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104-542: The indigenous Urus have darker skin than their neighbours Aymaras and Quechuas . According to legend, the Uru descend from a people that spoke the Puquina language . While most of the Uru have shifted to Aymara and Spanish , two people still spoke in 2004 the nearly extinct Uru language , which is closely related to the Chipaya language . The Uru considered themselves the owners of

208-549: A climate altogether unsuited to their constitution), or to the Silver mines of Potosí , Chayanta , Oruro , &c. (where from forced labour, ill-treatment, and insufficient food, they succumbed equally fast, only to be replaced by fresh supplies similarly obtained). In 1542, the Dominican friar, Bartolomé de las Casas (1474 - 1566) published his testimony of the abuse of the Aymara by

312-537: A ginseng or turnip like vegetable; onion ( Trichlora ); olluco ( Ullucus ), a root vegetable that looks like a small potato; Yacón , a root vegetable called ground apple and cherimoya (Annona). The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is indigenous to the region of the Aymara. Wild species are no longer eaten but are still found. Peru has 47% of all wild potato species. Cultivated species are a dietary staple. Potato can be stored for many years as Chuño . Potatoes are exposed to freezing temperatures overnight then dried during

416-537: A ginseng or turnip like vegetable; onion ( Trichlora ); olluco ( Ullucus ), a root vegetable that looks like a small potato; Yacón , a root vegetable called ground apple and cherimoya (Annona). The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is indigenous to the region of the Aymara. Wild species are no longer eaten but are still found. Peru has 47% of all wild potato species. Cultivated species are a dietary staple. Potato can be stored for many years as Chuño . Potatoes are exposed to freezing temperatures overnight then dried during

520-514: A group of language dialects of which the origin, spread and time-frame are debated. The early history of the Aymara people is uncertain. Various hypotheses have been voiced. Archeological data of the Titicaca basin in the Altiplano (high plain) comes from the site of the ancient city of Tiwanaku . A radiocarbon dating study suggests the ancient city was founded in about 110 CE. Origin legends of

624-609: A long pilgrimage to the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon to the ruined but ritually powerful city of Tiwanaku, sought to have some of their sons and daughters conceived and born in the lake area (and) offered precious objects to the cold waters. In 1438, Aymara warriors were, be it as mercenaries, volunteers or conscripts, present in the army of the Inca ruler, Pachacuti in the defense of Cusco during

728-807: A subject people of the Inca Empire in the late 15th or early 16th century, and later of the Spanish in the 16th century. With the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1825), the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia and Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile annexed territory with the Aymara population. The name of the Aymara people stems from the word Ayma-ra-mi meaning "a place with many communally owned farms". The word "Aymara" also refers to

832-403: A tea or sucked with a pinch of wood ash . Medicinally, coca has been used to relieve stomach complaints, including hunger. Whether or not coca ameliorates the symptoms of altitude related illness remains uncertain. The psychoactive drug , cocaine is just one of the alkaloid substances found in coca plants. One variant grown for its cocaine content is Erythroxylum coca . Other variants of

936-403: A tea or sucked with a pinch of wood ash . Medicinally, coca has been used to relieve stomach complaints, including hunger. Whether or not coca ameliorates the symptoms of altitude related illness remains uncertain. The psychoactive drug , cocaine is just one of the alkaloid substances found in coca plants. One variant grown for its cocaine content is Erythroxylum coca . Other variants of

1040-613: A town about 2000 km north of Cusco, Pizarro met and captured Atahualpa . Atahualpa, known for his tyrannical rule, was executed in July 1533. Pizarro reached Cusco by 1534. Some native groups saw the Spaniards as liberators and lent support to Pizarro. Pizarro also secured a lineage of Inca puppet rulers , including Manco Inca Yupanqui . Manco Inca Yupanqui, was ill treated by Pizarro's men. He escaped then returned with tens of thousands warriors, forcing Cusco into siege . After ten months, and

1144-502: A true picture of the barbarous treatment which they, as well as the neighbouring Indian tribes, experienced at the hands of the Spaniards. Treated infinitely worse than slaves, they were torn from their homes and families to be driven like cattle either to the Coca plantations and Gold washings in the Yungas , or hot unhealthy valleys to the east of the high Andes (where they rapidly fell victims to

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1248-494: A watchtower, as do most smaller islands. The Uru traded with the Aymara tribe on the mainland, intermarrying with them and eventually abandoning the Uru language for that of the Aymara. They lost their original language about 500 years ago. When conquered by the Inca Empire , they had to pay taxes to them, and often were enslaved . Starting from at 1722 a conflict arose between the Uru and Aymara people , but these conflicts ended in

