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160-511: The Greek Ottarakorai and the Roman Attacori myths are probably related to Uttara Kuru . Some modern historians identify this kingdom's territory as a frontier north of Gandhara basis that kuru could mean Himalaya, even though there's zero proof and that it especially encompassed modern-day Iran , Kazakhstan , Afghanistan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Kyrgyzstan , and parts of southern Russia . At some point during

320-401: A fairy land. It is stated to be the ultimate abode of the blessed souls. The souls of the blessed ones and the glorious Kshatriyas who fall in battle go to Uttarakuru after death. Adiparva of Mahabharata refers to a practice of free love among the denizens of Uttarakuru , like the one followed by birds and the beasts, and is not regarded sinful as it is stated to have the approval of

480-412: A Buddhist Avadana , Aspavarma and a Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of Buddhism . A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of Gondophares nephew, Abdagases I , and Aspavarma , describing

640-614: A Hindutva apologist Subhash Kak , Uttara Kuru was the Tarim Basin in Xinjiang , China . According to some scholars, the above locations however do not seem to be correct since they go against Aitareya Brahmana evidence which clearly states that Uttarakuru and Uttaramadra lay beyond Himalaya ( pren himvantam janapada Uttarakurva Uttaramadra ). Moreover, no notice of the Uttaramadras ( Bahlika , Bactria ) has been taken of while fixing up

800-678: A Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam , a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu 's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada and Srimadramayana Kalpavrukshamu in Telugu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana who received Jnanapeeth award for this work. There

960-570: A bulwark against the expansion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which Nearchus claimed Cyrus had lost in Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom. Therefore, following Prakash's position, the Achaemenids would have been able to conquer Gandhāra only after a period of decline after the reign of Pukkusāti, combined with

1120-619: A country lying north of Kashmir, south of Khotan and west of Tibet. Thus, the Uttarakuru which finds reference in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Rajatarangini probably can not be identified with the Bahlika or Bactria as M. R. Singh has concluded. Uttarakuru probably comprised north-west of Sinkiang province of China and parts of the Tian-Shan Mountains . Christian Lassen suggests that

1280-550: A demon, Lankini , who protects all of Lankā. Hanumān fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lankā nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry Rāvaṇa. Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as

1440-410: A figure of significance. Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with Gondophares , was succeeded by Sasan , after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognized position as one of Gondophares's successors. He assumed the position following Abdagases I . The Kushan ruler Vima Takto is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of Sasan , whilst

1600-688: A fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II , disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles , son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River . The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas , from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing

1760-523: A gift. Rama's rule itself was Rāma rājya described to be a just and fair rule. It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas , and the festival of Deepavali is connected with Rāma's return. Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in stories such as Sita's exile and death of Shambuka , and together with Bala Kanda it

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1920-409: A gigantic form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva Kanyā who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Maināka who offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanumān refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sītā. After entering Lankā, he finds

2080-739: A monk after becoming a disciple of the Buddha . The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of Darius the Great did the region between the Indus River and the Jhelum River become annexed. However Megasthenes Indica , states that the Achaemenids never conquered India and had only approached its borders after battling with the Massagetae , it further states that

2240-509: A numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of Kujula Kadphises It has also been discovered that Sasan overstruck the coins of Nahapana of the Western Satraps , this line of coinage dating between 40 and 78 CE. It was noted by Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with Phraotes in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between

2400-584: A population coming from Inner Asia Mountain Corridor , which carried Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE. According to Rigvedic tradition , Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya (Gandhara and Vahika tribes) and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to the Madra , Kekaya , Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with

2560-487: A rebellion among the locals of Taxila to which according to the Ashokavadana , he dispatched Ashoka to quell the uprising. Upon entering the city, the populace conveyed that their rebellion was not against Ashoka or Bindusara but rather against oppressive ministers. In Ashoka's subsequent tenure as emperor, he appointed his son as the new governor of Taxila . During this time, Ashoka erected numerous rock edicts in

2720-623: A resurgence under the Turk Shahis and Hindu Shahis . Gandhara was known in Sanskrit as Gandhāraḥ ( गन्धारः ) and in Avestan as ' Vaēkərəta . In Old Persian , Gandhara was known as Gadāra ( 𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼 , also transliterated as Ga dāra since the nasal "n" before consonants were omitted in Old Persian). In Chinese , Gandhara was known as Jiāntuóluó, kɨɐndala, Jìbīn , and Kipin. In Greek , Gandhara

2880-437: A sign that Rāma is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma – "When Rāma was not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there, Hanumān carried Sītā back to Ræma." She says that Rāma himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her comb as

3040-437: A son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Rāvaṇa . As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā. When Rāma

3200-506: A token to prove that she is still alive. Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and tell him of Sītā's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa to release Sīta. He

3360-874: A tributary to the Achaemenids. During the Wars of Alexander the Great , the region was split into two factions with Taxiles , the king of Taxila , allying with Alexander the Great , while the Western Gandharan tribes, exemplified by the Aśvaka around the Swat valley , resisted. Following the Macedonian downfall, Gandhara became part of the Mauryan Empire with Chandragupta Maurya receiving an education in Taxila under Chanakya and later assumed control with his support. Subsequently, Gandhara

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3520-643: A version of the Ramayana in the 17th century. Akbar , the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother, Hamida Banu Begum . Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes from the narrative. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan , a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century; Vilanka Ramayana by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and Jagamohana Ramayana (also known as Dandi Ramayana ) by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in Odia ;

