the Megleno-Romanians and, in Serbia, the Timok Romanians . The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds, and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively. The term

3696-437: The Eastern Hallstatt region ( Noricum ). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite". In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to

3780-447: The Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to Commentarii de Bello Gallico ), and linking it with the Germanic Hel . Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel , who suggests it meant "the tall ones". In the first century BC, Roman leader Julius Caesar reported that the Gauls called themselves 'Celts', Latin : Celtae , in their own tongue . Thus whether it

3864-496: The Germanic population from Transylvania used also the variants Woloch, Blôch . French sources used mostly Valaques while the medieval Song of Roland used Blos . In English and in modern German the forms Wallachians, Walachen appear, respectively. In the Balkan Peninsula various names such as Rumer, Tzintzars, Morlachs, Maurovlachs, Armâns, Cincars, Koutzovlachs were used, while Muslim sources speak of Ulak, Ilak, Iflak . The term 'Vlach' first appeared in medieval sources and

3948-405: The Greeks to apply this name for the type of Keltoi that they usually encountered". Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland Κελτοί ( Keltoi ) or Celtae , some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian Tacitus says

4032-425: The Isle of Man. 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of Edward Lhuyd , whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain. The English words Gaul , Gauls ( pl. ) and Gaulish (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French Gaule and Gaulois ,

4116-421: The Middle Ages, the term "Magna Vlachia" appears in Byzantine documents. This name was used for Thessaly and present-day North Macedonia. John Skylitzes mentioned the Vlachs in 976, as guides and guards of Byzantine caravans in the Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria , they met and fought with David of Bulgaria . The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle. Ibn al-Nadīm published in 998

4200-630: The Roman province Dacia Traiana with Dacia Aureliana , and even he placed it further west where it actually was, that is why he mentioned the Serbian territory as the homeland, the Bessus tribe was a neighbor of the Roman province Macedonia. Alexius Komnenos mentions that in 1082 he passed through a Vlach settlement called Exeva in Macedonia. Anna Komnene mentions in her Alexiad that in 1091 Emperor Alexios ordered Nikephoros Melissenos to raise an army against invading Pechenegs . Melissenos recruited, among others, Bulgarians and "the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance". According to

4284-405: The Romans while they were constantly attacked and pillaged, therefore, Trajan launched a war, their leader, Decebalus was also killed, and then the Vlachs were scattered in Macedonia , Epirus and Hellas . According to Hungarian historians, Kekaumenos made the Dacians the ancestors of the Vlachs because he knew about the deceitfulness of the Dacians against the Romans, and according to him

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4368-724: The Siege of Žepa. <Greek Volunteer Guard Misplaced Pages> The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018): [REDACTED]   Una-Sana [REDACTED]   Central Bosnia [REDACTED]   Posavina [REDACTED]   Herzegovina-Neretva [REDACTED]   Tuzla [REDACTED]   West Herzegovina [REDACTED]   Zenica-Doboj [REDACTED]   Sarajevo [REDACTED]   Bosnian Podrinje [REDACTED]   Canton 10 Vlachs Vlach ( English: / ˈ v l ɑː k / or / ˈ v l æ k / ), also Wallachian (and many other variants ),

4452-401: The Vlachs in Hellas theme . Nikulitsa switched alliance to Samuel of Bulgaria after the conquest of Larissa by the Bulgarian Tsar. Mutahhar al-Maqdisi , "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj , Alans, Greeks and many other peoples." According to other non-Romanian historians, based on the context, the "Waladj" are not the Vlachs, but

4536-414: The Vlachs is incorrect. So, the text does not refer to the Vlachs here but rather to Volga Bulgaria.. A monastic document from Mount Athos mentions that 300 Vlach families live near the mountain, and in their own language they call their settlements "Catuns". Byzantine writer Kekaumenos , author of the Strategikon (1078), writes about a leader, Nikulitsa , who is given command by Basil II over

