Misplaced Pages

#437562

98-495: It should not be confused with the opposing Communist-led military force which has once adopted the synonymous name National Army of Vietnam (also Quân đội Quốc gia Việt Nam ) in about the same period but then soon renamed itself as the existing Vietnam People’s Army . On 26 October 1955, the VNA was reorganized as the Republic of Vietnam Military Forces . The Vietnamese National Army

196-589: A "French ethnic group", but again many view it as not so much ethnicity-based as language-based and would also include immigrants from, for example, Lebanon and Haiti . France's particular self-perception means that French identity may include a naturalized, French-speaking ethnic Portuguese, Italian, Spaniard, Pole, Romanian, Lebanese, Vietnamese, Tunisian, Algerian or Moroccan. Nonetheless, like in other European countries, some level of discrimination occurs, and there are higher unemployment rates among job-seekers with foreign-sounding names. In modern France, in general,

294-834: A Saint-Cyr styled saber as new officers of the armed forces. As a symbol of the handover of self-defense responsibility of the whole Vietnam to the VNA, the senior class fired 4 traditional arrows in each direction (the arrows being a symbol of the old days of imperial Vietnam and its armed forces). Alumni of the Vatchay Light Infantry Commando school located in the Halong Bay , were trained to anti-guerrilla warfare including bayonet fighting, close quarters combat , jujutsu art, river crossing, basic rope bridge (known as "monkey bridge") crossing, enhanced camouflage , minefield crossing, barbed wire field crossing and trench warfare . Military ranks were organized after

392-584: A declaration of renunciation, provided that the declarant ordinarily resides overseas and already possesses another nationality. Former French nationals may subsequently apply to reacquire French nationality. Persons convicted of serious crimes such as terrorism or espionage may be stripped of their nationality within 10 years of their naturalisation. According to the French Republic, the French people are those who are in possession of French nationality. According to

490-538: A founding member of the European Communities (EC) in 1951, a set of organisations that eventually developed into the European Union (EU). French citizens participated in their first European Parliament elections in 1979 and have been able to work in other EC/EU countries under the freedom of movement for workers established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome . With the creation of European Union citizenship by

588-513: A national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng , who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under

686-525: A person might still be deprived of their French nationality under bilateral or multilateral treaties or agreements France concluded with other countries. In 2007, the Ministry of Justice concluded that a French male residing in the Netherlands and naturalized as a Dutch national in 2006 based on his marriage to a Dutch man lost his French nationality upon naturalization, because a 1985 agreement between France and

784-616: A socio-political coalition lead by the Communist Party of Vietnam forming the Vietnamese government – is recognized as the modern incarnation of the Việt Minh front in current Vietnamese politics . The League for Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) was founded on 19 May 1941 in Pác Bó , Cao Bằng province (in northern Vietnam). Ho Chi Minh was the founder and his Communist Party of Indochina

882-587: A very high rate of immigration, mainly from Southern Europe , Eastern Europe , the Maghreb , Africa and Asia . According to a 2004 report by INED researcher Michèle Tribalat, France has approximately 14 million persons (out of nearly 63 million, or approximately 22%) (see demographics of France ) of foreign ascendancy (immigrants or with at least one parent or grandparent immigrant). In 2015, 7.3 million people born in France had at least one immigrant parent (roughly 11% of

980-718: A woman who lost her French nationality under section 87 appealed to the Constitutional Council , which found the provision to be unconstitutional under the 1946 Constitution and the 1789 Declaration and ordered the reinstatement of her nationality. As a result of this decision, all women who lost their nationality between 1951 and 1973 solely under section 87 may voluntarily request for the reinstatement of their nationality by invoking this decision, and their descendants would also be able to invoke this decision if their female ancestors have done so. Since 1973, dual nationality has been legalized for all French nationals, although

1078-552: The 17th Parallel as a temporary measure until unifying elections could take place in 1956. Transfer of civil administration of North Vietnam to the Viet Minh was given on 11 October 1954. Ho Chi Minh was appointed Prime Minister of North Vietnam , which would be run as a socialist state . Ngo Dinh Diem , who was previously appointed Prime Minister of South Vietnam by Emperor Bao Dại , eventually assumed control of South Vietnam. The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine

SECTION 10

#1732845034438

1176-574: The 1954 Geneva Conference . Khmer Issarak and United Issarak Front were under leadership of Son Ngoc Minh , Tou Samouth , Sieu Heng, etc. It was a derogatory term used by Norodom Sihanouk , dismissing the Cambodian leftists who had been organizing pro-independence agitations in alliance with the Vietnamese. Sihanouk's public criticism and mockery of the Khmer Issarak had the damaging effect of increasing