3680-502: A war expedition against the tribes of north (i.e. north of Kashmir) and in sequence, encounters the Kambojas, Tusharas, Bhauttas, Daradas, Valukambudhis, Uttarakurus , Strirajya (mythical or otherwise) and Pragjyotisha with whom he fights one after the other. Ptolemy 's Geography refers to Ottorokorai (Uttarakuru) tribe , Ottorokora as a city, and Ottorokoras as a river. The Attacori of Pliny probably also refers to

3840-406: A wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyī demands Rāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years , while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout

4000-480: Is that the Rama, Lakshmana and Hanuman were tied to a tree and were brought to trial in the tribal court, where the deities of the clan Sidhappan, Nanjappan, Mathappan etc. interrogate them with intense inquiries regarding the ethical justification for abandoning his pregnant wife in the barren jungle, neglecting his duties as a husband. Rama admits his mistakes and reaccepts Sita, Lava and Kusha. Even before Kambar wrote

4160-585: Is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit epic ) from ancient India , one of the two important epics of Hinduism known as the Itihasas , the other being the Mahabharata . The epic narrates the life of Rama , the seventh avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu , who is a prince of Ayodhya in the kingdom of Kosala . The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his father King Dasharatha , on

4320-465: Is a sub-plot to the Ramayana , prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali . Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that

4480-472: Is also noted by Kalhana that Brahmins of Gandhara accepted from Mihirakula gifts of Agraharams . Kalhana also noted in his Rajatarangini how Mihirakula oppressed local Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into Kashmir and India and states that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir. The Turk Shahis ruled Gandhara until 843 CE when they were overthrown by

4640-622: Is also stated to be the lineage of the Kurus themselves. The Karddamas obtained their name from river Karddama in Persia /ancient Iran . Moreover, Sathapatha Brahmana attests a king named Bahlika Pratipeya as of the Kauravya lineage. Bahlika Pratipeya, as the name implies, was a prince of Bahlika (Bactria). Thus, the Bahli, Bahlika was the original home of the Kurus. Thus, Bahlika or Bactria may have constituted

4800-450: Is an epic poem containing over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into seven kāṇḍa s ( Bālakāṇḍa , Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa , Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems ever written. The Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions:

4960-446: Is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called Rama-Rajya (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded the throne after Rama. As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and

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5120-464: Is best if he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā

5280-582: Is composed of two words, Rāma and ayaṇa . Rāma , the name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda , it means 'dark, dark-coloured or black' and is related to the word rātri which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata , is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'. The word ayana means travel or journey. Thus, Rāmāyaṇa means "Rama's journey" with ayana altered to yaṇa (due to

5440-435: Is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news. Also known as Lankā Kāṇḍa , this book describes the war between the army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards

5600-593: Is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the Yuddhakanda. This kanda narrates Rama's reign of Ayodhya , the birth of Lava and Kusha , the Ashvamedha yajna , and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there

5760-707: Is equal to four calendar months on earth. He went for alms to Uttarakuru which is an abode of humanoid beings that lies near Tavatimsa and he did not come back to the earth. <DhA.iv.199-213> Uttarakuru is mentioned in the Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāsika canon. Pt. 23 in Bareau's anthology says: "Les habitants de l'Uttarakuru n'ont pas de détachement (virāga) et les nobles (ārya) n'y naissent pas." (The citizens of Uttarakuru are not dispassionate (virāga) and nobles (ārya) are not born there.) According to Rajatarangini of Kalhana , king Lalitaditya Muktapida of Kashmir leads

5920-500: Is needed to support this, though during the rule of Alexander the Great the kingdom of Taxila stretched to the Hydaspes (Jhelum river). The term Greater Gandhara describes the cultural and linguistic extent of Gandhara and its language, Gandhari . In later historical contexts, Greater Gandhara encompassed the territories of Jibin and Oddiyana which had splintered from Gandhara proper and also extended into parts of Bactria and

6080-455: Is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana . In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana 's wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in the Mahakali form. The Gondi people have their own version of

6240-450: Is presumed to have gained the throne in c. 2 BCE after succeeding Visnuvarma, with a reign of three decades lasting til c. 32 CE before being succeeded by his son Indravasu and then further by Indravasu's grandson Indravarma II in c. 50 CE. The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from Central Asia into South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to

6400-783: Is taken by some as identical with the Kuru country mentioned in the Rig-Veda . The Kurus and Krivis (Panchala) are said to form the Vaikarana of Rigveda and the Vaikarana is often identified with Kashmir . Therefore, Dr Zimmer likes to identify the Vaikarana Kurus with the Uttarakurus and places them in Kashmir Michael Witzel locates his Uttarakuru in Uttarakhand state. According to

6560-413: Is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa. Jatāyu , a vulture , tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard of rakṣasīs . Ravaṇa asks Sītā to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and

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6720-682: The Brāhmaṇa s , according to which they received Brahmanic consecration, but their family's attitude towards ritual is mentioned negatively, with the royal family of Gandhāra during this period following non-Brahmanical religious traditions. According to the Jain Uttarādhyayana-sūtra , Nagnajit, or Naggaji, was a prominent king who had adopted Jainism and was comparable to Dvimukha of Pāñcāla , Nimi of Videha , Karakaṇḍu of Kaliṅga , and Bhīma of Vidarbha ; Buddhist sources instead claim that he had achieved paccekabuddhayāna . By

6880-749: The Gandhara kingdom. The first mention of the Gandhārīs is attested once in the Ṛigveda as a tribe that has sheep with good wool. In the Atharvaveda , the Gandhārīs are mentioned alongside the Mūjavants, the Āṅgeyas and the Māgadhīs in a hymn asking fever to leave the body of the sick man and instead go those aforementioned tribes. The tribes listed were the furthermost border tribes known to those in Madhyadeśa ,

