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56-404: When Hosho Aiko came home one day, she found her entire family slaughtered by a grotesque monster. The creature attacked and killed her as well, but she finds herself awakening in a mysterious room, taken care of by Dr. Kochigawa. She has amnesia , but when another monster appears before her in her room, she regains her memories and her left arm changes into a powerful weapon, very similar to that of

112-510: A chance to escape. Sudo, Aiko, and the Chief escape to the surface, but encounter Chimera soldiers who shoot Aiko. However, Sudo takes the blows and dies in Aiko's arms, shortly before he tries to kiss her. After seeing his death, Aiko goes berserk , killing the soldiers as the Chief holds Sudo's body, watching. The building then self-destructs, and Aiko loses consciousness; the rest of the people, including

168-576: A correlation between deficiency of RbAp48 protein and memory loss . Scientists were able to find that mice with damaged memory have a lower level of RbAp48 protein compared to normal, healthy mice. In people with amnesia, the ability to recall immediate information is still retained, and they may still be able to form new memories. However, a severe reduction in the ability to learn new material and retrieve old information can be observed. People can learn new procedural knowledge. In addition, priming (both perceptual and conceptual) can assist amnesiacs in

224-445: A cure or prevention. There are several extremely important case studies: Henry Molaison, R.B, and G.D. Henry Molaison , formerly known as H.M., changed the way people thought of memory. The case was first reported in a paper by William Beecher Scoville and Brenda Milner in 1957. He was a patient who had severe epilepsy attributed to a bicycle accident at the age of nine. Physicians were unable to control his seizures with drugs, so

280-458: A list in the first place. However, H.M.'s working and short-term memory seemed to be intact. He had a normal digit span and could hold a conversation that did not require him to recall past parts of the conversation. Once Molaison stopped thinking about the lists he was unable to recall them again from long-term memory. This gave researchers evidence that short-term and long-term memory are in fact two different processes. Even though he forgot about

336-449: A patient loses the recent memories, then personal memories, and finally intellectual memories. He implied that the most recent memories were lost first. Case studies have played a large role in the discovery of amnesia and the parts of the brain that were affected. The studies gave important insight into how amnesia affects the brain. The studies also gave scientists the resources into improving their knowledge about amnesia and insight into

392-431: A patient with amnesia might have a loss of declarative memory, this loss might vary in severity as well as the declarative information that it affects, depending on many factors. For example, LSJ was a patient who had retrograde declarative memory loss as the result of bilateral medial temporal lobe damage, but she was still able to remember how to perform some declarative skills. She was able to remember how to read music and

448-426: A person. The three categories are head trauma (example: head injuries), traumatic events (example: seeing something devastating to the mind), or physical deficiencies (example: atrophy of the hippocampus ). The majority of amnesia and related memory issues derive from the first two categories as these are more common and the third could be considered a subcategory of the first. Among specific causes of amnesia are

504-687: A personal digital device to keep track of day-to-day tasks. Reminders can be set up for appointments when to take medications, birthdays and other important events. Many pictures can also be stored to help amnesiacs remember names of friends, family, and co-workers. Notebooks, wall calendars, pill reminders and photographs of people and places are low-tech memory aids that can help as well. While there are no medications available to treat amnesia, underlying medical conditions can be treated to improve memory. Such conditions include but are not limited to low thyroid function , liver or kidney disease , stroke , depression , bipolar disorder and blood clots in

560-412: A result of the surgery and became very agitated. Even five days after being released from the hospital he was unable to remember what had happened to him. Aside from memory impairment, none of his other cognitive processes seemed to be affected. He did not want to be involved in much research, but through memory tests he took with doctors, they were able to ascertain that his memory problems were present for

616-499: Is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures; symptoms include a variety of sensory (visual, auditory, olfactory, and gustation) hallucinations, as well as an inability to process semantic and episodic memories. Schizophrenia is a severe psychotic disorder characterized by severe disorientation. Its most explicit symptom is the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations. The cause of such hallucinations has been attributed to deficits in