1352-399: Is based on the seasons and key agricultural events. It gives the foundation of the existence of the Aymara and their responsibility to the natural environment. The Aymara concept of time comes from the cycle of natural events such as the seasons, historical events such as the arrival of the Spaniards and mythological concepts such as the time of the sun. When there is a major shift in these, it

1456-399: Is based on the seasons and key agricultural events. It gives the foundation of the existence of the Aymara and their responsibility to the natural environment. The Aymara concept of time comes from the cycle of natural events such as the seasons, historical events such as the arrival of the Spaniards and mythological concepts such as the time of the sun. When there is a major shift in these, it

1560-499: Is buildings designed in a " Neo-Andean " style which has appeared in El Alto . Both Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia took up the style of wearing bowler hats in the 1920s. According to legend, a shipment of bowler hats was sent from Europe to Bolivia via Peru for use by Europeans working on railroad construction. They were given to the indigenous people if they were too small for

1664-403: Is buildings designed in a " Neo-Andean " style which has appeared in El Alto . Both Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia took up the style of wearing bowler hats in the 1920s. According to legend, a shipment of bowler hats was sent from Europe to Bolivia via Peru for use by Europeans working on railroad construction. They were given to the indigenous people if they were too small for

1768-445: Is classically cooked in pots on pottery stoves; these are placed on flat stones to prevent the flammable reed islands from catching fire. To relieve themselves, tiny "outhouse" islands are placed near the main islands with simple toilets installed in them. The ground root absorbs the waste. Most islands feature a standardized shower building with tile roofs, water heating cells and a hot water boiler to allow for warm showers. Houses on

1872-672: Is spoken by 1.6% of the population. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala . It is an ancient design associated with the Inca. It is an ethnic symbol for the Aymara and has been adopted as a symbol of indigenous rights. It consists of seven colors patched together in diagonal stripes. The different colours represent geographical regions. The meaning of colours have been adapted to represent different areas of indigenous culture: red (planet earth); orange (society); yellow (strength and morality); green (economy and ecology); blue (supernatural life); and, violet (self-determination). The native language of

1976-623: Is spoken by 1.6% of the population. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala . It is an ancient design associated with the Inca. It is an ethnic symbol for the Aymara and has been adopted as a symbol of indigenous rights. It consists of seven colors patched together in diagonal stripes. The different colours represent geographical regions. The meaning of colours have been adapted to represent different areas of indigenous culture: red (planet earth); orange (society); yellow (strength and morality); green (economy and ecology); blue (supernatural life); and, violet (self-determination). The native language of

2080-491: Is transformation ( kuti ). The deities are regarded in a hierarchical system. Aymara people The Aymara or Aimara ( Aymara : aymara listen ), people are an indigenous people in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America . Approximately 2.3 million Aymara live in northwest Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , and Peru . The ancestors of the Aymara lived in the region for many centuries before becoming

2184-445: Is very cool to the touch. The white part of the reed is also used to help ease alcohol-related hangovers. The totora reeds are a primary source of food. The Uru also make a reed flower tea . Local residents fish ispi, carachi and catfish . Trout was introduced to the lake from Canada in 1940, and kingfish was introduced from Argentina . Uru also hunt birds such as sea gulls , ducks and flamingos , and graze their cattle on

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2288-590: The Chanka–Inca War . The date of Inca conquest of the Altiplano is uncertain beyond that, it began later than 1438 CE and was well completed by 1500 CE. The often quoted Spanish conquistador and chronicler, Pedro Cieza de León travelled through the Altiplano in 1548. He gives the ruler, Viracocha Inca ( c.  1410 – 1438 CE) as the first to expand Inca territory south from the Kingdom of Cusco but that he

2392-464: The Chullo , a knitted wool cap with ear flaps and ties; a woven carrying cloth Aguayo carried across the shoulders; a poncho; and a full circle skirt gathered and decorated in horizontal layers (corte). Development of the Aymara textile industry has led to expositions of luxury alpaca wool garments, silks, lace and delicately embroidered blouses. Another innovation drawing on the Aymara colorful aesthetic

2496-416: The Chullo , a knitted wool cap with ear flaps and ties; a woven carrying cloth Aguayo carried across the shoulders; a poncho; and a full circle skirt gathered and decorated in horizontal layers (corte). Development of the Aymara textile industry has led to expositions of luxury alpaca wool garments, silks, lace and delicately embroidered blouses. Another innovation drawing on the Aymara colorful aesthetic