7040-654: The Alvar literature of Kulasekhara Alvar , Thirumangai Alvar , Andal and Nammalvar (dated between 5th and 10th centuries CE). Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva. The entire Ramayana was written as a Tamil Opera again in the 18th century CE by Arunachala Kavirayar in Srirangam . The Ramayana was named as Rama Natakam and was composed in Tamil Language . Arunachala Kavi

7200-590: The Atanatiya Sutta of the Digha Nikaya . It is an island 24000 Yojanas away from Jambudvipa. It is one of the great Mahadvipas or continents. It is said to be a place of great abundance. It falls under the rule of the heavenly king Vessavana . Atanatiya is one of the great cities of this land. The inhabitants are elegant in complexion, unselfish, have no marital relationships (for more than 7 days), have no property of their own, no houses. But they are able to sleep on

7360-580: The Bactrians . Herodotus states that during the battle they were led by the Achamenid general Artyphius . Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were established with provincial capitals. The Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ). It

7520-569: The Behistun inscription of Emperor Darius I , was translated as Paruparaesanna ( Para-upari-sena , meaning "beyond the Hindu Kush") in Babylonian and Elamite in the same inscription. The geographical location of Gandhara has undergone alterations throughout history, with the general understanding being the region situating between Pothohar in contemporary Punjab , the Swat valley , and

7680-461: The Dhamma . A Burmese text called Lokapannatti gives further details on Uttarakuru. Sumangalavilasini says that the wife of a Chakravarti king comes either from Uttarakuru or from the race of a king Madra . Buddhaghosa records a tradition which states that, when Vedic king Mandhata returned to Jambudvipa from his sojourn in the four Mahadipas , there were, in his retinue, a large number of

7840-665: The Gandhara grave culture , characterized by a distinctive burial practice. During the Vedic period Gandhara gained recognition as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas , or 'great realms', within South Asia playing a role in the Kurukshetra War . In the 6th century BCE, King Pukkusāti governed the region and was most notable for defeating the Kingdom of Avanti though Gandhara eventually succumbed as

8000-540: The Himalayan ranges ( Hindukush ). The Aitareya Brahmana adduces these two people as examples of republican (vairajiya) nations, where whole Janapada took the consecration of rulership. Aitareya Brahmana again notes that Uttarakuru was a deva-kshetra or divine land. Based on its description in the Puranas , Uttarakuru seems to be in the real world. Puranic cosmography divides Earth into seven concentric islands called Jambu , Plaksha, Salmali, Kushadvipa, Kraunca, Sakaldwipiya, and Pushkara, that are separated by

8160-413: The Himalayas . Upon reaching, Hanumān is unable to identify the sanjeevani herb that will cure Lakṣmaṇa and so he decides to bring the entire mountain back to Lankā. Eventually, the war ends when Rāma kills Rāvaṇa. Rāma then installs Vibhishaṇa on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over

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8320-449: The Hindu life and culture, and its main figures were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of nations, both Hindu and Buddhist . Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from Sanskrit : रामराज्य , romanized :  Rāmarājya , a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society/ realm. The name Rāmāyaṇa

8480-448: The Hindu Shahis . The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana in Gandhara. The history of the Hindu Shahis begins in 843 CE with Kallar deposing the last Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman. Samanta succeeded him, and it was during his reign that the region of Kabul was lost to the Persianate Saffarid empire . Lalliya replaced Samanta soon after and re-conquered Kabul whilst also subduing

8640-431: The Indus River . This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the Hydaspes River , in modern-day Punjab , a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son who

8800-453: The Kabul River and Taxila had coinage of Orichalcum and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present. They describe Taxila as being the same size as Nineveh , being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus . Following an exchange with

8960-426: The Khyber Pass also extending along the Kabul River . The prominent urban centres within this geographical scope were Taxila and Pushkalavati . According to a specific Jataka , Gandhara's territorial extent at a certain period encompassed the region of Kashmir . The Eastern border of Gandhara has been proposed to be the Jhelum River based on arachaeological Gandharan art discoveries however further evidence

9120-426: The Pothohar Plateau in Punjab , though the cultural influence of Greater Gandhara extended westwards into the Kabul valley in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the Karakoram range. The region was a central location for the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia with many Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visiting the region. Gāndhārī , an Indo-Aryan language written in the Kharosthi script , acted as

9280-547: The Puranas with the Hindukush ranges and locates the Uttakuru in the Pamirs itself. V. S. Aggarwala thinks that the Uttarakuru was located to north of Pamirs in Central Asia and was also famous for its horses of Tittirakalamasha variety . Thus it probably comprised parts of Kyrgyzstan and Tian-Shan . Incidentally, the reference to horses from Uttarakuru rules out any possibility of locating Uttarakurus in Kashmir and Uttarakhand states since these regions have never been noted for their horses . Buddha Prakash locates

9440-440: The Ramavataram in Tamil in the 12th century AD, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the Sangam literature of Akanaṉūṟu (dated 1st century BCE) and Purananuru (dated 300 BC), the twin epics of Silappatikaram (dated 2nd century CE) and Manimekalai (cantos 5, 17 and 18), and

9600-475: The Seleucid Greeks . This engagement is corroborated by Polybius , who records an instance where Antiochus III the Great descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch. The Indo-Greek king Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush , becoming king shortly after his victory. His empire survived him in

