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116-538: The first European sighting of these ranges was likely Sir Francis Drake . A sighting of land on June 5, 1579 was recorded by his crew aboard the vessel Golden Hind at a latitude of 48 degrees north but not finding safe harbour, they moved on southward. The highest peak of the Vancouver Island Ranges, the Golden Hinde , is named for his vessel. The first European explorer likely to have observed any of

232-456: A 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts . On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard , on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum , London. Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake

348-542: A birth year of c. 1541. He was the eldest of the twelve sons of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife, Mary Mylwaye. The first son was said to have been named after his godfather , Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford . Due to religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devon to Kent . There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister to

464-801: A common seaman on the first two voyages, and good evidence of his presence for the last two of four slaving voyages made by Hawkins' ships between 1562 and 1569. In 1562, Hawkins sailed to the coast of the Sierra Leone, seized Portuguese slave ships, and sold the Africans in the Spanish Indies. It was highly profitable, so for his second slave voyage in 1564, Hawkins gained Queen Elizabeth I's support. She lent him one of her ships, Jesus of Lübeck , which served as his flagship. Hawkins attacked an African native town and sold many of its inhabitants in Spanish ports on

580-470: A copper support in Germany, Portugal, and Spain. Many Dutch and German artists adopted copper as a medium further enhancing the images. Over time, only elite could afford the copper, forcing artists to stretched vellum, ivory, or paper. Dutch and German miniatures were painted in oil, and as a rule these are on copper; and there are portraits in the same medium, and often on the same material, attributed to many of

696-497: A discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England. The northernmost extent of this leg of the expedition has been the subject of much scholarly debate, but most sources agree that Drake reached a latitude of at least 48° north before turning back and heading south. On 5 June 1579, the ship briefly made first landfall at what is now South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of Coos Bay, Oregon , and then sailed southward. On 17 June, Drake and his crew found

812-598: A family member was going to be absent for significant periods, whether a husband or son going to war or emigrating, or a daughter getting married. The first miniaturists used watercolour to paint on stretched vellum , or (especially in England) on playing cards trimmed to the shape required. The technique was often called limning (as in Nicolas Hilliard 's treatise on the Art of Limming of c. 1600), or painting in little . During

928-475: A few of the many subranges of the Vancouver Island Ranges have official names. These are: The Elk River Mountains , located in Strathcona Provincial Park , are considered a range by some sources. Download coordinates as: Francis Drake Sir Francis Drake ( c. 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English explorer and privateer best known for his circumnavigation of the world in

1044-616: A fire at White's Chocolate and Coffee House . Sir Andrew Fountaine rented two rooms at White's to temporarily hold his huge collection of portraits done by Hilliard, the Olivers, Samuel Cooper, and others. The entire house burned down; the number of paintings destroyed was so large that the ashes were carefully sifted to recover the gold from the incinerated mountings of the miniatures. In Denmark, Cornelius Høyer specialized in miniature painting (often 40 mm × 30 mm or approximately 1-1.5 inches, or in many case, oval or round in shape) in

1160-483: A fortune in gold. (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure). Badly wounded, Le Testu was captured and beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles (29 km) of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and

1276-399: A great many full-length pencil drawings on paper, in which he slightly tinted the faces and hands, and these he called "stayned drawings". Cosway's finest miniatures are signed on the back; there is but one genuine signed on the face; very few bear even his initials on the front. George Engleheart (1750–1829) painted 4,900 miniatures; it is often signed E or G.E. Andrew Plimer (1763–1837)

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1392-623: A kind of pre-emptive strike . An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty-one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill . He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies. He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo , and captured

1508-617: A knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou . By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions. During the Victorian era, in

1624-462: A member of parliament for Plymouth in 1593. He was active in issues of interest to Plymouth as a whole, but also to emphasise defence against the Spanish. War broke out between England and Spain in 1585, after the signing of the Treaty of Nonsuch . Queen Elizabeth I, through her principal secretary Francis Walsingham , ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in

1740-476: A protected cove when they landed on the Pacific coast of what is now Northern California. While ashore, he claimed the area for Queen Elizabeth I as Nova Albion or New Albion . To document and assert his claim, Drake posted an engraved plate of brass to claim sovereignty for Elizabeth and every successive English monarch. After erecting a fort and tents ashore, the crew laboured for several weeks as they prepared for