1274-536: The French Constitution , "France shall be an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law, without distinction of origin, race or religion. It shall respect all beliefs. It shall be organised on a decentralised basis." Article 1 Archived 13 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Since the middle of the 19th century, France has exhibited

1372-648: The French Union . However Laotian communists rejected the French offer and fought side by side with Vietnamese communists during the First Indochina War . In 1950, Lao Issara was renamed to Pathet Lao ( Laos Nation ) under leadership of Souphanouvong , Kaysone Phomvihane , Phoumi Vongvichit , etc. French citizenship French nationality law is historically based on the principles of jus soli (Latin for "right of soil") and jus sanguinis , according to Ernest Renan 's definition, in opposition to

1470-452: The French army 's hierarchy. Shoulder patch insignia would have three, two or one bar or star. Generals would have three stars while NCO officers with a straight bar ( Sous-Lieutenant for "1st Lieutenant") were called Ong Mot ("Mister One") and those with two straight bars ( Lieutenant for "2nd Lieutenant") were unofficially named Ong Hai ("Mister Two"). Since anyone working for the government

1568-598: The GCMA special forces. The VNA air force first took part in the First Indochina War during the joint Operation Atlas in April 1953. The aviation consisted of Morane Saulnier MS-500 reconnaissance planes and Douglas DC-3 and DC-4 transport aircraft useful in airborne operations. The navy included amphibious vehicles such as Landing Craft Infantry , Landing Craft Mechanized , small craft and materiel. The Marine Troops corps

1666-620: The Japanese occupation in 1944, General de Lattre reformed the EETED as the Dalat School for Children of Soldiers ( Ecole des Enfants de Troupe de Dalat ) in 1950. In 1953, the cadres formation raised with 54 new battalions raised and hundreds of young Vietnamese officers commissioned. By November the Vietnamese National Army was almost wholly manned by Vietnamese personnel of all ranks. On

1764-504: The Macron government would seek to rescind the right of jus soli for individuals born in the overseas department of Mayotte , following local concerns over illegal immigration from African countries. Foreigners over age 18 may naturalise as French nationals at the discretion of the government after residing in the country for at least five years. Applicants must hold no criminal record and demonstrate that they have sufficiently assimilated to

1862-633: The SDECE French intelligence agency. Some of them would be used as cadres in the North Vietnam Commandos ( Commandos Nord Viêt-nam ). In 1951, French General de Lattre commander of the CEFEO ordered for the creation of the North Vietnam Commandos to Louis Fourcade. These remained operational until 1954 with Fourcade as the "Big Boss" ( le Grand Patron ) until June 21, 1953. Their mission

1960-699: The ongoing famine . As of the end of 1944, the Việt Minh claimed a membership of 500,000, of which 200,000 were in Tonkin , 150,000 in Annam , and 150,000 in Cochinchina . After the Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina , the Viet Minh and ICP prolifically expanded their activities. They formed national salvation associations (cuu quoc hoi) that, in Quảng Ngãi province alone, enlisted 100,000 peasants by mid-1945. This

2058-463: The right-wing Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam in the North. It initially had roughly 25 000 troops, including about 10 000 irregulars. 1000 French officers were given the task of training and supervising the new army. The State of Vietnam was proclaimed on July 2 of the same year, with former Vietnamese emperor Bảo Đại as Chief of State. The VNA's ranks gradually grew as the VNA fought alongside

SECTION 20

#1732845034438

2156-471: The "Black hussars of the Republic," conveyed the national language to the people of the regions. In a series of expansions in the late 1800s, French nationality law was liberalized for great conferment of French citizenship, partly with an eye to increasing French military ranks. These included re-introduction of simple jus soli (at first with a right of the person to repudiate French citizenship, but that right

2254-464: The "ethnic French people " but can be associated with either a nationality and citizenship, or a culture and language-based group. The latter forms the basis for La Francophonie , a group of French-speaking countries, or countries with historical and cultural association to France. The concept of "French ethnicity" exists outside France's borders, in particular in Quebec where some people claim membership to

2352-416: The "legal cessation of hostilities", the permission for the loss of nationality must be sought from the French government if the person was male and under the age of 50. The transitional period was deemed to have ended on 1 June 1951. Also, the new code specified that a woman would lose her French nationality only when she declared that she did not want to remain French after marriage. The 1954 amendment to

2450-554: The 1992 Maastrict Treaty , free movement rights were extended to all nationals of EU member states regardless of their employment status. The scope of these rights was further expanded with the establishment of the European Economic Area in 1994 to include any national of an EFTA member state except for Switzerland, which concluded a separate free movement agreement with the EU that came into force in 2002. All persons born within