9760-446: The Tarim Basin . Oddiyana was situated in the vicinity of the Swat valley , while Jibin corresponded to the region of Kapisa , south of the Hindu Kush . However during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Jibin was often considered synonymous with Gandhara. The Udichya region was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of Vahika and Gandhara. Gandhara's first recorded culture

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9920-550: The valley of Kaśmīra being part of the kingdom. Due to this important position, Buddhist texts listed the Gandhāra kingdom as one of the sixteen Mahājanapada s ("great realms") of Iron Age South Asia. It was the home of Gandhari , the princess and her brother Shakuni the king of Gandhara Kingdom . During the 6th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King Pukkusāti . According to Buddhist accounts, he had forged diplomatic ties with Magadha and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of

10080-463: The 15th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali . Valmiki's Ramayana inspired Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic in Awadhi Hindi with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti ; it is an acknowledged masterpiece, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana . Gujarati poet Premanand wrote

10240-427: The 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura . The first Indo-Scythian king Maues established Saka hegemony by conquering Indo-Greek territories. Some Aprachas are documented on the Silver Reliquary discovered at Sirkap, near Taxila , designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to Senapati , such as that of Indravarma who

10400-408: The 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the Vahika and Gandhara regions spanning from the lower Indus to the mountain tribes near the Hindu Kush . After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoae, the Bolingae, the Gallitalutae, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabae, the Mesae, and after them, the Uri and

10560-502: The 6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BCE) nor the prominence of Magadha (which rose to prominence in the 7th century BCE). The text also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala , rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of Shravasti . In terms of narrative time, the action of the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata . Goldman & Sutherland Goldman (2022) consider Ramayana's oldest surviving version

10720-435: The 7th to 5th centuries BCE, and later stages extend up to the 3rd century CE, although the original date of composition is unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka / Anuṣṭubh metre), divided into seven kāṇḍa (chapters). It belongs to the genre of Itihasa , narratives of past events ( purāvṛtta ), interspersed with teachings on

10880-454: The Anixeni, and the Taxilae, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitae, the Arsagalitae, the Geretae, and the Assoi. The Kushans conquered Bactria after having been defeated by the Xiongnu and forced to retreat from the Central Asian steppes. The Yuezhi fragmented the region of Bactria into five distinct territories, with each tribe of

11040-408: The Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala, which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the Soseadae and the Sondrae, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriae, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritae, the Orsi,

11200-419: The Great encountered a young Chandragupta Maurya in the Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university. Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the Nanda Empire . This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and Kambojas , as documented in the Mudrarakshasa . Bindusaras reign witnessed

11360-551: The Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the Indus . In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great 's military campaign progressed to Arigaum, situated in present-day Nawagai , marking the initial encounter with the Aspasians . Arrian documented their implementation of a scorched earth strategy, evidenced by the city ablaze upon Alexander's arrival, with its inhabitants already fleeing. The Aspasians fiercely contested Alexander's forces, resulting in their eventual defeat. Subsequently, Alexander traversed

11520-563: The Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ( "Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" (" Shah " or "King")). It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and South Asian mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but

11680-735: The Kichaka bamboo region was situated between Mountain Meru (Pamirs) and Mountain Mandara (Alta Tag). The river valleys between these two mountains are still overgrown with forests of Kichaka Bamboos. Ramayana also attests that the valleys of river Shailoda were overgrown with Kichhaka bamboos and the country of Uttarakuru lay beyond river Shailoda as well as the valleys of Kichaka bamboos. River Shailoda of Ramayana and of Mahabharata has been variously identified with river Khotan, Yarkand, and Syr (Jaxartes) by different scholars. Raghuvamsa also refers to

11840-511: The Kichaka bamboos of Central Asia in the eastern regions of the Pamirs or Meru mountains which were known as Dirghavenu in Sanskrit . The above discussion shows that the land of Uttarakurus was located north of river Shailoda as well as of the Kichaka bamboo valley . Rajatarangini places Uttarkuru land in the neighborhood of Strirajya. Based on Xuanzang 's evidence, Strirajya is identified as

12000-777: The Kidarites into northern India. Their last ruler in Gandhara was Kandik, c.  500 CE . Around 430 King Khingila , the most notable Alchon ruler, emerged and took control of the routes across the Hindu Kush from the Kidarites. Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and Mehama were found at the Buddhist monastery of Mes Aynak , southeast of Kabul , confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450–500 CE. The numismatic evidence as well as

12160-695: The Kushans with Kujula Kadphises son Vima Takto succeeding the Apracharaja Sases in Taxila and further conquering Tianzhu (India) before installing a general as a satrap. According to the Xiyu Zhuan, the inhabitants residing in the upper reaches of the Kabul River were extremely wealthy and excelled in commerce, with their cultural practices bearing resemblance to those observed in Tianzhu (India) . However,

12320-627: The Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and the Rishikas . Thereafter, Arjuna subjugated the Kimpuruhas , Haratakas and the Uttarakurus , which were the neighboring tribes in the trans-Himalaya region. Karna in practice of war started Vijayatra conquering whole Eurasia. In the enumeration of the countries of north, Ramayana references Kambojas , Yavanas , Shakas , Paradas and then further northwards, it refers to

12480-466: The North West. Chanakya , a prominent figure in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire , played a key role by adopting Chandragupta Maurya , the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years. Plutarch's accounts suggest that Alexander

12640-636: The Order and became an arahat, after which she went back to Uttarakuru. Uttarakuru is also mentioned in the Abhidhamma text in relation to the Buddha's visit to Tavatimsa, a heavenly world of devas where the Buddha went for the whole of the three-month period of the rains ( vassa ) to expound the Abhidhamma to the gods. Since the Buddha was a human he required to feed his physical body during a short tenure in Tavatismsa which