1856-672: A quoit of Spanish gold from his clothes and said, "Our voyage is made." By the second week of August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth. It was during this expedition that on 11 February Drake and his lieutenant John Oxenham climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishmen to see the Pacific Ocean , mirroring the achievement of the Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513. The Cimarróns had cut steps into its trunk, on which Drake and

1972-419: A series for portrait miniatures from England dating from the 1650s that appear to show the same woman in dress. The woman bore a striking resemblance to English monarch Charles I (1600–1649), who was executed in 1649. The king remained popular with a group of followers after his execution and many found subtle ways to honor the king. This discovery is only a glimpse as to how portrait miniatures could also serve as

2088-434: A short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct . Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England. One possibility

2204-510: A single expedition between 1577 and 1580, Being the first admiral to complete it. Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page ). He died of dysentery after his failed assault on Panama in January 1596. Francis Drake was born at Crowndale Farm in Tavistock, Devon , England. His birth date is not formally recorded – such writers as E. F. Benson have claimed that he

2320-553: A sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa María ), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands . He also kidnapped its captain, Nuno da Silva , a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters. Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at

2436-572: A small settlement at Nootka Sound and the following year, the Spanish built a permanent fort at Friendly Cove ( Yuquot ) in Nuu-chah-nulth territory. The Spanish claimed sovereignty and a dispute arose which was resolved with the Nootka Convention of the 1794. There was little further exploration until the Hudson's Bay Company was granted rights to Vancouver Island on January 13, 1849 leading to

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2552-459: A small share of the profits. Based on this association, scholar Kris Lane lists Drake as one of the first English slave traders. The Spanish and Portuguese were aggrieved that the English had entered into the slave trade and were selling slaves to their colonies despite being forbidden from doing so. Queen Elizabeth I, under pressure to avoid an armed conflict, forbade Hawkins from going to sea for

2668-430: A spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting. After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the coat of arms of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. The right to use the arms was disputed in court so Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake his own coat of arms. Drake's heraldic achievement and coat of arms contains

2784-440: A substantial profit. Drake became a member of parliament again in 1584 for Bossiney , on the forming of the 5th Parliament of Elizabeth I. He served the duration of the parliament and was active in issues regarding the navy, fishing, early American colonisation, and issues related chiefly to Devon . He spent the time covered by the next two parliamentary terms engaged in other duties and an expedition to Portugal . He became

2900-682: A third slave voyage. In response, he set up a slave voyage with a relative, John Lovell , in command in 1566. Drake accompanied Lovell on this voyage. The voyage was unsuccessful, as more than 90 enslaved Africans were released without payment. In 1567, Drake accompanied Hawkins on their next and last joint voyage. The crew attempted to capture slaves around Cape Verde , but failed. Hawkins allied himself with two local kings in Sierra Leone who asked for help against their enemies in exchange for half of any captives they took. Attacking from both sides, they took several hundred prisoners, though Kelsey says

3016-525: A trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship Marigold , and Doughty's admission of telling Lord Burghley , a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him, of which Francis Fletcher had this account: And after this holy repast, they dined also at

3132-697: A way to commemorate loss as well as loyalty. A number of museums display miniature original oil paintings including the Museum of Arts in Boston and the Astolat Dollhouse Castle when it is on public display. The National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. as well as the Victoria and Albert Museum in London carry a vast number of portrait miniatures among their larger portrait collections, many are also accessible to

3248-473: A while. The greatest English enamel portrait painter was Henry Bone (1755–1839). A great collection of his small enamel reproductions of celebrated paintings is in the British Royal Collection .Enamel stayed a consistent and robust alternative to portrait art miniatures during the 18th and 19th centuries. Mica: Mica is a very thin mineral that can be shaved to transparent pieces also known at

3364-463: A whim. The Spanish painter Francisco Goya (1746–1828) is known to have painted portrait miniatures for mourning and weddings beginning in 1806. The main medium used by Goya was oil but he was also commissioned for pencil miniatures. Between 1824 and 1825, Goya recorded over 40 miniature commissions on ivory while most portrait miniature artists dotted color onto the ivory, Goya shaped the lines of miniatures using water. Goya claimed his shaping technique

3480-473: Is Nicholas Hilliard ( c.  1537 –1619), whose work was conservative in style but very sensitive to the character of the sitter; his best works are beautifully executed. The colours are opaque, and gold is used to heighten the effect, while the paintings are on card. They are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. Hilliard worked for a while in France , and he is probably identical with

