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43-519: Vesunna was also once the name of a town just south of the modern French city of Périgueux , where the goddess had a temple in ancient times; she was certainly the patron goddess of this city and its people and thus a protector. In inscriptions found in Périgueux, Vesunna is identified with the Roman guardian goddess Tutela . Vesunna received votive and dedicatory offerings from her worshippers; otherwise little

86-568: A Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no clear end-date for the war, but the imminent Roman Civil War led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him extremely wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and declare himself dictator , in what would eventually lead to

129-411: A name of a goddess. Perhaps also related to the name of Mount Vesuvius . The theonym is the direct heir to another goddess of the same city of Sianna , and derives from vesannus, -a, -um - ‘cruel, furious, excited, unstoppable’ for Sianna as a definition relative to the mistress of wildlife and as a goddess of the hunt. Vesunna is also called Tutela, indicating her role as a patron and defender of

172-520: A number of foreign auxiliary units, a levy of Gaulish merchant ships, and barbarian mercenaries attracted by the prospect of booty. In 293 emperor Constantius Chlorus isolated Carausius by besieging the port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and invaded Batavia in the Rhine delta, held by his Frankish allies, and reclaimed Gaul. A migration of Celts from Britain appeared in the 4th century in Armorica led by

215-789: A series of aggressive campaigns to conquer the Gallic tribes. The wars began with a conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi . By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul, and led campaigns in the east, where the Nervii nearly defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, he sought to boost his public image, and undertook first of their kind expeditions across

258-502: A specifically tutelary function: Iuppiter tutor or Hercules tutator . The early Roman emperors drew on traditional sources of authority to consolidate their position, among them the potestas or power of the Roman head of household. Tutela or guardianship was another available form of authority, advertised as Tutela Augusti , the tutelage of Augustus . In the Imperial period the goddess Tutela received her own distinct cultus in

301-570: Is known of the specifics of her cult. She had a temple in the city that bore her name. Vesunna was worshipped especially by the Gaulish Celtic tribe known as the Petrocorii , whose name survives in that of the modern French city of Périgueux, located just north of her great temple. Vesunna's name is likely to derive from the Proto-Celtic * wesu , meaning ‘good’, 'worthy'. Alternatively, related to

344-516: The Aedui in 63 BC at the Battle of Magetobriga . As 58 BC dawned, most of Gaul was still under independent rule. It was beginning to urbanize and shared many aspects of Roman civilization. Into this picture came the rising general Julius Caesar , who had ensured himself the position of Governor of both Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul . He sought to pay off debts and find glory for himself, and so began

387-739: The Battle of Vouillé . They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great . Certain Gallo-Roman aristocratic families continued to exert power in episcopal cities (such as the Mauronitus family in Marseilles and Bishop Gregory of Tours ). The appearance of Germanic given and family names becomes noticeable in Gallia/Francia from

430-716: The Franks and the Alamanni , invaded Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian 's victory at Châlons in 274. In 286–7 Carausius , commander of the Classis Britannica , the fleet of the English Channel, declared himself Emperor of Britain and northern Gaul. His forces comprised his fleet, the three legions stationed in Britain and also a legion he had seized in Gaul,

473-529: The Mithraic mysteries seem to have each had a tutelary deity. The cities of ancient Italy characteristically had a tutela , who in many places was Juno. The true name of the deity was theoretically kept secret, to prevent an enemy from enacting a ritual "calling out" ( evocatio ) the tutelary and rendering the city vulnerable. If the identity of a deity whose protection was desired was unknown, an altar might be inscribed with an open-ended invocation such as "to

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516-475: The Tres Galliae (the 3 Gauls): The Romans divided these huge provinces into civitates corresponding more or less with the pre-Conquest communities or polities sometimes described misleadingly as "tribes," such as the Aedui , Allobroges , Bellovaci , and Sequani (see List of Celtic tribes ) but the civitates were too large and in turn were divided into smaller units, pagi , a term that eventually became

559-678: The fall of Roman administration and the Domain of Soissons , a remnant of the Empire , survived from 457 to 486. In 486, the Franks defeated the last Roman authority in Gaul at the Battle of Soissons . Almost immediately afterwards, most of Gaul came under the rule of the Merovingians , the first kings of a proto-France. In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by the Frankish king Clovis I at

602-702: The 4th and 5th centuries, the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium , the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland , and the Burgundians in Savoie . Villas were usually centres of agricultural production, and were often closely associated with vineries and wine production . The owners were probably mainly local Gallic elites who became quickly romanised after the conquest , and sometimes Romans and Italians who wished to exploit rich local resources. The villas would have been