12800-509: The Ottorokoroi of Ptolemy should be located in the east of Kashgar i.e. in Tarim Basin . Some writers, however, assert that Uttarakuru was the name for the vast area lying north of Himalaya and extending as far as Arctic Circle. Some people tend to identify the Uttarakurus and the Uttaramadras with the ancestors of the Tocharian (Uttarakuru = Tokhari) branch of Indo-Europeans , located to

12960-569: The Persians summoned mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were previously known to have resisted the incursions of Alexander the Great , but they never entered their armies into the region of Gandhara. During the reign of Xerxes I , Gandharan troops were noted by Herodotus to have taken part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece and were described as clothed similar to that of

13120-553: The Ramayana known as the Gond Ramayani , derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride. In Adiya Ramayana, an oral version of Ramayana prevailing among the Adiya tribe of Wayanad , Sita is an Adiya woman hailing from Pulpally in Wayanad. A notable difference in the version

13280-699: The River Guraeus in the contemporary Dir District , engaging with the Asvakas , as chronicled in Sanskrit literature. The primary stronghold among the Asvakas, Massaga , characterized as strongly fortified by Quintus Curtius Rufus , became a focal point. Despite an initial standoff which led to Alexander being struck in the leg by an Asvaka arrow, peace terms were negotiated between the Queen of Massaga and Alexander. However, when

13440-821: The Silae; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to the Organagae, the Abortae, the Bassuertae, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbae, the Marogomatrae, the Umbrittae, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and

13600-515: The Uttarakuru as the land of the "northern Kurus ", a people separate from the Dakshina Kurus. The Brahmanda Purana and Vayu Purana state that Pururavas, the ancestor of the Puru race once inhabited with Urvashi in Uttarakuru. In Matsya Purana , Uttarakuru is described as ' Tirtha ', that is: a pure place where one went to undergo ritual ablutions. Mahabharata sometimes glorifies the Uttarakuru as

13760-409: The Uttarakuru people and their country. Though the later texts mix up the facts with the fancies on Uttarakurus, yet in the earlier, and some of the later texts, Uttarakurus indeed appear to be historical people. Hence scholars have attempted to identify the actual location of Uttarakuru. Puranic accounts always locate the Uttarakuru varsa in the northern parts of Jambudvipa . The Uttarakuru

13920-647: The Uttarakuru-varsa in Sinkiang province of China . Bhishamaparava of Mahabharata attests that the country of Uttarakuru lay to the north of Mt Meru and to the south of Nila Parvata The Mt Meru of Hindu traditions is identified with the knot of Pamirs . Mountain Nila may have been the Altai-Mt . The Mahabharata refers to the Kichaka bamboos growing on the banks of river Shailoda. Mahabharata further attests that

14080-480: The Uttarakuru. Mahabharata and Sumangalavilasini also note that the people of Kuru had originally migrated from Uttarakutru. Bactria is evidently beyond the Hindukush i.e. Himalaya. In ancient literature, Himalaya is said to be extending from eastern ocean to western ocean and even today is not separated from it. The above identification of Uttarakuru comes from Dr M. R. Singh. K. P. Jayswal identifies Mt Meru of

14240-556: The Yuezhi assuming dominion over a separate kingdom. However, a century after this division, Kujula Kadphises of the Kushan tribe emerged victorious by destroying the other four Yuezhi tribes and consolidating his reign as king. Kujula then invaded Parthia and annexed the upper reaches of the Kabul River before further conquering Jibin . In 78 CE the Indo-Parthians seceded Gandhara to

14400-480: The above location of Uttarakuru. Uttarakurus and Uttaramadras are stated to be immediate neighbors in the Trans-Himalaya region per Aitareya Brahmana evidence. Ramayana testifies that the original home of the Kurus was in Bahli country. Ila, son of Parajapati Karddama was a king of Bahli, where Bahli represents Sanskrit Bahlika (Bactria). Also the kings from Aila lineage have been called Karddameyas. The Aila

14560-538: The aid of the rakṣasa Mārīca . Mārīca, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā under Lakṣmaṇa's guard. After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it

14720-442: The amalgamation of "a" in Rama and the "a" in ayana, as per the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi ). Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 5th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. According to Robert P. Goldman (1984), the oldest parts of the Ramayana date to the early 7th century BCE . The later parts cannot have been composed later than

14880-414: The ascetic Śabarī , who directs them towards Sugriva and Hanuman. Kishkindha Kanda is set in the place of Vānaras (Vana-nara) – Forest dwelling humans. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of Sugriva , the banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vāli thus regaining

15040-527: The bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā; the wedding is celebrated with great festivity in Mithilā and the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā. After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy about this, but was later on provoked by Mantharā ,

15200-431: The burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to Rāma, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of Agni Pariksha varies in the versions of Ramāyaṇa by Valmiki and Tulsidas . In Tulsidas 's Ramcharitmanas , Sītā was under the protection of Agni (see Māyā Sītā ) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rāma. The gods led by Brahma arrive and glorify Rama as

15360-540: The capital of the great empire stretching from Central Asia to Northern India with Gandhara being in the midst of it. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith; Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and Sogdia , where his empire met the Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. In Gandhara, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha

15520-455: The defenders had vacated the fort, a fierce battle ensued when Alexander broke the treaty. According to Diodorus Siculus , the Asvakas, including women fighting alongside their husbands, valiantly resisted Alexander's army but were ultimately defeated. During the Mauryan era, Gandhara held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with Taxila serving as the provincial capital of