2548-645: The ANV formed six mobile groups - the GM 11, 21, 31, 32, 41 and 42 - made up of three infantry battalions and an artillery group, as well as an airborne group, groupement aéroporté 3. Airborne regiments including paratrooper "TDND" ( Tieu Doan Nhay Du , "Commando Battalion"), the so-called 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th BAWOUAN, were later created. These elite units were referred as the "BPVN" ( Bataillon de Parachutistes Viêt-Namiens , "Vietnamese Paratroopers Battalions") by their French allies. Some of these paratroopers were attached to

2646-691: The Chinese agreed to leave. Negotiations between the French and Việt Minh broke down quickly. What followed was nearly ten years of war against France. This was known as the First Indochina War or, to the Vietnamese; "the French War". The Việt Minh, who were short on modern military knowledge, created a military school in Quảng Ngãi province in June 1946. More than 400 Vietnamese were trained by Japanese defectors in this school. These soldiers were considered to be students of

2744-519: The Communist Party. At the national level, Viet Minh is governed by the General Department ( Tổng bộ ). Further down there were executive committees in provinces and cities; and executive commissions in communes. However, due to political turmoil and civil unrest at the time, plus conflicts with Japanese and French forces, the Viet Minh's General Department was not completely elected. Hence

2842-580: The Dalat military academy celebrated its first promotion ( Hoàng Diệu ) with a " baptism " which is the Saint Cyr -French West Point - fashion. Celebrating officials included Chief of State, H.M. Emperor Bảo Đại , Prime Minister Trần Văn Hữu , General Governor of French Indochina Gautier and French General Salan , commander of the CEFEO . The Emperor awarded the Hoàng Diệu promotion's senior and junior classes with

2940-472: The French against the communist Việt Minh led by Ho Chi Minh during the First Indochina War . The French developed the VNA's strength as they sought to delegate more operations to native loyalist forces. Bảo Đại's army fought along the French Union forces during the until 1954 and the partition of Vietnam . In 1955, the State of Vietnam was dissolved and replaced by Ngô Đình Diệm 's Republic of Vietnam in

3038-559: The French community (typically by becoming proficient in the French language and confirming knowledge in national republican values). Candidates who are married or have children must provide evidence of their domicile in France in addition to their own. The five-year residence requirement may be exceptionally waived for foreign nationals enlisted in the French Armed Forces injured in active combat and any person considered to have made an extraordinary cultural or economic contribution to

Vietnamese National Army - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-460: The French government's assimilationist stance towards immigration as well as towards regional identities and cultures, together with the political heritage of the French Revolution, has led to the development of a French identity which is based more on the notion of citizenship than on cultural, historical or ethnic ties. For that reason, French identity must not necessarily be associated with

3234-550: The French in the battles of Khai Phat and Na Ngan , the Việt Minh started a campaign against the Japanese. For instance, a raid at Tam Dao internment camp in Tonkin on 19 July 1945 saw 500 Viet Minh kill fifty Japanese soldiers and officials, freeing French civilian captives and escorting them to the Chinese border. The Viet Minh also fought the Japanese 21st Division in Thái Nguyên, and regularly raided rice storehouses to alleviate

3332-473: The French state. Alternatively, members of the French Foreign Legion may apply for naturalisation after three years of service. Noncitizens married to French nationals are eligible to acquire nationality by declaration after four years of marriage and cohabitation. Couples married overseas must re-register their marriage in the French civil register. French nationality can be relinquished by making

3430-668: The German definition of nationality, jus sanguinis (Latin for "right of blood"), formalised by Johann Gottlieb Fichte . The 1993 Méhaignerie Law, which was part of a broader immigration control agenda to restrict access to French nationality and increase the focus on jus sanguinis as the nationality determinant for children born in France, required children born in France of foreign parents to request French nationality between age 16 and age 21, rather than being automatically accorded citizenship at majority. This "manifestation of will" requirement

3528-476: The Head-of-State, Bảo Đại made the most controversial decision concerning the armed forces of the new State of Vietnam: recognizing all non-communist military forces in the country as independent armies within the VNA. These forces included: Viet Binh Doan, Bao Chinh Doan, Bình Xuyên (approximately 40,000 strong), Hòa Hảo (30,000 men under different leaders) and Cao Đài (25,000 men). Doing so, Bảo Đại solved

3626-446: The ICP in 1941. They presented the organization as inclusive of political groups, with a founding charter more nationalist than communist. It exhorted "soldiers, workers, peasants, intellectuals, civil servants, merchants, young men and women" to overthrow "French jackals" and "Japanese fascists", while the group's first chairman was a non-communist. In all, the Việt Minh established itself as