3596-550: Is frequently signed with his initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date. Other miniaturists of this period include Alexander Cooper (died 1660), who painted a series of portraits of the children of the king and queen of Bohemia; David des Granges (1611–1675); Richard Gibson (1615–1690); and Charles Beale the Elder and Mary Beale . They are followed by such artists as Gervase Spencer (died 1763), Bernard Lens III , Nathaniel Hone and Jeremiah Meyer ,

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3712-453: Is known of his career. His work has a superb breadth and dignity, and has been well called life-size work in little. His portraits of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth to life and strength of handling. He painted upon card, chicken skin and vellum , and on two occasions upon thin pieces of mutton bone. The use of ivory was not introduced until long after his time. His work

3828-621: The Isthmus of Panama , known to the Spanish as part of Tierra Firme and to the English as part of the Spanish Main . This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be brought ashore and transported overland to the Caribbean Sea , where galleons from Spain would take it aboard at the town of Nombre de Dios . Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, Pascha (70 tons) and Swan (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios. Drake's first raid

3944-467: The 1750s and may have appeared before then. These portraits were usually commissioned to remember someone who died suddenly from illness at a young age. The family of a twelve year old named Hannah had a locket commissioned to make her look like she did before she become ill. The locket carried a portrait of the young girl and had angel wings above her with the words "NOT LOST" written on the side. Portraits such as these carried hope and remembrance instead of

4060-461: The 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell. Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island. Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, Sorley Boy MacDonnell , was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following

4176-499: The Caribbean mainland, making another large profit for himself, the Queen and the consortium of investors from her court. Sources vary on the dates and the age of Drake at the time; Harry Kelsey says he was twenty years old, "[a]ccording to Howes" (in reference to the English chronicler Edmund Howes writing in 1615). Drake was not a member of that consortium, but the crew would have received

4292-524: The Cimarrón leader Pedro ascended to a platform at the top of the giant tree, where they were joined by Oxenham. The Englishmen vowed when they saw the Pacific Ocean that one day they would sail its waters – which Drake would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world. When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so

4408-522: The Earth, and his was the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano 's in 1520. Queen Elizabeth declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities hidden from the eyes of rival Spain. Drake presented

4524-628: The English Nation of 1589) along the Chilean coast. In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmishes with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During their stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of Drimys winteri could be used as remedy against scurvy . Captain Wynter ordered

4640-552: The Moluccas and Spice Islands from there. At this time Diego died from wounds he had sustained earlier in the voyage; Golden Hind later became caught on a reef and was almost lost. Afterwards, the sailors waited three days for convenient tides and had dumped cargo. Befriending Sultan Babullah of Ternate in the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward

4756-406: The Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts to inform his navigation. Before reaching the coast of Peru , Drake visited Mocha Island off the coast of what is now Chile, where he and his manservant Diego were seriously injured by hostile Mapuche who shot them with arrows. Later he sacked

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4872-571: The Pacific coast, heading south-west to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas , a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia . Harry Kelsey maintains, against scholarly consensus, that because of the contrary prevailing winds and currents, it is much more probable that Drake careened his ship on the shore of Magdalena Bay in Lower California , and sailed to

4988-584: The Pacific, making for the East Indies , and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world. In May, Drake's two ships passed the Baja California peninsula and continued north. Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo who sailed for Spain. So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated north-west of Spanish presence and sought

5104-477: The Spanish court in the late 15th century, beginning with the political alliance between Henry VII of England (r. 1485–1509) and Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479–1519). The alliance celebrated the match between Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536) and Prince Arthur of England (1486–1502) with the Treaty of Medina del Campo in 1489. The promise of marriage commenced in the exchange of gifts including jewels and portrait miniatures of

5220-609: The Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath. The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages, and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers). On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation. In 1572, Drake embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on

5336-468: The Spanish were not far behind. At this point, Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail in a heavy swell with four men twelve miles along the coast to where they had left two pinnaces . When Drake finally reached them, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled

5452-500: The West African slave trade was a duopoly dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish. Sir John Hawkins devised a plan to break into that trade, and enlisted the aid of colleagues and family to finance his first slave voyage. Drake was not part of that group of financiers, though his presence as one of hundreds of seamen on Hawkins's first two slaving voyages has been assumed. There is some anecdotal evidence to support Drake serving as