645-506: The 6th century, which describes how a shrine "called 'Vasso Galatae' in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Throughout the Roman rule over Gaul, although considerable Romanization in terms of material culture occurred, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and continued to be spoken, coexisting with Latin. Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic colonizers (with Roman approval). In

688-506: The Gauls staged a mass revolt under the leadership of Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the Battle of Gergovia , but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia utterly defeated the Gallic coalition. In 51 BC and 50 BC, there was little resistance and Caesar's troops were mostly mopping up. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become

731-498: The Rhine river and the English Channel . Upon his return from Britain, Caesar was hailed as a hero, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he went back with a proper army and invaded Britain . However, tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a draconian campaign against the Gauls in an attempt to pacify them. This failed and

774-467: The Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing. Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial culture in the 3rd century. For example, the Gaulish tunic—which gave Emperor Caracalla his surname—had not been replaced by Roman fashion. Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel (more durable than the Roman amphora ) and chain mail were adopted by

817-662: The Romans never forgot. In 109 BC, Italy had been invaded from the north and saved by Gaius Marius only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 62 BC, when a Roman client state, the Arverni, conspired with the Sequani and the Suebi nations east of the Rhine to attack the Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni sought Ariovistus 's aid and defeated

860-410: The Romans. The Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language (see History of French ). Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several 5th century poets and transcribers of popular farces. The last pockets of Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century. Gaulish was held to be attested by a quote from Gregory of Tours written in the second half of

903-571: The Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons , in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. The Western Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining Roman troops withdrew southeast to protect Italy. Between 455 and 476, the Visigoths , the Burgundians, and the Franks assumed control in Gaul. However, certain aspects of the ancient Celtic culture continued after

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946-658: The Western Roman Empire, the Gaulish language and cultural identity underwent a syncretism with the Roman culture of the new governing class, and evolved into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture that eventually permeated all levels of society. Gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during the Roman period. Current historical research suggests that Roman Gaul

989-624: The authors of the important Panegyrici latini . Many other writers were from the region of Cisalpine Gaul , which was part of Italy, including Virgil , Caecilius Statius , Catullus and Pliny the Elder . In the Crisis of the Third Century around 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire , which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes,

1032-460: The barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the Huns against the Burgundians , and these mercenaries destroyed Worms , killed king Gunther , and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila , became a greater threat, and Aëtius used

1075-531: The city. There is one inscription from Baden-Baden with the invocation of goddess Visuna, probably an inscriptive variant of goddess Vesunna from Périgueux. On the altar stone are clearly visible the objects for libation. CIL 13, 11714 = Wagner-01, p 20 = AE 1907, 00110 dating: 101 to 250 EDCS-ID: EDCS-12600015 province: Germania superior place: Baden-Baden / Aquae Visunae / L(ucius) Salvius / Similis S(alvi) / Similis / fil(ius) Medi/omat(ricus) / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito) Tutela Tutela

1118-587: The coast continued to be threatened by the powerful Gallic tribes to the north and in 122 BC the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges followed by Quintus Fabius Maximus against the Arverni under King Bituitus in 121 BC. The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. In 390 BC, the Gauls had sacked Rome , which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest

1161-537: The end of the Merovingian period in the 750s. Slowly, during the ensuing Carolingian period (751–987), the expression Francia , then Francia occidentalis spread to describe the political reality of the kingdom of the Franks ( regnum francorum ). Before 22 BC, Gaul had three geographical divisions, one of which was divided into multiple Roman provinces: After 22 BC, the Romans divided Gallia Comata into three provinces,

1204-701: The end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire . At the end of the Gallic Wars, the Gauls had not been entirely subjugated and were not yet a formal part of the Empire, but that task was not Caesar's and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not be made formally into Roman provinces until the reign of Augustus in 27 BC. Several rebellions happened subsequently and Roman troops were kept stationed throughout Gaul. There may have been unrest in

1247-444: The form of rituals and temples. The Flavian dynasty in particular cultivated Tutela. On a coin of 71 AD, Tutela is represented by a woman with two children. [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of tutela at Wiktionary Roman Gaul Roman Gaul refers to Gaul under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD. The Roman Republic 's influence began in southern Gaul. By