3724-758: The Japanese, the Việt Minh received funding from the United States, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China . After the August Revolution 's takeover of nationalist organizations and Emperor Bảo Đại 's abdication to the Việt Minh, Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam's independence by proclaiming the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on 2 September 1945. Within days, the Chinese Kuomintang (Nationalist) Army arrived in Vietnam to supervise

3822-613: The Japanese. Later, some of them fought as generals against the United States in the Vietnam War or, to the Vietnamese; "the American War". Young insurgents of the Việt Minh also received training in the use of modern firearms by some foreign volunteers, such as Stefan Kubiak . French General Jean Étienne Valluy quickly pushed the Việt Minh out of Hanoi . His French infantry with armored units went through Hanoi, fighting small battles against isolated Việt Minh groups. The French encircled

3920-551: The Nationality Code (loi n° 54-395) removed the five-year period and, retroactively from 1 June 1951, no male national of France under the age of 50 would be subject to the automatic loss provision (section 87) of the 1945 Nationality Code without the specific permission from the French government. This limited the automatic loss of nationality to men over 50 and women, as the permissions to lose French nationality were automatically given to them upon their naturalizations. In 2013,

4018-405: The Netherlands stipulated that any national of either country who acquired the other country's nationality would cease to be a national of their country of origin. A provision in the agreement provided exemptions for married couples, but as France did not recognize same-sex marriage in 2006 , it was deemed to be not applicable to him as he was not considered to be married under French law. Due to

Vietnamese National Army - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-518: The Republic of Vietnam . After the fall of Saigon breaking in 1975, some joined the French Foreign Legion and others exiled to France or the United States. Benefiting with French cadres assistance and United States material support the VNA quickly became a modern army modeled after the CEFEO Expeditionary Corps . Officers and Non-commissioned officers were trained in local schools of cadres known in French as Ecoles des Cadres , or at

4214-459: The U.S. (the legal limit of terms under the U.S. Constitution), a theory was published by CNN that he could claim citizenship of France and run for leadership there. The open-letter by historian Patrick Weil held that a little known "law, passed in 1961 [article 21-19(5º)], enables people from former French territories to apply for immediate naturalisation, bypassing the normal five-year residency requirement for would-be French citizens." As Clinton

4312-661: The United States are members. Famous units of the VNA are: Notes : "ARVN" stands for Army of the Republic of Vietnam , "FFL" stands for French Foreign Legion , "USA" stands for United States Army , "VNA" stands for Vietnamese National Army . Viet Minh Việt Minh ( Vietnamese: [vîət mīŋ̟] , chữ Hán : 越盟 ) is the common and abbreviated name of the League for Independence of Vietnam ( Vietnamese : Việt Nam Độc lập Đồng minh or Việt Nam Độc lập Đồng minh Hội , chữ Hán : 越南獨立同盟(會) ; French : Ligue pour l'indépendance du Viêt Nam ), which

4410-566: The Viet Minh rebels." Diem refused to hold the elections by citing that the South had not signed and were not bound to the Geneva Accords and that it was impossible to hold free elections in the communist North. Vietnam wide elections never happened and Việt Minh cadres in South Vietnam launched an insurgency against the government. North Vietnam also occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying

4508-469: The Việt Minh base, Việt Bắc , in 1947, but failed to defeat the Việt Minh forces, and had to retreat soon after. The campaign is now widely considered a Việt Minh victory over the well-equipped French force. The Việt Minh continued fighting against the French until 1949, when the border of China and Vietnam was linked together as a result of the campaign called Chiến dịch Biên giới ("Borderland Campaign"). The newly communist People's Republic of China gave

4606-583: The Việt Minh both sheltered bases and heavy weapons with which to fight the French. With the additional weapons, the Việt Minh were able to take control over many rural areas of the country. Soon after that, they began to advance towards the French-occupied areas. On 7 March 1951, Viet Minh and National United League of Vietnam ( Hội Liên Việt ) merged to form the Vietnamese United Front ( Mặt trận Liên Việt ). Nonetheless, people continued to call

4704-611: The World War II U.S. or Australian Imperial similar Slouch hat ( chapeau de brousse nicknamed "broussard"). Uniforms were mixed U.S., French and British ( SAS airborne). Heavier equipment of the armoured cavalry was made of World War II vintage U.S. light tanks as they had the ability to be drop stripped and assembled by specialized engineering companies on location. Việt Minh captured arms like German Karabiner 98k with bayonet , U.S. Browning MGs or Japanese "knee mortars" were sometimes used. These arms would often be supplied to