5568-793: The Younger painted some miniatures. Lucas Horenbout was another Netherlandish miniature painter at the court of Henry VIII . France also had a strong tradition of miniatures, centred on the court, although this came to concentrate in the mid-16th century on larger images, about the range of sizes of the modern paperback book, which might not qualify as miniatures in the usual sense. These might be paintings, or finished drawings with some colour, and were produced by François Clouet ( c.  1510 – 1572), and his followers. The earliest French miniature painters were Jean Clouet (died c.  1540 ), his son François Clouet, Jean Perréal and others; but of their work in portraiture we have little trace at

5684-607: The attack Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had." Following the success of the Panama isthmus raid, Drake's so-called "Famous Voyage" – an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas – was organized and financed by a private syndicate that included Francis Walsingham , Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester , John Hawkins, Christopher Hatton , and Drake himself. Drake acted on

5800-530: The bond between the departed and those left behind, they now represented a grim realization of mortality. The idea of gender also affected the view of mourning tokens; women were viewed as more emotional to carry tokens and society frowned upon men who carried such tokens. If men were to carry a token of a beloved one, an image of life rather than death would prove to be more becoming. The first miniature portraits documented in Colonial America first appeared in

5916-559: The circumnavigating voyage ahead by careening their ship, Golden Hind , to effectively clean and repair the hull. Drake had friendly interactions with the Coast Miwok and explored the surrounding land by foot. When his ship was ready for the return voyage, Drake and the crew left New Albion on 23 July and paused the journey the next day when anchoring the ship at the Farallon Islands where they hunted sea lions or seals. Drake left

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6032-502: The city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. At Cartagena, Drake released one hundred Turkish slaves. On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he attacked the wooden Spanish fort at San Agustín in Spanish Florida and burnt the town to the ground. After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh 's settlement much further north at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of

6148-620: The collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name. Historian Mateo Martinic , who examined records of Drake's travels, credits him with the discovery of the "southern end of the Americas and the oceanic space south of it". The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616. Drake pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms ). Golden Hind sailed north along

6264-505: The crew of Minion in panic and fear cut the lines securing them to Jesus . Hawkins was among those who jumped from the flagship's bulwarks to Minion' s decks. Drake, by this time the captain of Judith , fled leaving Hawkins behind. Hawkins escaped on Minion and limped back to England with dozens of his men dying along the way, and arriving with a crew of just 15. Hundreds of English seamen were abandoned. After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing

6380-412: The deceased in the form of rings or lockets with inscriptions or images matching those in the coffin. The matching images and words created a type of bond, allowed surviving family to feel closer to their loved one. A shift in the eighteenth century from mourning death to celebrating life marked a change in the meaning behind tokens carrying morbid inscriptions and images. No longer did the tokens represent

6496-522: The earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted. They signed their best works in monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as 10 in × 9 in (250 mm × 230 mm). They copied for Charles I of England (1600–1649) on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters. Other miniaturists at about the same date included Balthazar Gerbier , George Jamesone , Penelope Cleyn and her brothers. John Hoskins (died 1664)

6612-669: The first attempt, by Captain Hamilton Moffat in 1852 to ascend a major peak on the Island when he attempted Rugged Mountain . Adam Grant Horne located a trail across the island from the Qualicum River to the Alberni Inlet in 1856 and Joseph Despard Pemberton , Surveyor General of the Colony of Vancouver Island explored much of the southern half of the Island in 1857. The southern Island

6728-634: The first rank, and making "a power of money by his pencil." From 1765 to 1768 he was living in Parliament Street, Dublin, then at No. 1 Dame Street, Dublin, at the house of Stock the hosier, and afterwards in College Green, Dublin. He contributed miniatures to the Society of Artists in Dublin from 1765 to 1773. Shortly before his death he moved to Cork Hill, Dublin, and there died on 16 December 1775, aged 36. He

6844-472: The gloomy bay of Puerto San Julián , in what is now Argentina . Ferdinand Magellan had called there half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the Spanish gibbets . Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own "mutineer" Thomas Doughty . The crew discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they put the vessel ashore, stripped it, and abandoned it. Drake decided to remain