4620-493: The West ", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a lingua franca in the Atlantic Bronze Age coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as central Anatolia , Turkey . The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are

4704-424: The area of Moravian Wallachia is known as Valašsko and the inhabitants as Valaši, names usually translated in English as Wallachia and Wallachians, respectively. According to the theory of Daco-Roman continuity , the ancestors of modern Vlachs and Romanians originated from Dacians . For proponents of this theory, Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during

4788-405: The beginning of the 17th century. In this context, a large part of the Dalmatian hinterland was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the Shtokavian dialect and called Vlach or Morlach by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term Vlah evolved to Vlaj ( pl.   Vlaji ) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to

4872-465: The border of the Principality of Halych during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl , captured Andronicus and returned him to Emperor Manuel . Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166. John Kinnamos says Vlachs were "colonists brought from Italy". The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter

4956-567: The burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the Danube by Herodotus , Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic". Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of La Tène was discovered in Switzerland. The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As

5040-447: The daughter of Bela III of Hungary, but there was not enough money for the wedding, so he imposed taxes in the regions and cities of the empire , but he angered the "barbarians who dwelt in the Haemos mountains, who were once called Moesians , but are now called Vlachs". Mentions of Vlachs in Medieval Bulgaria also come from Niketas Choniates who writes about a Vlach called Dobromir Chrysos who established an autonomous polity in

5124-452: The early Celts comes from Greco-Roman writers, who often grouped the Celts as barbarian tribes. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids . The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans , such as in the Roman–Gallic wars , the Celtiberian Wars , the conquest of Gaul and conquest of Britain . By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the Roman Empire . By c. 500, due to Romanisation and

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5208-456: The herds of the Vlachs and their household spend the months of April to September beyond Thessaly , in the high mountains of Bulgaria, where it is very cold. (it is clear from the text that we are talking about the mountains of today's North Macedonia ). The same text describes that the homeland of the Vlachs is Thessaly, precisely the part of the region divided by the river Pleres. Florin Curta adds that Kekaumenos calls Vlachs "migrants from

5292-408: The latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of Lepontic from the 6th century BC and Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time. The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient Greco-Roman writings, such as

5376-445: The migration of Germanic tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany . Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures. Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of

5460-437: The monachal activities. Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population. In his work he mentions that these Vlachs live high up in the mountains of Thessaly , and from there they sometimes come down to plunder, which they do quickly, as swift as deers, for which reasons there is no king to rule them. Vlachs living by

5544-411: The monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes. The document contains some of the first Romanian names, such as Stan, Radu cel Şchiop, and Peducel. In 1097, many Vlachs were resettled from the Chalcidice peninsula to the Peloponnese by order of the Byzantine emperor Alexios Komnenos. In 1099, crusading armies were attacked by Vlachs, in the mountains along

5628-920: The mountains and forests of the Balkans. The chronicle also describes the Vlachs' homeland as being near Thessaloniki . The chronicle describes how the Crusaders captured several Vlachs who told them that the Vlachs live in Macedonia, Thessaly and Bulgaria, and that because they were heavily taxed, they were rebelling. Celts Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Celts ( / k ɛ l t s / KELTS , see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( / ˈ k ɛ l t ɪ k / KEL -tik ) were

5712-428: The name to "Black Cumans" is not concordant with the Varangian ethnic terminology. In 1020, the Archdiocese of Ohrid was founded, which was responsible for "the spiritual care of all the Vlachs". In 1022, Vlach shepherds from Thessaly and the Pindus mountains provided cheese for Constantinople. In 1025, the Annales Barenses mentions a people called "Vlach" who live near the river Axios . The same chronicle

5796-427: The northern parts", as Kekaumenos associates them with Dacians or Bessi of Antiquity. A Byzantine author, Kekaumenos writes about the Vlachs in Greece in connection about their origin and way of life in the Strategikon in 1075–1078. According to Kekaumenos, the Vlachs were Dacians and Bessi, who lived near and south from the Danube and the Sava , where the Serbs live now. They feigned loyalty to