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672-423: Is a rare example of anterograde amnesia in fiction. Amnesiacs Temporal lobe#Medial temporal lobe The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals . The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain. The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for

728-498: Is caused. There are two main types of amnesia: These two types are not mutually exclusive; both can also occur simultaneously. Case studies also show that amnesia is typically associated with damage to the medial temporal lobe . In addition, specific areas of the hippocampus (the CA1 region ) are involved with memory. Research has also shown that when areas of the diencephalon are damaged, amnesia can occur. Recent studies have shown

784-450: Is cognitive or occupational therapy. In therapy, amnesiacs will develop the memory skills they have and try to regain some they have lost by finding which techniques help retrieve memories or create new retrieval paths. This may also include strategies for organizing information to remember it more easily and for improving understanding of lengthy conversation. Another coping mechanism is taking advantage of technological assistance, such as

840-517: Is hired by Atheos at a young age and his sickly mother is kept in Atheos's hospital, serving also as a bargaining chip to keep him in Atheos. Sudo leaves to find the present Nana in an experimental facility in the mountains. On the other side, Aiko is sent there on orders to kill a Chimera, feeling uneasy without Sudo's presence. They find Sudo held by the Chimera, Nana, who attacks them. Sudo asks Aiko to destroy

896-438: Is mostly just a rumor in the world. It's a rare condition, and usually a brief one. In books and movies, though, versions of amnesia lurk everywhere, from episodes of Mission Impossible to metafictional and absurdist masterpieces, with dozens of stops in between. Amnesiacs might not much exist, but amnesiac characters stumble everywhere through comic books, movies, and our dreams. We've all met them and been them. Lethem traces

952-467: Is not due to lacking perception of visual stimuli, but rather to the inability to interpret what is perceived. The most common symptom of inferior temporal lobe damage is visual agnosia , which involves impairment in the identification of familiar objects. Another less common type of inferior temporal lobe damage is prosopagnosia which is an impairment in the recognition of faces and distinction of unique individual facial features. Damage specifically to

1008-417: Is often depicted that a second blow to the head, similar to the first one which caused the amnesia, will then cure it. In reality, however, repeat concussions may cause cumulative deficits including cognitive problems, and in extremely rare cases may even cause deadly swelling of the brain associated with second-impact syndrome . Fictional depictions of amnesia are almost universally retrograde; Memento

1064-418: Is seen was her lying on the ground with no left arm and legs while smiling is unexplained, much less how she escaped from the place where she woke up in a near-death state in the first place) walking in a heavily populated area. Someone (this person is unknown) calls her name, and she turns around towards this person with a smile. In Jason Thompson 's online appendix to Manga: The Complete Guide , he regards

1120-437: Is still no actual cure remedy for amnesia so far. To what extent the patient recovers and how long the amnesia will continue depends on the type and severity of the lesion. French psychologist Theodule-Armand Ribot was among the first scientists to study amnesia. He proposed Ribot's Law which states that there is a time gradient in retrograde amnesia. The law follows a logical progression of memory loss due to disease. First,

1176-485: The hippocampal formation , perirhinal cortex , parahippocampal , and entorhinal neocortical regions. The hippocampus is critical for memory formation, and the surrounding medial temporal cortex is currently theorized to be critical for memory storage. The prefrontal and visual cortices are also involved in explicit memory. Research has shown that lesions in the hippocampus of monkeys results in limited impairment of function, whereas extensive lesions that include

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1232-401: The pseudorandom sequences experiment just as healthy people; therefore, procedural learning can proceed independently of the brain system required for declarative memory. Some patients with amnesia are able to remember skills that they had learned without being able to consciously recall where they had learned that information. For example, they may learn to do a task and then be able to perform

1288-465: The sagittal plane ) are thought to be involved in encoding declarative long term memory . The medial temporal lobes include the hippocampi , which are essential for memory storage, therefore damage to this area can result in impairment in new memory formation leading to permanent or temporary anterograde amnesia . Individuals who suffer from medial temporal lobe damage have a difficult time recalling visual stimuli. This neurotransmission deficit