6960-717: The great Italian artists, notably those of the Bologna school. Samuel Cooper is said to have executed a few paintings in oil on copper. Beginning in the mid-17th century, many watercolors were conducted with vitreous enamel. Jean Petitot 1607–1691 was the greatest worker in this material, and painted his finest portraits in Paris for Louis XIV of France . His son succeeded him in the same profession. Other artists in enamel were Christian Friedrich Zincke (died 1767) and Johann Melchior Dinglinger . Many of these artists were either Frenchmen or Swiss, but most of them visited England and worked there for

7076-647: The importance placed on status and the cost of shipping, many scholars have concluded the portrait miniatures not only point to the new methods of artistry but also the cultural history of the portrait miniature in Colonial India. Andrew Robertson (b. 1777, d. 1845), his brothers Alexander and Archibald also painters, created a style of miniature portrait, which consisted of slightly larger portrait miniatures measuring 9 in × 7 in (23 cm × 18 cm). Robertson's style became dominant in Britain by

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7192-403: The kings kept "the larger share of slaves and dared Hawkins to do anything about it". Events worsened for the fleet as it faced storms, Spanish hostility, armed conflict, and finally a hurricane that separated one ship from the rest, and it had to find its own way home. The remaining ships were forced into the port of San Juan de Ulúa near Vera Cruz so they could make repairs. Soon afterward

7308-459: The later French artists, as Pierre-Paul Prud'hon and Constance Mayer , executed miniature portraits. The popular artists in France, however, were Jean-Baptiste Jacques Augustin (1759–1832) and Jean-Baptiste Isabey (1767–1855). Their portraits of Napoleon and his court are exceedingly fine, and perhaps no other Frenchman painted miniatures so well as did Augustin. Portrait miniatures were used in

7424-455: The latter two notable in connection with the foundation of the Royal Academy . The workers in black lead ( plumbago , as it was called at that time) must not be overlooked, especially David Loggan , William Faithorne and John Faber the Elder . They drew with exquisite detail and great effect on paper or vellum. On 28 April 1733, there was a terrible destruction of portrait miniatures in

7540-515: The men in the King's Navy. He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upchurch Church on the Medway . At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, sea-captain William Hawkins of Plymouth, and began his seagoing training as an apprentice on Hawkins' boats. By 18, he was a purser , according to the English chronicler Edmund Howes , and in the 1550s, Drake's father found

7656-632: The middle of the nineteenth century. Gustavus Hamilton (b. 1739, d. 1775) was instructed by Robert West at the National College of Art and Design in George's Lane, Dublin, and was also an apprentice or pupil of Samuel Dixon of Capel Street, Dublin, where he was employed in colouring the basso-relievo prints of birds and flowers produced by Dixon. Setting himself up as a miniature painter, he acquired an extensive and fashionable practice, patronized, says John O'Keeffe in his "Recollections", by ladies of

7772-543: The miniatures in illuminated manuscripts , and were popular among 16th-century elites, mainly in England and France, and spread across the rest of Europe from the middle of the 18th century, remaining highly popular until the development of daguerreotypes and photography in the mid-19th century. They were usually intimate gifts given within the family, or by hopeful males in courtship, but some rulers, such as James I of England , gave large numbers as diplomatic or political gifts. They were especially likely to be painted when

7888-417: The motto, Sic Parvis Magna , which means: "Great achievements from small beginnings". A hand coming out of the clouds is labelled Auxilio Divino , which means "By divine aid". Drake first became a member of parliament for the last session of the 4th Parliament of Elizabeth I , on 16 January 1581, for the constituency of Camelford . He did not actively participate at this point, and on 17 February 1581 he

8004-629: The mountains of the Vancouver Island Ranges would have been Captain Juan José Pérez aboard the Spanish frigate Santiago. Although he anchored off Estevan Point , on August 8, 1774 he did not land. Captain James Cook entered Nootka Sound March 29, 1778 and spent about a month refitting his ships Discovery and Resolution . His logs contain the first recorded reference to the mountains of Vancouver Island. In 1788 British Captain John Meares began

8120-465: The mule trains that transported gold, silver and trade goods from Panama City. One of these men was Diego, who later became a free man after years of service under Drake. Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the Spanish silver train at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573 made him rich and famous. Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, Guillaume Le Testu , who

8236-470: The newly appointed viceroy of New Spain, Martín Enríquez de Almanza , arrived with a fleet of ships. While still negotiating to resupply and repair, Hawkins' ships were attacked by the Spanish ships in what became known as the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa . The battle ended in an English defeat with all but two of the English ships lost. The Spanish launched a fireship against Hawkins' flagship Jesus of Lübeck , and