4802-757: The case which sparked national outrage, the Sarkozy administration announced that it would be taking steps to denounce some portions in the agreements with the Netherlands and other countries in 2009. France later denounced Chapter I of the Council of Europe 's Convention on the Reduction of Cases of Multiple Nationality and on Military Obligations in Cases of Multiple Nationality of May 6, 1963. The denunciation took effect on March 5, 2009. French involvement in European integration began in

4900-410: The country for at least five years since age 11. Those under age 16 who were born in the country and resident in France at age eight are eligible for French nationality by declaration, executed on their behalf by their parents; an eligible child's explicit consent to acquire nationality is required after age 13. During the 2024 Mayotte crisis , French interior minister Gérald Darmanin announced that

4998-480: The country to at least one French national or foreign parent who themself was born in France automatically receive French nationality at birth. All persons born abroad to at least one French parent are automatically French from birth. French nationality can be continually transmitted through each generation born abroad provided that each subsequent generational birth is registered. Abandoned children found in France with unclear parentage and any other children born in

SECTION 50

#1732845034438

5096-728: The country who would otherwise be stateless are granted French nationality. Individuals born in France on or before 31 December 1993 automatically acquired French nationality at birth if at least one parent was born in former French colonies prior to independence. Since that date, only children of Algerians born in French Algeria who were resident in metropolitan France for at least five years on or before 2 July 1962 have been able to automatically acquire French nationality at birth. Children born in France to foreign parents born overseas are automatically granted French nationality at age 18 if they are domiciled in France and have been resident in

5194-539: The creation of a common national culture. Military conscription (universal from 1872, in theory if not in practice) brought inhabitants of the state's regions together for the first time, creating bonds of friendship and encouraging the use of French rather than regional languages. Universal education (the aim of the Jules Ferry Laws , 1879–1886) brought the whole of the population into contact with state-sanctioned version of French history and identity. State teachers,

5292-404: The details about members of the General Department were very scarce and not fully understood. Viet Minh established strongholds in northern and central Vietnam. But in southern Vietnam, Viet Minh faced many challengers such as Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo (religious sects) and Bình Xuyên (armed group). The founding and core members of Viet Minh were the communists. Other non-communists also joined

5390-587: The elite National Military Academy, Dalat (EETD). The Dalat Preparatory Military School ( école militaire préparatoire, EMP ) was led by its first director Lieutenant Savani, a metropolitan French who was educated in the Autun EMP. It was created in 1936 after the Autun EMP as the Dalat School of the Eurasian Servicemen's Children ( Ecole des Enfants de Troupe Eurasiens de Dalat, EETED ). Once dissolved during

5488-639: The front. Even though many opposite parties fought against Viet Minh for power, many of their members joined Viet Minh and worked with the government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam . The majority of Buddhists supported Viet Minh, whereas the majority of Catholics supported French. Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo were split between pro-Viet Minh group and pro-French group. Viet Minh established many youth wing, woman wing and military wing. They aimed to draw supports from people of different backgrounds, classes, races, genders and religions. During World War II, Japan occupied French Indochina . As well as fighting

5586-768: The guerrillas by China as captured material from the Chinese Civil War (the NRA had been supplied by both Nazi Germany and the USA) or left behind by the Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group after the Pacific War . With the 1954 cease-fire, pro-French and optimistic General Nguyễn Văn Hinh stated that as early as 1955 "a Vietnamese division will be sent to France as compensation for sacrifices in Indochina by

5684-452: The immediate post-war period of the late 1940s. Initial cooperation was focused on the economy through the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation as a condition for receiving aid from the United States provided by the Marshall Plan . The post-war political situation created the circumstances that facilitated the establishment of further organisations to integrate Western Europe along common social and security policies. France became

5782-466: The insurgents known as the National Liberation Front ( Viet Cong ) in South Vietnam. The war gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War , more commonly known as the "Vietnam War" in the West and the "American War" in Vietnam. The Khmer Việt Minh were the 3,000 to 5,000 Cambodian communist cadres, left-wing members of the Khmer Issarak movement regrouped in the United Issarak Front after 1950, most of whom lived in exile in North Vietnam after

5880-460: The joint ambit of citizenship and the right of the franchise. There are three key dates in the legal history of naturalization: Soon after the approval of the French constitutions, statesman Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès drafted and presented a new civil code that would unify private law, including nationality law—and with application for all French citizens outside of France. Military service and state education were two processes central to