2600-507: The Isla del Sol (Sun Island), a rocky island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca, for ritual worship of the Sun God. Charles Stanish writes, Throughout their short reigns, Inca emperors were obligated to make a long pilgrimage to the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon to the ruined but ritually powerful city of Tiwanaku, sought to have some of their sons and daughters conceived and born in

2704-504: The Isthmus of Panama into the Pacific Ocean . Twenty-nine years later, on 16 November 1532, explorer and conquistador , Francisco Pizarro (1478 - 1541 CE), travelled south from La Isla Gorgona lured by stories of silver, gold and precious gems. On reaching Cajamarca , a town about 2000 km north of Cusco, Pizarro met and captured Atahualpa . Atahualpa, known for his tyrannical rule,

2808-510: The Tarapacá province of Peru. It resulted in Aymara people being politically separated between the three nations. The border between Peru and Bolivia transects Lake Titicaca. Chile denied Bolivia of its only seaport at Arica . The Aymara people left living in Chile, once again had most aspects of their lives torn asunder. In this case, it was Chilean military clergy who began the " chilenization" of

2912-413: The Tarapacá province of Peru. It resulted in Aymara people being politically separated between the three nations. The border between Peru and Bolivia transects Lake Titicaca. Chile denied Bolivia of its only seaport at Arica . The Aymara people left living in Chile, once again had most aspects of their lives torn asunder. In this case, it was Chilean military clergy who began the " chilenization" of

3016-470: The crown . New grants could not be given and importantly, an encomienda could not be an inheritable property. Among the approximate five hundred encomiendas in the viceroyalty of Peru, there were cases of corruption and circumvention of the new laws. There were skirmishes between Royalist soldiers and groups of encomenderos, culminating in the death of many encomenderos in an insurrection led by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. The new laws started to stream line

3120-546: The ibis , is domesticated for laying eggs. Ibis are also butchered for meat. To control rats on the reed islands, domestic cats are also kept by the Uru islanders. Some islands also feature ponds inside the island; yet again some of these are lined with a large fishing net and suggest localised aquaculture . The primary amount of fish is still caught in the wide open of Lake Titicaca. The Uru do not reject modern technology: most boats have motors, nearly all islands have shared solar panels to run appliances such as televisions, and

3224-423: The 1970s when the Aymara defeated the Uru, and took permanent control of the lands that belonged to them. The Uru use bundles of dried Totora reeds to make reed boats ( balsas ), and to make the islands themselves. The larger islands house about ten families, while smaller ones, only about thirty meters wide, house only two or three families. Each island lasts about 25 years. After 25 years, water seeps through

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3328-532: The Altiplano in 1548. He gives the ruler, Viracocha Inca ( c.  1410 – 1438 CE) as the first to expand Inca territory south from the Kingdom of Cusco but that he was unsuccessful in securing the area. Again, de León records Viracocha's successor, Pachacuti ( c.  1418 – 1471 CE) as the leader who succeeded in bringing the area under Inca control, effected by his son, Yupanqui ( c.  1471 – 1493 CE). This chronology has been used widely by historians and archeologists in this field following

3432-569: The Altiplano, the Titicaca basin, and the ancient city of Tiwanaku to the south of Lake Titicaca, also encountered the Inca civilisation prior to the rise of the Inca Empire . One of the Inca origin stories tells of Manco Capac and Mama Occlo being brought up from the waters of Lake Titicaca by the Sun God to create an Inca dynasty. The rulers of the Kingdom of Cusco were obligated to travel regularly to

3536-432: The Aymara lived in the region for many centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca Empire in the late 15th or early 16th century, and later of the Spanish in the 16th century. With the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1825), the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia and Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile annexed territory with the Aymara population. The name of

3640-530: The Aymara people he met did not know who had built the ancient city. When Inca migrants first arrived at the traditional lands of the Aymara people, some Aymara people and other ethnic groups were living side by side in the village of Acamaca. Acamaca, located to the north of Lake Titicaca, would grow to be the site of the later Kingdom of Cusco , the capital of the Inca Empire and the current day city of Cusco . The Inca arrived not as an army but as migrants searching for agricultural land. The Aymara people of

3744-473: The Aymara people in terms of time frame seem inconsistent to archeologists. Archeologist Carlos Mamani Condori suggests this is because the Aymara tradition may see the passage of time as a continuum rather than in terms of prehistory and history. The Aymara may have been settlers from elsewhere rather than the builders of the ancient city. Pedro Cieza de León (1518-1554), the Spanish chronicler of Peru, wrote that

3848-571: The Aymara people is called Aymara . It is spoken from the north of Lake Titicaca to the south of Lake Poopó . Aymara is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It is spoken by 1.6% of the Peruvian population. Aymara has no distant language relative but there are some nearby similar languages. Quechua has some overlap with Aymara brought by contact. There are two closely related languages called Jaqaru and Kawki. A small isolated group of about 1000 people speak these languages in and around