8352-400: The original colonists before Sir Richard Grenville arrived with supplies and more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth , England to a hero's welcome. Portrait miniature A portrait miniature is a miniature portrait painting, usually executed in gouache , watercolor , or enamel . Portrait miniatures developed out of the techniques of

8468-403: The painter alluded to in 1577 as Nicholas Belliart . Hilliard was succeeded by his son Lawrence Hilliard (died 1640); his technique was similar to that of his father, but bolder, and his miniatures richer in colour. Isaac Oliver and his son Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac ( c.  1560 –1617) was the pupil of Hilliard. Peter (1594–1647) was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were

8584-562: The person. Others were framed with stands or hung on a wall, or fitted into snuff box covers. The portrait miniature developed from the illuminated manuscript , which had been superseded for the purposes of book illustration by techniques such as woodprints and calc printing. The earliest portrait miniaturists were famous manuscript painters like Jean Fouquet (self-portrait of 1450), and Simon Bening , whose daughter Levina Teerlinc mostly painted portrait miniatures, and moved to England, where her predecessor as court artist, Hans Holbein

8700-515: The physical change harshly. Young men had their portrait commissioned upon arrival to India for mothers, sisters, and spouses to prove that their health and safety were of no concern. The portraits were commissioned by the soldiers to send back to families, many of the portrait miniatures were created by British artists temporarily in India. One such artist was John Smart. Smart spent 1785–1795 in Madras where he

8816-407: The plan authored by Sir Richard Grenville , who in 1574 had received a royal patent for that purpose; just a year later this patent had been rescinded after Elizabeth I learned of Grenville's intentions against the Spanish. Elizabeth likely invested in Drake's voyage to South America in 1577, but never issued him a formal commission. This would be the first circumnavigation in 58 years . Diego

8932-536: The port of Valparaíso further north in Chile, where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine . Near Lima , Drake captured a Spanish ship with 25,000  pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000  ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción , which was sailing west towards Manila . It would come to be called Cacafuego . Drake gave chase and eventually captured

9048-798: The present day, although there are many portraits and a vast number of drawings attributed to them. The seven portraits in the Manuscript of the Gallic War ( Bibliothèque Nationale ) are assigned to the eider Clouet; and to them may be added a fine work, in the Pierpont Morgan collection , representing the Marschal de Brissac . Following these men we find Simon Renard de St. André (1613–1677), and Jean Cotelle . Others whose names might be mentioned were Joseph Werner (1637–1710), and Rosalba Carriera (1675–1757). The first famous native English portrait miniaturist

9164-458: The queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull. To show her gratitude the queen gave him the Drake Jewel , a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in

9280-471: The same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand. Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, in a sermon suggested that

9396-407: The second half of the 17th century, vitreous enamel painted on copper became increasingly popular, especially in France. In the 18th century, miniatures were painted with watercolour on ivory, which had now become relatively cheap. As small in size as 40 mm × 30 mm, portrait miniatures were often fitted into lockets , inside watch-covers or pieces of jewellery so that they could be carried on

9512-467: The second half of the 18th century and was appointed Miniature Painter to the Danish Court in 1769. He also worked at several other European courts and won a considerable international reputation. He was succeeded by Christian Horneman as Denmark's premier proponent of the special trade of miniature portraits. Among his most known works are a portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven from 1802 of which Beethoven

9628-430: The stigma of constant sorrow. The earliest miniatures were painted on vellum , chicken-skin or cardboard, or by Hilliard and others on the backs of playing cards , and also on very thin vellum closely mounted on to playing cards. Vellum or primed calf-skin was considered an easy alternative to copper in the seventeenth century. During the 18th century, watercolour on ivory became the standard medium. The use of ivory

9744-474: The strait and caused another, Elizabeth , captained by John Wynter , to return to England, leaving only Pelican . After this passage, Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called Elizabeth Island . Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Richard Hakluyt 's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of

9860-403: The time as 'talc'. The paper thin material could be painted on with oil and placed over the portrait miniature so that the holder of the portrait miniature could dress up the subject or disguise the portrait. Costume Overlays Costume overlays were a technique in which artists were commissioned to paint a subject in costume or altered state of dress to hide the identity. Typically the portrait