1290-488: The important general Gnaeus Julius Agricola . Another general born in Gaul was Marcus Antonius Primus . In addition, the family of Antoninus Pius , which was also the adoptive family of Marcus Aurelius , came from Roman Gaul. Among the Roman writers known or hypothesized to be born in Gaul there are Tacitus , Petronius , Varro Atacinus , Aemilius Magnus Arborius , Frontinus , Ausonius , Rutilius Claudius Namatianus , Sextus Pompeius Festus , Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus and

1333-400: The legal protection and control of a paterfamilias , but who for whatever reasons were sui iuris , legally emancipated. The guardian who oversaw their interests was a tutor . Latin legal terminology distinguishes among several types of tutela , including: The tutela or tutelary deity was fundamental to archaic Roman religion . The capacity for offering protection or guardianship

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1376-645: The legendary king Conan Meriadoc . They spoke the now extinct British language , which evolved into the Breton , Cornish , and Welsh languages . The Goths , who had sacked Rome in 410, established a capital in Toulouse and in 418 succeeded in being accepted by Honorius as foederati and rulers of the Aquitanian province in exchange for their support against the Vandals . The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all

1419-502: The mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massilia (modern Marseille ) and entered into an alliance with them, by which Rome agreed to protect the town from local Gauls, including the nearby Aquitani and from sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for land that the Romans wanted in order to build a road to Hispania to improve troop movements to its provinces there. The Mediterranean settlements on

1462-446: The middle of the 7th century on, most notably in powerful families, indicating that the centre of gravity had definitely shifted. The Gallo-Roman (or Vulgar Latin ) dialect of the late Roman period evolved into the dialects of the Oïl languages and Old French in the north, and into Occitan in the south. The name Gallia and its equivalents continued in use, at least in writing, until

1505-462: The modern French word "pays". These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses , which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution . In the five centuries between Caesar's invasion and the collapse of

1548-516: The name of the Greek goddess Hestia , whose name means "hearth, fireplace, altar", This stems from the PIE root *wes , "burn" (ult. from *h₂wes- "dwell, pass the night, stay"). And so likely also related to the name of the Latin goddess of the hearth, Vesta , though this connection is questioned by Beekes. Probably related to Umbrian Vesune which should be a dative singular of a * Vesuna, presumed to be

1591-564: The region as late as 70 AD. Massilia was allied to Pompey during Caesar's civil war , which led to its eventual defeat at the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC after which it lost its territories but was allowed to keep nominal autonomy, due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate , Lepidus was given responsibility for Gallia Narbonensis (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony

1634-486: The syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic religion. It remains to this day poorly understood: current knowledge of the Celtic religion is based on archaeology and via literary sources from several isolated areas such as Ireland and Wales . The Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic (especially in terms of monumental art and architecture) and literary culture. They wore

1677-591: The tutelary god". The individual goddess Tutela may have evolved from this abstraction. She appears often in inscriptions, particularly in Gaul , but only rarely in literature. She is often linked invoked with the Genius to assure a full range of protection, and became a regular part of household cult along with the Lares and Penates . She might also be paired with Fortuna . Tutor or tutator might be masculine epithets for gods in

1720-433: Was "Roman" only in certain (albeit major) social contexts, the prominence of which in material culture has hindered a better historical understanding of the permanence of many Celtic elements. The Roman influence was most apparent in the areas of civic religion and administration. The Druidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I , and in later centuries Christianity was introduced. The prohibition of Druids and

1763-409: Was a basic function of deity, expressed by formulations such as Tutela Iovis , "the tutelage of Jove". Major deities such as Jupiter , Minerva , and Mars were conceived of as tutelaries. The phrase in tutela expressed the sphere of influence exercised by a deity. For instance, trees of ill omen (arbores infelices) were in the tutela of the gods below ( di inferi ) . The initiatory grades of

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1806-580: Was given the balance of Gaul. In 22 BC, imperial administration of Gaul was reorganised establishing the provinces of Gallia Aquitania , Gallia Belgica and Gallia Lugdunensis . Parts of eastern Gaul were incorporated into the provinces Raetia (15 BC) and Germania Superior (AD 83). Roman citizenship was granted to all in 212 by the Constitutio Antoniniana . Several significant Roman figures were born in Gaul, including Roman Emperors Claudius , Caracalla and probably Carus , as well as

1849-547: Was the ancient Roman concept of "guardianship", conceived of as a goddess in the Imperial period , and from the earliest period as a functional role that various tutelary deities might play, particularly Juno . Tutela had particular applications in Roman law . Under Roman law, there were several forms of tutela ("guardianship" or "tutelage"), mainly for people such as minors and women who ordinarily in Roman society would be under

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