15680-402: The earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Aṅgada and Hanumān learns from a vulture named Sampātī the elder brother of Jatāyu, that Sītā was taken to Lankā. Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanumān 's heroics. After learning about Sītā, Hanumān assumes

15840-501: The earth, sweet smelling rice without husk grows on its own accord, rice is cooked on pots using stoves and self heating crystals. The people of Uttarakuru naturally have great virtue of Pancasila and a fixed lifespan. Trees have an abundance of fruits, birds sing beautiful songs (some cry saying "jiva" or long life) and there is an all giving Kalparuksha . It is also said that only those with great iddhi powers or cakkavattin kings who can visit this place. These people cannot comprehend

16000-465: The enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa". However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened. So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter. When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays to Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from

16160-525: The epic without two of its kandas. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram , known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil , but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. The Telugu rendition, Ranganatha Ramayanam , was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 13th century and another of a purer Telugu rendition, called Molla Ramayanam written by Atukuri Molla in

16320-559: The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana , and the Puranas . The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life . It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal son, servant, brother, husband, wife, and king. Like the Mahabharata , Ramayana presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrative allegory , interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana

16480-570: The famous Vedic philosopher Uddālaka Āruṇi was among the famous students of Takṣaśila, and the Setaketu Jātaka claims that his son Śvetaketu also studied there. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad , Uddālaka Āruṇi himself favourably referred to Gāndhārī education to the Vaideha king Janaka . During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west Iron Age South Asia, with

16640-430: The forest and implores him to return to Ayodhyā and claim the throne that is rightfully his. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Bharata reluctantly returns to Ayodhyā and rules the kingdom on behalf of his brother. In exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks of the river Godāvari , where they build cottages and live off

16800-464: The goals of human life . There are many versions of the Ramayana in Indian languages, including Buddhist and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian ( Reamker ), Indonesian , Filipino , Thai ( Ramakien ), Lao , Burmese , Nepali , Maldivian , Vietnamese , Tibeto-Chinese , and Malay versions of the Ramayana. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and

16960-572: The growth of Achaemenid power under the kings Cambyses II and Darius I . However, the presence of Gandhāra among the list of Achaemenid provinces in Darius's Behistun Inscription confirms that his empire had inherited this region from Cyrus. It is unknown whether Pukkusāti remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian satrap , although Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne and became

17120-415: The incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra restores the dead Vanaras back to life. After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy they celebrate it like a festival. Deepavali is the day considered that Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumān reached Ayodhyā after a period of 14 years in exile after Rāma's army of good defeated demon king Rāvaṇa's army of evil. The return of Rāma to Ayodhyā

17280-625: The inhabitants riding on elephants in warfare. The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent. Gandhara's culture peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka the Great (127 CE – 150 CE). The cities of Taxila (Takṣaśilā) at Sirsukh and Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar ) reached new heights. Purushapura along with Mathura became

17440-650: The joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its first ruler Gondophares . For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan ) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence, the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar . These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage

17600-523: The killing of the ascetic Sambuka. The U-K attributes both actions to Rama, whom people acknowledged to be righteous and as a model to follow. By masquerading as an additional kanda of the Ramayana composed by Valmiki himself, the U-K succeeded, to a considerable extent, in sabotaging the values presented in Valmiki's Ramayana. The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in

17760-415: The king, Phraotes is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom. Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along

17920-472: The kingdom of Lahore was conquered. The following Shahi rulers all resisted the Ghaznavids but were ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in the downfall of the empire in 1026 CE. Ramayana Traditional The Ramayana ( / r ɑː ˈ m ɑː j ə n ə / ; Sanskrit : रामायणम् , romanized :  Rāmāyaṇam ), also known as Valmiki Ramayana , as traditionally attributed to Valmiki ,

18080-417: The kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā. However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tārā , (wife of Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of

18240-514: The land of the Uttarakurus lying beyond river Shailoda and Kichaka bamboos valleys. It gives very vivid and graphic picture of Uttarakuru region. Uttarakuru also finds numerous references in Buddhist literature. In Digha Nikaya , Uttarakuru is said to be the name of city . Lalita-Vistara describes the Uttarakuru as Pratyanta-dvipa or a frontier island . Uttarakuru is well described in

18400-536: The land. One day, in the Pañcavati forest they are visited by a rākṣasī named Śurpaṇakhā , sister of Ravaṇa. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sītā out of jealousy. Lakṣmaṇa stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothers Khara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas. When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy Rāma by capturing Sītā with

18560-439: The landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes. The party then decide to go to attend king Janaka's sacrifice in the kingdom of Mithilā , who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughter Sītā , whom he had found in the earth when plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string

18720-732: The last vestige of the Greco-Indian rulers was finished by a people known to the old Chinese as the Yeuh-Chi. The Apracharajas were a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the governance of Menander II within the Indo-Greek Kingdom to the era of the early Kushans . Renowned for their significant support of Buddhism , this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations within their principal domain, between Taxila and Bajaur . Archaeological evidence also establishes dynastic affiliations between them and

18880-562: The later Vedic period , the situation had changed, and the Gāndhārī capital of Takṣaśila had become an important centre of knowledge where the men of Madhya-desa went to learn the three Vedas and the eighteen branches of knowledge, with the Kauśītaki Brāhmaṇa recording that brāhmaṇa s went north to study. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Uddālaka Jātaka ,