5978-455: The latter creating the status of "citoyen de la Communauté", vaguely akin to the British status of " Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies " established by the British Nationality Act 1948 . The 1993 law that attempted to restrict conferral of French citizenship also transferred the contents of the Code de la Nationalité Française back into the Code Civil, where they had existed from 1803 until 1927. According to Giorgio Agamben , France

SECTION 60

#1732845034438

6076-411: The latter half of the 18th century. French nationality and citizenship were concepts that existed even before the French Revolution , loosely based on the premise that people spoke the same language within specific institutional frameworks. Afterward, in the late 1700s and early 1800s, France was fairly unique among countries in tying its nationality laws to its election laws, and working to increase

6174-427: The latter. This great unit will participate in the defense of Europe as part of the opposition between the western and eastern blocs." However the European Defence Community project was rejected by France and Nguyễn Văn Hinh's French counter-intelligence SDECE / GCMA -backed planned coup (scheduled for end October 1954) against pro-USA and CIA -backed ( Edward Lansdale ) Ngô Đình Diệm failed. The Vietnamese general

6272-577: The nationality law from the French civil code and made it an independent text, as it had grown too large and unwieldy. Legislation in 1934, motivated by xenophobia , imposed burdens on naturalized citizens and provided the government powers to forfeit citizenship, which the Nazi-collaborator Vichy regime used widely. A 1945 post-war measure promulgated a comprehensive nationality code that established very lengthy and detailed rules to shield citizens from government whimsy. Amendments were by legislation in 1962 and by constitutions in 1946 and 1958, with

6370-421: The new front as Viet Minh. Later the United Front changed into the current Vietnam Fatherland Front ( Mặt trận Tổ quốc Việt Nam ) on 10 September 1955. Following their defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ , the French began negotiations to leave Vietnam. As a result of peace accords worked out at the Geneva Conference in Geneva , Switzerland, Vietnam was divided into North Vietnam and South Vietnam at

6468-405: The newly appointed ambassador, U.S. Special Representative in Vietnam General J. Lawton Collins , sign the following agreements: Both generals acknowledge the size of the new force would be insufficient to protect South Viet Nam against an external aggression, hence ultimate reliance is placed on the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( Cold War era Asian equivalent to NATO ) which France and

6566-410: The obligation of military service and did not seek the release of their French nationality by decree. Until 1927, women who married a non-French national were also subject to the automatic loss of nationality if they acquired their husbands' nationalities upon marriage. The 1945 French Nationality Code (ordonnance n° 45–2441) added a provision to indicate that for a maximum period of 5 years following

6664-421: The only organized anti-French and anti-Japanese resistance group. The Việt Minh initially formed to seek independence for Vietnam from the French Empire . The United States supported France. When the Japanese occupation began, the Việt Minh opposed Japan with support from the United States and the Republic of China . After World War II, the Việt Minh established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and opposed

6762-514: The other hand, until 1954 some Vietnamese were trained four months in Infantry Instruction Centers ( Centre d'Instruction de l'Infanterie, CII ) based in southern Vietnam. Once licensed these recruits would not be part of the VNA but the French CEFEO. Other officer and NCO alumni were coming from all French Union national armed forces including Cambodia , Overseas ( Martinique , Reunion , French Guiana ), metropolitan French and " French citizens " of French West Africa and India. On April 20, 1952,

6860-566: The population). The origin of the descendants of immigrants reflects the immigration flows that France has experienced for over a century. The absence of official statistics on French citizens of foreign origin is deliberate. Under French law passed after the Vichy regime , it is forbidden to categorize people according to their ethnic origins. In France, like in many other European countries, censuses do not collect information on supposed ancestry. Moreover, all French statistics are forbidden to have any references concerning ethnic membership. Thus,

6958-414: The possibilities of access to French nationality. The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country. Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means

7056-765: The power of the hardline, anti-Vietnamese, but also anti-monarchist, members of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), led by Pol Pot . The Khmer Issarak and United Issarak Front were instrumental in the foundation of the Cambodian Salvation Front (FUNSK) in 1978. The FUNSK invaded Cambodia along with the Vietnamese Army and overthrew the Democratic Kampuchea Pol Pot state. Many of the Khmer Việt Minh had married Vietnamese women during their long exile in Vietnam. Lao Issara ( Free Laos )

7154-651: The problem of having to spread the army too thin in the war against the Việt Minh. Furthermore, the independent forces did not need money from the central government since they either were self-financed through clandestine activities or they were armed and financed by Savani's 2e Bureau in Vietnam. The Bình Xuyên was an organized crime military force in Saigon that provided part of Bảo Đại's luxury life. In 1955, with Lansdale 's support, Prime Minister Diem ordered all forces to surrender their weapons and to be part of one army. Some groups joined willingly while others were attacked by