9976-481: The tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope , and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580. On 26 September 1580, Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate

10092-487: The trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure. After their attack on the richly laden mule train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with

10208-447: The treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture. Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción , Drake found 36 kilograms (80 lb) of gold, a golden crucifix , jewels , 13 chests of silver reals and 26,000 kilograms (26 long tons) of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives

10324-432: The treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left. The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them. Drake's hostility towards

10440-516: The winter in San Julián before attempting the Strait of Magellan . On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial. Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty

10556-482: The woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated. The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later in September 1578 Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, Marigold (captained by John Thomas) in

10672-470: The wording of texts in contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith " (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c. 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature , painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581, when he was allegedly 42, which would place his birth c. 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52, would give

10788-513: The young couple. The popularity of portrait miniatures to commemorate the promise of marriage began to circulate in each court soon after, especially Spain. The tokens of portrait miniatures to commemorate an alliance through marriage were considered extremely intimate and personal to the betrothed couple as well as their families. In Spain as well as the English courts, portrait miniatures were often adorned in jewels or kept in elaborate lockets that could either be concealed or taken out and admired on

10904-563: The young man a position with the owner and master of a small barque , one of the small traders plying between the Medway River and the Dutch coast. Drake likely engaged in commerce along the coast of England, the Low Countries and France. The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake. In 1562,

11020-405: Was a pupil of Cosway, and both he and his brother Nathaniel Plimer produced some lovely portraits. The brightness of the eyes, wiriness of the hair, exuberance of colour, combined with forced chiaroscuro and often very inaccurate drawing, are characteristics of Andrew Plimer's work. John Smart ( c.  1740 – 1811) was in some respects the greatest of the 18th-century miniaturists. His work

11136-468: Was also exported to the American colonies; among the earliest recorded American miniaturists is Mary Roberts (died 1761), the first American woman to work in the form. In the late 18th century, Mary Way and her sister Betsey created portraits that included "dressed miniatures", with fabric, ribbons, and lace affixed to the images. Miniaturist Amalia Küssner Coudert (1863–1932), from Terre Haute, Indiana ,

11252-525: Was also used as a tool for notoriety, respect, and promotion especially for the British in Colonial India . Young soldiers sent to India were often done so under the impression that their tour of duty would elevate their status in society, secure a promotion, and prepare them for marriage upon their return. The climate in British occupied India proved to be harsh on complexion and many in British society regarded

11368-511: Was born while the Six Articles of 1539 were in force, but British naval historian Julian Corbett , writing of William Camden 's account, on which this information is based, writes that "As a slip of memory, too, we must put down his difficult assertion that Edmund Drake was driven from Devonshire during a persecution under the Six Articles Act of 1539 ." His birth date is estimated from

11484-572: Was buried on 18 December at St. Werburgh's Church, Dublin . In the 18th century we know of miniatures by Nicolas de Largillière , François Boucher , Jean-Marc Nattier , and Jean-Germain Drouais ; but the greatest names active in France are those of Peter Adolf Hall of Sweden, François Dumont of France, and Friedrich Heinrich Füger of Austria. The tiny pictures painted by the Blarenberghe family are by many persons grouped as miniatures, and some of

11600-446: Was commissioned with a thin removable overlay made from mica to conceal the identity of the subject. Concealing the identity of a miniature would have been necessary if the subject was an unpopular ruler, potentially causing harm if a person was caught carrying the picture. One such example is painting over a portrait in costume to hide the original portrait. Los Angeles County Museum of Art , Department of Costumes and Textiles discovered

11716-450: Was first adopted in around 1700, during the latter part of the reign of William III . Enamel: Portrait miniatures painted on enamel in oil with copper support was a method created in Italy during the 16th century. There is debate as to whether this method was attributed to Italian artists or Dutch artists. During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, portrait miniature artist used enamel with

11832-482: Was followed by a son of the same name, who was known to have been living in 1700, since a miniature signed by him and bearing that date is in the Pierpont Morgan collection, representing James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick . Samuel Cooper (1609–1672) was a nephew and student of the elder Hoskins, and is considered the greatest English portrait miniaturist. He spent much of his time in Paris and Holland , and very little

11948-544: Was further explored by the Vancouver Island Exploring Expedition in 1865. By the mid-1880s the southern half of the island had been explored and by 1890 the northern region had been explored as well. The central part of the island, the area now within Strathcona Provincial Park , was explored by Reverend William Washington Bolton, Headmaster of the Victoria School for Boys, in 1894 and 1896. Only