19040-463: The lingua franca of the region and through Buddhism , the language spread as far as China based on Gandhāran Buddhist texts . Famed for its unique Gandharan style of art , the region attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century CE under the Kushan Empire which had their capital at Puruṣapura , ushering the period known as Pax Kushana . The history of Gandhara originates with

19200-430: The main epic, according to many Uttara Kanda is certainly a later interpolation, not attributable to Valmiki. Both of these two kāndas are absent in the oldest manuscript. Some think that the Uttara Kanda contradicts how Rama and Dharma are portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran says that the way the positions of women and Shudras are depicted shows that the Uttara Kanda is a later insertion. Since Rama

19360-499: The mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas at Taxila , a high centre of learning, which never recovered from the destruction. Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. It is thought that the Kanishka stupa , one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity,

19520-568: The next most notable ruler, is most significant for vanquishing the Samanid Empire in Ghazni and Kabul in response to their conquests, his grand-daughter Didda was also the last ruler of the Lohara dynasty . Jayapala then gained control and was brought into conflict with the newly formed Ghaznavid Empire , however, he was eventually defeated. During his rule and that of his son and successor, Anandapala,

19680-555: The north of the Himalayas [1] Tokhari or Tukharas , the later Yucchis , are the same as the Rishikas of Mahabharata. Gandhara Gandhara ( IAST : Gandhāra ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan civilization centred in present-day north-west Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan . The core of the region of Gandhara was the Peshawar and Swat valleys extending as far east as

19840-424: The northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana , like the Mahabharata , is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind." There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes of Valmiki's Ramayana (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) were composed by the original author. Though Bala Kanda is sometimes considered in

20000-557: The people of Uttarakuru . They all settled down in Jambudípa, and their settlement became known as Kururattha (Kuru Rashtra). Majjhima Commentary also attests that the people of Kururatha had originally belonged to the Uttarakuru. Uttarakuru is mentioned in Dhammapada Verse 416 in relation to Jotika, a treasurer and extraordinarily rich person of Rajagaha who was a follower of the Buddha and later became an arahat. He had an alien wife who

20160-407: The realm of Avanti . Pukkusāti 's kingdom was described as being 100 Yojanas in width, approximately 500 to 800 miles wide, with his capital at Taxila in modern day Punjab as stated in early Jatakas It is noted by R. C. Majumdar that Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the Achamenid king Cyrus the Great and according to the scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as

20320-444: The region in the Kharosthi script and commissioned the construction of a monumental stupa in Pushkalavati , Western Gandhara, the location of which remains undiscovered to date. According to the Taranatha , following the death of Ashoka , the northwestern region seceded from the Maurya Empire , and Virasena emerged as its king. Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavors, Virasena's successor, Subhagasena , maintained relations with

20480-435: The region of Zabulistan . He is additionally noteworthy for coming into conflict with Samkaravarman of the Utpala dynasty , resulting in his victory and the latter's death in Hazara and was the first Shahi noted by Kalhana . He is depicted as a great ruler with strength to the standard where kings of other regions would seek shelter in his capital of Udabhanda , a change from the previous capital of Kabul . Bhimadeva,

20640-550: The reign of Pururavas - Aila (the first king mentioned in the line of lunar dynasty of Indian kings) Uttara Kuru and the Kurus of India belonged to the same Kuru Empire. Arjuna collected tribute from Uttara Kuru during his northern military campaign for Yudhishthira 's Rajasuya sacrifice. The epics also mention that they followed a republican constitution with no monarchy. Aitareya Brahmana makes first reference to Uttarakuru and Uttaramadra as real-life Janapadas . According to Aitareya Brahmana, these two nations lay beyond

20800-422: The reign of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology, Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja preceding Vijayamitra . Indravarmas son Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the Indo-Scythian ruler Azes II and Gondophares of the Indo-Parthians whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with

20960-404: The request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi ; his travels across forests in the Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana ; the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana , the king of Lanka , that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya along with Sita to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration. Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from

21120-400: The rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia , Cambodia , Philippines , Thailand , Malaysia , Laos , Vietnam and Maldives . There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents

21280-427: The rishis and the sanction of antiquity. At other times, the epic describes the Uttarakurus as real entity and associates them with the real Kurus . At the Rajasuya Sacrifice performed by king Yudhishtra , the kings of north-west brought gifts, some of which belonged to Uttarakuru . After reducing the Kambojas and Daradas on south of Hindukush , Arjuna proceeded to Trans-Hindukush countries and fought with

21440-418: The rulers of Oddiyana in modern-day Swat. The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Vijayakamitra, identified as a vassal to Menander II , according to the Shinkot casket . This epigraphic source further articulates that King Vijayamitra , a descendant of Vijayakamitra, approximately half a century subsequent to the initial inscription, is credited with its restoration following inflicted damage. He

21600-406: The seven encircling seas . The insular continent Jambudvipa forms the innermost concentric island in the scheme of continents. Jambudvipa includes nine countries (varṣa) and nine mountains. The land of Illa-vrta lies at the center of Jambudivipa at whose center is located Mount Meru ( Hindu Kush ). The land of Uttarakuru lies to the north of Mount Meru/ Kailash. The Bhagavata Purana notes

21760-399: The shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade brother Vibhiṣaṇa . The vānaras named Nala and Nīla construct the Rama Setu . The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Meghanāda hurls a powerful weapon at Lakṣmaṇa and he gets mortally wounded. So Hanumān assumes his gigantic form and flies from Lankā to

21920-426: The so-called " Hephthalite bowl " from Gandhara, now in the British Museum , suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two Kidarite noble hunters, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion. At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of Khingila . The Alchons undertook