7252-627: The re-occupation of Vietnam by France, resulting in the Indochina War , and later opposed South Vietnam and the United States in the Vietnam War . It was also opposed by Vietnamese anti-communists and right-wing nationalists, such as the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng , the reason for the establishment of the State of Vietnam in 1949. The political leader of Việt Minh was Hồ Chí Minh. The military leadership

7350-476: The referendum of 1955 using secret Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) funding, Diệm removed the Emperor and declared himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam . The United States believed Ho Chi Minh would win the nationwide election proposed at the Geneva Accords. In a secret memorandum, Director of CIA Allen Dulles acknowledged that "The evidence [shows] that a majority of the people of Vietnam supported

7448-519: The regular VNA. By late 1955, all these forces ceased to exist. Many of their ranks joined the NVA or the Việt Minh, while others returned to a civilian life. Just like in the CEFEO, most of the VNA's military equipment was World War II vintage. Firearms were mixed U.S. and French. Helmets were mostly U.S. M1 Helmet (and airborne version) with some French copy "Model 51" ( modèle 51 , M51) and certain units wearing

7546-525: The repatriation of the Imperial Japanese Army . The Democratic Republic of Vietnam therefore existed only in theory and effectively controlled no territory. A few months later, the Chinese, Vietnamese and French came to a three-way understanding. The French gave up certain rights in China, the Việt Minh agreed to the return of the French in exchange for promises of independence within the French Union , and

7644-505: The rights are fundamentally the same as those in other EU countries. Despite the official discourse of universality, French nationality has not meant automatic citizenship. Some categories of French people have been excluded, throughout the years, from full citizenship: Modern Citizenship is linked to civic participation (also called positive freedom ), which includes voting, demonstrations , petitions , activism , etc. In 2001, as Bill Clinton finished his second term as President of

7742-507: The set of rights and duties a person has in that nation. Historically, French nationals held differing sets of civil and political rights depending on their religion, ethnicity, economic standing, and sex. The right to vote in French elections did not extend to women, foreigners who naturalised as French nationals, colonial subjects, persons who were not required to pay property taxes, and members of non-Christian faiths. In this way, not all French nationals were necessarily full citizens. In

7840-553: The society of the Ancien Régime , the rights of an individual depended on which social class they belonged to. The primary factor determining the privileges and obligations a person had was whether they were part of the nobility, clergy, or a higher socioeconomic level of the Third Estate . Foreigners who were not French subjects traditionally could not pass property to their descendants; the droit d'aubaine (right of windfall) allowed

7938-449: The south while Ho Chi Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam remained the rival Vietnamese state in the north. In early May, civil war ensued in the capital of South Vietnam when the VNA fought General Lê Văn Viễn's Bình Xuyên forces in the latter's controlled areas of Saigon. By 1956 all French Union troops withdrew from Vietnam and most of the VNA officers remained in service in the Army of

8036-418: The sovereign to confiscate the property of a resident alien in the event of their death. This confiscation became gradually less frequent through the early modern period, with an increasing amount of exceptions granted to foreign merchants to encourage their immigration into the country. France later negotiated treaties with many European states that exempted their subjects from this tax on a reciprocal basis in

8134-619: The supervision of "local commissions". The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations , but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam . With United States support in rigging

8232-828: Was a communist -led national independence coalition formed at Pác Bó by Hồ Chí Minh on 19 May 1941. Also known as the Việt Minh Front ( Mặt trận Việt Minh ), it was created by the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) as a national united front to achieve the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam . The Việt Nam Độc lập Vận động Đồng minh Hội was previously formed by Hồ Học Lãm in Nanjing , China, at some point between August 1935 and early 1936, when Vietnamese nationalist parties formed an anti-imperialist united front . This organization soon lapsed into inactivity, only to be taken over by Hồ Chí Minh and

8330-449: Was a political and military organization of Laotian communists, led by Phetsarath , Souphanouvong , Kaysone Phomvihane , Phoumi Vongvichit . Lao Issara received training and support from Việt Minh . Under French intervention, Lao Issara was split into non-communists and communists. Laotian non-communists under leadership of Pretsarath later established the Kingdom of Laos which was part of

8428-516: Was backed by the Vanguard Youth (Thanh Nien Tien Phong) in Cochinchina, which expanded to 200,000 by early summer. In the northern provinces of Việt Bắc , their armed forces seized control, after which they distributed lands to the poor, abolished the corvée, established quốc ngữ classes, local village militias, and declared universal suffrage and democratic freedoms. Due to their opposition to