1344-411: The semantic meaning of spoken words, printed words, and visual objects. Wernicke's area , which spans the region between temporal and parietal lobes of the dominant cerebral hemisphere (the left, in the majority of cases), plays a key role (in tandem with Broca's area in the frontal lobe ) in language comprehension, whether spoken language or signed language . FMRI imaging shows these portions of

1400-407: The Chief, then disappear for reasons unknown after the building exploded. While unconscious, Aiko dreams of her parents, the people she has met and made friends of, and Sudo, most, if not all, of them she loved are dead. She then wakes up alone, having lost her left arm and both legs. A person who looks like Sudo then kneels in front of Aiko and pats her on the head, where he disappears moments later in

1456-509: The anterior portion of the left temporal lobe can cause savant syndrome . Pick's disease , also known as frontotemporal amnesia , is caused by atrophy of the frontotemporal lobe. Emotional symptoms include mood changes, which the patient may be unaware of, including poor attention span and aggressive behavior towards themselves or others. Language symptoms include loss of speech, inability to read or write, loss of vocabulary and overall degeneration of motor ability. Temporal lobe epilepsy

1512-469: The appropriate retention of visual memory , language comprehension , and emotion association. Temporal refers to the head's temples . The temporal lobe consists of structures that are vital for declarative or long-term memory. Declarative (denotative) or explicit memory is conscious memory divided into semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (events). The medial temporal lobe structures are critical for long-term memory, and include

1568-445: The areas of the brain that are affected in anterograde amnesia, as well as how amnesia works. H.M.'s case showed that memory processes are consolidated into different parts of the brain and that short-term and working memory are not usually impaired in cases of amnesia. Another famous historical case of amnesia was that of Clive Wearing . Clive Wearing was a conductor and musician who contracted herpes simplex virus. This virus affected

1624-446: The brain are activated by signed or spoken languages. These areas of the brain are active in children's language acquisition whether accessed via hearing a spoken language, watching a signed language , or via hand-over-hand tactile versions of a signed language . The functions of the left temporal lobe are not limited to low-level perception but extend to comprehension, naming, and verbal memory . The medial temporal lobes (near

1680-460: The brain) that was caused from a heart bypass surgery, R.B. demonstrated a loss of anterograde memory, but almost no loss of retrograde memory, with the exception of a couple of years before his surgery, and presented no sign of any other cognitive impairment. It was not until after his death that researchers had the chance to examine his brain, when they found his lesions were restricted to the CA1 portion of

1736-455: The brain. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome involves a lack of thiamin and replacing this vitamin by consuming thiamin-rich foods such as whole-grain cereals, legumes (beans and lentils), nuts, lean pork, and yeast can help treat it. Treating alcoholism and preventing alcohol and illicit drug use can prevent further damage, but in most cases will not recover lost memory. Although improvements occur when patients receive certain treatments, there

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1792-451: The following panel after she smiles joyfully with some tears in her eyes (whether this person was an illusion that Aiko thought of in her near-death state is unknown, but it's likely that it is an illusion). The story ends with the public informed of Atheos and the Chimeras, and a somehow fully regenerated and healthy Aiko (how she is able to be here with all her limbs back when the last time she

1848-446: The following: Many forms of amnesia fix themselves without being treated. However, there are a few ways to cope with memory loss if treatment is needed. Since there are a variety of causes that form different amnesia, there are different methods that response better with the certain type of amnesia. Emotional support and love as well as medication and psychological therapy have been proven effective. One technique for amnesia treatment

1904-489: The hippocampal regions of the brain. Because of this damage, Wearing was unable to remember information for more than a few moments. Wearing's non-declarative memory was still functioning but his declarative memory was impaired. To him, he felt that he had just come to consciousness for the first time every time he was unable to hold on to information. This case also can be used as evidence that there are different memory systems for declarative and non-declarative memory. This case