12064-557: Was granted leave of absence "for certain his necessary business in the service of Her Majesty". Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth in September 1581. During his tenure, he installed a compass in the town's Hoe , and passed a law regulating the local pilchard trade. During his term as lord mayor, Drake contracted to construct a leat , or canal, to bring water from the River Meavy , and to build six new gristmills on it from which he derived

12180-458: Was hailed by contemporaries for his excellence in refinement, power and delicacy; its silky texture and elaborate finish, and the artists love for a brown background. Other notable painters were Richard Crosse (1742–1810), Ozias Humphry (1742–1810), Samuel Shelley (c1750–1808), whose best pictures are groups of two or more persons, Henry Edridge (1769–1821), John Bogle , and Edward Dayes . Colonial India The portrait miniature

12296-412: Was highly sought after by British soldiers. Portrait miniatures commissioned in Colonial India made from ivory are very different from the ones created with canvas and oil; not only due to the cost of the commission themselves but also due to the fragility and risk of packing and shipment. Shipment of ivory portrait miniatures were often taxed more heavily because of the higher risk of damage or loss. Due to

12412-517: Was in command of the 80-ton warship Havre , and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards

12528-473: Was innovative and far different from the 'accidental' ink wash technique developed in 1800s England by Alexander Cozens. Anton Ulrik Berndes played an important role in Swedish art at the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th. He produced around 600 portrait miniatures, and received commissions ranging from members of the lower bourgeoisie to the royal court. The English style of portrait miniatures

12644-469: Was known for her portraits of New York socialites and European royalty in the last decade of the 19th century. Recipients of her watercolor on ivory portraits included Caroline Astor , King Edward VII , Czar Nicholas II of Russia and Cecil Rhodes . One of the most famous miniature painters in American during the eighteenth century was Robert Field . Many of the most prominent examples were produced by women artists, among them Eda Nemoede Casterton , who

12760-454: Was late in July 1572. Drake captured Nombre de Dios, but he was badly wounded when the Spanish arrived from Panama, and his forces had to retreat without the gold, silver, pearls and jewels stored in the royal treasury. Rather than sacking Nombre de Dios again, Drake raided Spanish galleons along the coast and with his Cimarrón (African slaves who had escaped from their Spanish owners) allies looted

12876-648: Was once again employed under Drake; his fluency in Spanish and English would make him a useful interpreter when Spaniards or Spanish-speaking Portuguese were captured. He was employed as Drake's servant and was paid wages like the rest of the crew. Drake and the fleet set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall , from where they returned to Plymouth for repair. After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard Pelican with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added

12992-485: Was particularly fond—possibly because it presents him to a more handsome appearance than most other portraits. The 18th century produced a great number of miniature painters, of whom Richard Cosway (1742–1821) is the most famous. His works are of great beauty, and executed with a dash and brilliance which no other artist equalled. His best work was done about 1799. His portraits are generally on ivory, although occasionally he worked on paper or vellum, and he produced

13108-717: Was selected to show her work in the prestigious Paris Salon . Nemoede Casterton used thin sheets of ivory rather than canvas for her paintings, a common practice among miniature portraitists. Around 1900, the United States experienced a revival of miniature portraiture, marked by the 1899 foundation of the American Society of Miniature Painters and the success of artists such as Virginia Richmond Reynolds , Lucy May Stanton , and Cornelia Ellis Hildebrandt . This has been reflected more recently by contemporary realist artists such as Dina Brodsky . Contemporary realist Ann Mikolowski

13224-571: Was simultaneously a portrait miniaturist and illustrator of printed matter. Portrait Miniatures and Mourning in Colonial America Throughout the course of history, mourners have carried portraits with them to honor loved ones; this practice made its way to Colonial America in the mid 18th century. Portrait miniatures honoring the deceased could take many forms, such as rings, brooches, lockets, and small frame pictures. Prior to portrait miniatures, loved ones often received tokens of

13340-521: Was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumored Strait of Anián ; or, sail across

13456-566: Was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids. Drake was present at the 1575 Rathlin Island massacre in Ireland. Sir John Norris (or Norreys ) and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the Earl of Essex , Robert Devereux, laid siege to Rathlin Castle . Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all

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