8526-508: Was born in Arkansas which had been part of French Louisiana before it was sold to the US , it was held that he would qualify under this law. And as a naturalised French citizen, he could run in the French presidential election. Clinton himself later repeated this claim in 2012 as an amusing thought when speaking to an interviewer. Clinton had always dismissed the idea, and at the time of his retelling of

8624-539: Was called Quan the rank Lieutenant soon replaced it, Quan Mot became Sous-Lieutenant , Quan Hai became Lieutenant and so forth. After the founding of the Republic of Vietnam in 1955, the VNA was renamed the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. Its military ranks and hierarchy were reformed. Organized as a modern army the Ground Force included artillery, infantry, signal communications and armored cavalry units. In 1953,

8722-743: Was eventually dismissed, leaving South Vietnam in November 1954, following French general Raoul Salan 's departure and return to France in October. The French-American secret war and influence struggle in Vietnam engaging the SDECE against the CIA continued until 1956 when the CEFEO Expeditionary Corps was dissolved and returned to France. On December 13, 1954, the 1954–55 French High Commissioner in Indochina (CEFEO Expeditionary Corps Commander), General Paul Ély, and

8820-455: Was instrumental in their subsequent internment and murder. Multiple citizenship was officially recognized for both men and women on 9 January 1973; since then, possession of more than one nationality does not affect French nationality. Before 19 October 1945, multiple nationality was prohibited and any French national who acquired another nationality before that day automatically lost French nationality unless they were male nationals under

8918-405: Was later removed), elimination of the loss of citizenship when emigrating from France, and repeal of the loss of citizenship by a French woman on marriage to a foreigner when she did not automatically obtain her husband's citizenship. In 1927, French nationality law was further loosened to increase naturalization so as to attract a larger work force for French industry. The measure also extracted

9016-716: Was modelled after the French Troupes de marine . Their particular navy blue uniform with white gaiters is still used by the French Fusiliers Marins . Special forces consisted of Vietnamese commandos trained by French officers in local schools. They used a whole different personnel, uniform, equipment, training and warfare compared with the regular airborne or infantry troops. The GCMA airborne commandos ( Groupe Commando Mixte Aéroporté , "Airborne Mixed Commando Group") were Vietnamese ethnic minorities or Laotian montagnard partisans led by paratrooper officers of

9114-405: Was officially created on 8 December 1950. However, the army of this state was established before. According to the national defense decree of the State of Vietnam dated April 13, 1949; a national military force named the "National Guard" established on the basis of the pro-French autonomous military forces of the Vietnamese in the North and Central and South, including the paramilitary organization of

9212-467: Was one of the first European countries to pass denaturalization laws, in 1915, with regard to naturalized citizens of "enemy" origins. Its example was followed by most European countries. As early as July 1940, Vichy France set up a special Commission charged with reviewing the naturalizations granted since the 1927 reform of the nationality law. Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized. This bureaucratic designation

9310-559: Was subsequently abrogated by the Guigou Law of 1998, but children born in France of foreign parents remain foreign until obtaining legal majority . Children born in France to tourists or other short-term visitors do not acquire French nationality by virtue of birth in France: residency must be proven. Since immigration became increasingly a political theme in the 1980s, both left-wing and right-wing governments have issued several laws restricting

9408-597: Was the main leadership organization within Viet Minh. Ho Chi Minh was the highest leader. Nguyễn Lương Bằng was appointed as the Direct of the General Department (from 1941 to 1951). Hoàng Văn Thụ was appointed as the Secretary of the General Department (from 1941 to 1943 when he was captured by colonial French), and then Hoàng Quốc Việt  [ de ; vi ] took over the position (from 1943 to 1951). Nguyen Luong Bang, Hoang Van Thu and Hoang Quoc Viet were members of

9506-433: Was to collect intelligence, perform hit-and-run ambushes and bring confusion in Việt Minh controlled areas (northern Vietnam) wearing enemy uniforms and using unconventional warfare such as guerrilla techniques. These were based on both, GCMA director and famous counter-insurgency theorician Roger Trinquier 's experience as French Jedburgh in World War II, and on Việt Minh POWs collaboration. In 1949, after becoming

9604-666: Was under the command of Võ Nguyên Giáp . Other founders were Lê Duẩn and Phạm Văn Đồng . The Việt Nam Độc lập Đồng minh is not to be confused with the Việt Nam Cách mệnh Đồng minh Hội (League for the Vietnamese Revolution, abbreviated as Việt Cách ) which was founded by Nguyễn Hải Thần . Việt Cách later joined the Vietnamese National Coalition in 1946. Today, the Vietnam Fatherland Front –

#437562