5880-462: The presence of inscriptions. The modern idea of a Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts, and sometimes also among material artefacts, social organisation , homeland and mythology . Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" ( race is now a contested concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect

5964-415: The road from Braničevo to Naissus . The Primary Chronicle , written c.  1113 states that the Slavs settled beside the Danube , then the Volochi people attacked the Slavs, settled among them and did them violence, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the Vistula under the name of Leshi . According to the chronicle the Slavs settled there first, and the Volochi seized

6048-588: The rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants". In Istria , the ethnonym Vlach is used by the Chakavian-speaking Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries. Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc. )

6132-588: The same origin, referring to the Gauls who invaded southeast Europe and settled in Galatia . The suffix -atai might be a Greek inflection. Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic *galatis ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for young warrior bands . He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young *galatīs , it would have been natural for

6216-435: The term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: " Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian ". In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are sometimes mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs ( Bulgaralbanitoblahos ), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs. According to the Serbian historian Sima Ćirković , the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name " Greek ", " Serb " or "Latin". In

6300-625: The territory of the Slavs; later, the Hungarians drove the Volochi away, took their land and settled among the Slavs. The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians. Other non-Romanian historians consider the Volochi the Franks , as their country is placed west to Baltic Sea and near England by the author of the work, Nestor the Chronicler . The Frankish Empire stretched from

6384-525: The upper region of Vardar river and Moglena . A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of Philippopolis where a Vlach called Ivanko , formerly a boyar at the Asen brothers' court was given military command by Emperor Isaac and expanded his rule to Smolyan , Mosynopolis , and Xanthi . According to Niketas Choniates , Thessaly and Macedonia is called "Magna Vlachia", Aetolia and Acarnata are called "Little Vlachia" and north-eastern Epirus

6468-629: The ways in which the Iron Age people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group. The history of pre-Celtic Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the proto-Celtic language arose in the late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany, which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links

6552-691: The wider region, being employed as a name for Eastern Romance speaking people, Eastern Orthodox population in opposition to Catholic population, for the rural population of the hinterlands, the Christian population in general as opposed to Muslim population, or a combination of these aspects. During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia , made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until

6636-491: The work Kitāb al-Fihrist mentioning "Turks, Bulgars and Blaghā ". According to B. Dodge the ethnonym Blaghā could refer to Wallachians/Romanians. However, it is important to mention that the original Arabic text uses the term "البلغار", which is read as "al-Bulghār", and not "Blaghā". The term "al-Bulghār" (البلغار) was commonly used in Arabic texts to refer to Volga Bulgaria . Therefore, Bayard's assumption that this refers to

6720-703: Was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire , also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs. According to Niketas Choniates , after the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos lost his wife, he wanted to marry

6804-590: Was established near Vlasenica in 1992. In its one year of existence, over 1,000 Bosniaks were reported to be killed in the brutal prison camp. During the course of the Yugoslav wars, 2.500 Bosniaks were killed in Vlasenica and the surrounding area. Vlasenica during the Bosnian War: It was said that Vlasenica was the headquarters of the Greek Volunteer Guard before they took part in the siege of Srebrenica and

6888-807: Was generally used as an exonym for speakers of the Eastern Romance languages . But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called Vlachs or Wallachians ( oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (Βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (Воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used

6972-583: Was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer Strabo , writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic ", though he also uses Celtica as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in Iberia too, calling them Celtiberi and Celtici . Pliny the Elder noted the use of Celtici in Lusitania as

7056-650: Was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age , circa 1200 BC to 700 BC. The spread of iron-working led to the Hallstatt culture (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the La Tène culture from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with Celtic art . In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer unearthed an ancient grave field with distinctive grave goods at Hallstatt , Austria. Because

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