1960-399: The hippocampus and the medial temporal cortex result in severe impairment. A form of epilepsy that involves the medial lobe is usually known as mesial temporal lobe epilepsy . The temporal lobe communicates with the hippocampus and plays a key role in the formation of explicit long-term memory modulated by the amygdala . In humans, temporal lobe regions are critical for accessing

2016-416: The hippocampus has a lesion , and thus the hippocampus could not make connections to the cortex. After an ischemic episode (an interruption of the blood flow to the brain), an MRI of patient R.B. following surgery showed his hippocampus to be intact except for a specific lesion restricted to the CA1 pyramidal cells. In one instance, transient global amnesia was caused by a hippocampal CA1 lesion. While this

2072-542: The hippocampus. This case study led to important research involving the role of the hippocampus and the function of memory. Patient G.D. was a white male born in 1940 who served in the Navy. He was diagnosed with chronic kidney failure and received hemodialysis treatment for the rest of his life. In 1983, he went to the hospital for elective parathyroidectomy . He also had a left thyroid lobectomy because of severe loss of blood in his left lobe. He began having cardiac problems as

2128-570: The information is non-declarative knowledge. However, in some situations, people with dense anterograde amnesia do not remember the episodes during which they previously learned or observed the information. Some people with amnesia show abnormal amount of memory loss, confusion, and difficulty recalling other people or places. People who recover often do not remember having amnesia. Declarative memory can be broken down into semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory being that of facts, episodic memory being that of memory related to events. While

2184-478: The learning of fresh non-declarative knowledge. Individuals with amnesia also retain substantial intellectual, linguistic, and social skills despite profound impairments in the ability to recall specific information encountered in prior learning episodes. The term is from Ancient Greek  'forgetfulness'; from ἀ- (a-)  'without' and μνήσις (mnesis)  'memory'. Individuals with amnesia can learn new information, particularly if

2240-402: The lists, he was still able to learn things through his implicit memory . The psychologists would ask him to draw something on a piece of paper, but to look at the paper using a mirror. Though he could never remember ever doing that task, he would improve after doing it over and over again. This showed the psychologists that he was learning and remembering things unconsciously. In some studies it

2296-408: The medial temporal lobe or to the neocortex. Some patients with anterograde amnesia can still acquire some semantic information, even though it might be more difficult and might remain rather unrelated to more general knowledge. H.M. could accurately draw a floor plan of the home in which he lived after surgery, even though he had not lived there in years. There is evidence that the hippocampus and

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2352-399: The medial temporal lobe may help to consolidate semantic memories, but then they are more correlated with the neocortex. While lesions of the hippocampus normally lead to the loss of episodic memory, if there is any effect on semantic memory, it is more varied and usually does not last as long. One reason that patients could not form new episodic memories is likely because the CA1 region of

2408-439: The monster, which she destroys. Sudo remains as the closest person to Aiko, actively taking part in her missions and supporting her. He is alerted by a mysterious person of the existence of a girl named "Nana", about whom Sudo reacts with shock. It is revealed that Nana was a girl Sudo had found sitting before his house and had taken her in, only to discover that she was a Chimera and had killed her. But because of his awareness, he

2464-440: The neurosurgeon Scoville tried a new approach involving brain surgery. He removed his medial temporal lobe bilaterally by doing a temporal lobectomy. His epilepsy did improve, but Molaison lost the ability to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia). He exhibited normal short-term memory ability. If he was given a list of words, he would forget them in about a minute's time. In fact, he would forget that he had even been given

2520-412: The next 9.5 years until his death. After he died, his brain was donated to science, photographed, and preserved for future study. Global amnesia is a common motif in fiction despite being extraordinarily rare in reality. In the introduction to his anthology The Vintage Book of Amnesia , Jonathan Lethem writes: Real, diagnosable amnesia – people getting knocked on the head and forgetting their names –

2576-425: The operation. Researchers also found that, when asked, Molaison could answer questions about national or international events, but he could not remember his own personal memories. After his death Molaison donated his brain to science, where they were able to discover the areas of the brain that had the lesions which caused his amnesia, particularly the medial temporal lobe. This case study provided important insight to