22080-428: The story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to take her with him in exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his brother into the forest. After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. He is shocked and refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming. He visits Rāma in

22240-406: The text also characterizes them as weak and easily conquered with their political allegiance never being constant. Over time, the region underwent successive annexations by Tianzhu , Jibin , and Parthia during periods of their respective strength, only to be lost when these powers experienced a decline. The Xiyu Zhuan describes Tianzhu's customs as bearing similarities to that of the Yuezhi and

22400-417: The two great cities of Massaga located around the Swat valley and Pushkalavati in modern day Peshawar. The sovereign of Taxila , Omphis , formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by a longstanding animosity towards Porus , who governed the region encompassed by the Chenab and Jhelum River . Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among

22560-478: The world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of metre called śloka , in which he is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of king Rāma. Then the main narrative begins. Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have

22720-445: The writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks. The Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art , became extinct around this period. When Xuanzang visited Gandhara in c.  630 CE , he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined in favour of Shaivism and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. It

22880-426: The Āṅgeyas and Māgadhīs in the east, and the Mūjavants and Gandhārīs in the north. The Gandhara tribe , after which it is named, is attested in the Rigveda ( c.  1500  – c.  1200 BCE ), while the region is mentioned in the Zoroastrian Avesta as Vaēkərəta , the seventh most beautiful place on earth created by Ahura Mazda . The Gāndhārī king Nagnajit and his son Svarajit are mentioned in

23040-414: Was 16 years old, the r̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroy Tāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of

23200-416: Was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance. During this period in

23360-436: Was a general during the reign of the Apracharaja Vijayamitra . Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the above-mentioned Silver Reliquary from the Indo-Scythian monarch Kharahostes , which he subsequently re-dedicated as a Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during

23520-400: Was also during the Achaemenid Empire rule of Gandhara that the Kharosthi script, the script of Gandhari prakrit , was born through the Aramaic alphabet. According to Arrian 's Indica , the area corresponding to Gandhara situated between the Kabul River and the Indus River was inhabited by two tribes noted as the Assakenoi and Astakanoi whom he describes as 'Indian' and occupying

23680-422: Was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. The Kidarites conquered Peshawar and parts of the northwest Indian subcontinent including Gandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410 from Kushan empire, around the end of the rule of Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of Kumaragupta I . It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed

23840-431: Was brought to him by the gods and she came from Uttarakuru or the 'Northern Island' since it is situated in the North of Mt. Meru, a mythical structure in the cosmos that harbours various abodes/planets including the earth. Her name was Satulakayi and she brought with her a pint-pot of rice and three crystals stone-stove that cooked rice automatically and could serve food for many people. She stayed with Jotika until he joined

24000-422: Was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rāma pattabhisheka . There are mentions in Rāmayaṇa that Rama gave several donations to Sugriva, Jambavan, other Vanaras, and gave a pearl necklace to Sita telling her to give it to a great person. She gives it to Hanumān. Rāma was so thankful to Vibhisaṇa and wanted to give him a great gift. Rāma gave his Aradhana Devata (Sri Ranganathaswamy) to Vibhishana as

24160-468: Was composed around 500 BCE. Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books ( Balakanda and Uttara Kanda , respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi toward this consensus. The Ramayana belongs to the genre of Itihasa , narratives of past events ( purāvṛtta ), which includes

24320-411: Was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. The Mankiala stupa was also vandalized during their invasions. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara. During the reign of Mihirakula , over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. In particular,

24480-409: Was fascinated by the epic Ramayana so much that he wanted to impart the story and the good lessons preached by it to a large number of persons who could not obviously read the entire epic in original. He composed the entire Ramayana in the form of songs together as an opera so even normal people could understand his Ramayana. In the Buddhist variant of the Ramayana ( Dasaratha Jataka ), Dasharatha

24640-400: Was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for

24800-429: Was known as Paropamisadae One proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandhaḥ ( गन्धः ), meaning "perfume" and "referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they (the inhabitants) traded and with which they anointed themselves". The Gandhari people are a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda , the Atharvaveda , and later Vedic texts. A Persian form of the name, Gandara , mentioned in

24960-436: Was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares , which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. During the dominion of the Indo-Parthians , Apracharaja Sasan , as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of Aspavarma , emerged as

25120-432: Was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhist stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built the 400-foot Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Chinese monks Faxian , Song Yun , and Xuanzang who visited the country. The stupa was built during the Kushan era to house Buddhist relics and

25280-426: Was revered as a dharmatma, his ideas seen in the Ramayana proper cannot be replaced by new ideas as to what dharma is, except by claiming that he himself adopted those new ideas. That is what the U-K [Uttara Kanda] does. It embodies the new ideas in two stories that are usually referred to as Sita-parityaga, the abandonment of Sita (after Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya and Rama was consecrated as king) and Sambuka-vadha,

25440-417: Was successively annexed by the Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians , and Indo-Parthians though a regional Gandharan kingdom, known as the Apracharajas , retained governance during this period until the ascent of the Kushan Empire . The zenith of Gandhara's cultural and political influence transpired during Kushan rule, before succumbing to devastation during the Hunnic Invasions . However, the region experienced

25600-530: Was the Grave Culture that emerged c.  1200 BCE and lasted until 800 BCE, and named for their distinct funerary practices. It was found along the Middle Swat River course, even though earlier research considered it to be expanded to the Valleys of Dir , Kunar , Chitral , and Peshawar . It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Backwards projections, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat culture people mixed with

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