2632-415: The protagonist's "emo and paralyzed by doubt" nature as being due to the influence of Neon Genesis Evangelion on manga and anime. Amnesia Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or brain diseases , but it can also be temporarily caused by the use of various sedative and hypnotic drugs. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that

2688-579: The roots of literary amnesia to Franz Kafka and Samuel Beckett , among others, fueled in large part by the seeping into popular culture of the work of Sigmund Freud , which also strongly influenced genre films such as film noir . Amnesia is so often used as a plot device in films, that a widely recognized stereotypical dialogue has even developed around it, with the victim melodramatically asking "Where am I? Who am I? What am I?", or sometimes inquiring of their own name, "Bill? Who's Bill?" In movies and television, particularly sitcoms and soap operas , it

2744-624: The task later without any recollection of learning the task. According to fMRI studies, the acquisition of procedural memories activates the basal ganglia , the premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area, regions which are not normally associated with the formation of declarative memories. This type of dissociation between declarative and procedural memory can also be found in patients with diencephalic amnesia such as Korsakoff's syndrome . Another example demonstrated by some patients, such as K.C. and H.M, who have medial temporal damage and anterograde amnesia, still have perceptual priming. Priming

2800-428: The techniques used in art. She had preserved skill-related declarative memory for some things even though she had deficits in other declarative memory tasks. She even scored higher on skill-related declarative memory than the control in watercolor techniques, a technique that she used in her professional career before she acquired amnesia. The loss of semantic information in amnesia is most closely related with damage to

2856-400: The two together, as to kill Nana would hurt him and to leave Nana would mean in his being devoured, but she pulls him out of Nana, telling him to live. Nana is killed in the process, and Sudo is fired from the case for his actions and is put on house arrest . Okuda reveals his intentions to use Aiko to give birth to a "Goddess" who will renew the human race. His hate for the current human race

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2912-503: Was a temporary case of amnesia, it still shows the importance of the CA1 region of the hippocampus in memory. Episodic memory loss is most likely to occur when there has been damage to the hippocampus. There is evidence that damage to the medial temporal lobe correlates to a loss of autobiographical episodic memory. Some retrograde and anterograde amnesiacs are capable of non-declarative memory, including implicit learning and procedural learning. For example, some patients show improvement on

2968-550: Was accomplished in many different experiments of amnesia, and it was found that the patients can be primed; they have no conscious recall of the event, but the response is there. Those patients did well in the word fragment completion task. There is some evidence that non-declarative memory can be held onto in the form of motor skills. This idea was disputed, though, because it is argued that motor skills require both declarative and non-declarative information. There are three generalized categories in which amnesia could be acquired by

3024-604: Was found that H.M.'s perceptual learning was intact and that his other cognitive skills were working appropriately. It was also found that some people with declarative information amnesia are able to be primed. Studies were completed consistently throughout Molaison's lifetime to discover more about amnesia. Researchers did a 14-year follow-up study on Molaison. They studied him for a period of two weeks to learn more about his amnesia. After 14 years, Molaison still could not recall things that had happened since his surgery. However, he could still remember things that had happened prior to

3080-421: Was more evidence that the hippocampus is an important part of the brain in remembering past events and that declarative and non-declarative memories have different processes in different parts of the brain. Patient R.B. was a normally functioning man until the age of 52. At age 50, he had been diagnosed with angina and had surgery for heart problems on two occasions. After an ischemic episode (reduction of blood to

3136-577: Was spurned by his father, who was a scientist of war; enemy soldiers had broken into Okuda's home and killed his mother before his eyes. His father gave up his part as a war scientist and began to research an antibody, which resulted in the creation of Chimeras. Sudo criticizes Okuda's scheme and Okuda shoots him, but Aiko's Chimera arm intercepts the bullet, before telling Okuda that she will kill him if he proceeds to steal anything precious from her (referring to Sudo). The Executive Board sends in an army at this moment to destroy Okuda's plans, giving Sudo and Aiko

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