3952-520: The Aymara people is called Aymara . It is spoken from the north of Lake Titicaca to the south of Lake Poopó . Aymara is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It is spoken by 1.6% of the Peruvian population. Aymara has no distant language relative but there are some nearby similar languages. Quechua has some overlap with Aymara brought by contact. There are two closely related languages called Jaqaru and Kawki. A small isolated group of about 1000 people speak these languages in and around

4056-402: The Aymara people stems from the word Ayma-ra-mi meaning "a place with many communally owned farms". The word "Aymara" also refers to a group of language dialects of which the origin, spread and time-frame are debated. The early history of the Aymara people is uncertain. Various hypotheses have been voiced. Archeological data of the Titicaca basin in the Altiplano (high plain) comes from

4160-541: The Aymara people's spiritual life, for example, rituals or seasons of the year, with the liturgy and the liturgical calendar. On the other hand, such efforts were shunned by those who saw the Aymara spiritual life as one of idolatry and objected to the use of alcohol or coca in rituals. In the Spanish colonial era, the region of Aymara and Quechuan habitation was divided into eleven provinces. They were Canchi, Caranga, Chocarca, Colla, Collagua, Collahuaya, Omasuyo, Lupaca, Quillaca, Urbina, and Picasa. Insurrection in

4264-541: The Aymara people's spiritual life, for example, rituals or seasons of the year, with the liturgy and the liturgical calendar. On the other hand, such efforts were shunned by those who saw the Aymara spiritual life as one of idolatry and objected to the use of alcohol or coca in rituals. In the Spanish colonial era, the region of Aymara and Quechuan habitation was divided into eleven provinces. They were Canchi, Caranga, Chocarca, Colla, Collagua, Collahuaya, Omasuyo, Lupaca, Quillaca, Urbina, and Picasa. Insurrection in

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4368-418: The Aymara were increasingly subjugated by the building of civil, military, agricultural and religious infrastructure through their lands, removal of their sons to Cusco for education, taxation in the form of relinquishing sacred objects to the Inca. The Aymara were also required to give labour and military service to the Inca. Moreover, groups of Aymara were removed from their village to work in other parts of

4472-457: The Aymara. The emphasis of this program was indoctrination of the ideology of Chilean nationalism . The total number of Aymara people is quoted at 1,847,000. Approximately 30% live in Peru and approximately 60% in Bolivia. The rest are divided between Chile (6%) and Argentina (0.2%). Most self-identify as Christian. Aymara language is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It

4576-407: The Aymara. The emphasis of this program was indoctrination of the ideology of Chilean nationalism . The total number of Aymara people is quoted at 1,847,000. Approximately 30% live in Peru and approximately 60% in Bolivia. The rest are divided between Chile (6%) and Argentina (0.2%). Most self-identify as Christian. Aymara language is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It

4680-778: The Empire, the number of Aymara living in Cusco itself was limited and colonists from elsewhere in the Empire were settled in the region. Christopher Colombus (1451 - 1506 CE) set sail from Castile , Spain, in August 1492 CE to find a western sea passage to the spice rich East Indies . In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475 - 1519 CE) crossed the Isthmus of Panama into the Pacific Ocean . Twenty-nine years later, on 16 November 1532, explorer and conquistador , Francisco Pizarro (1478 - 1541 CE), travelled south from La Isla Gorgona lured by stories of silver, gold and precious gems. On reaching Cajamarca ,

4784-451: The Inca origin stories tells of Manco Capac and Mama Occlo being brought up from the waters of Lake Titicaca by the Sun God to create an Inca dynasty. The rulers of the Kingdom of Cusco were obligated to travel regularly to the Isla del Sol (Sun Island), a rocky island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca, for ritual worship of the Sun God. Charles Stanish writes, Throughout their short reigns, Inca emperors were obligated to make

4888-452: The Inca. Moreover, groups of Aymara were removed from their village to work in other parts of the Empire, the number of Aymara living in Cusco itself was limited and colonists from elsewhere in the Empire were settled in the region. Christopher Colombus (1451 - 1506 CE) set sail from Castile , Spain, in August 1492 CE to find a western sea passage to the spice rich East Indies . In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475 - 1519 CE) crossed

4992-443: The Inca. The outcome was harsh retribution in the form of executions or exile. In addition to this direct punishment, the Aymara were increasingly subjugated by the building of civil, military, agricultural and religious infrastructure through their lands, removal of their sons to Cusco for education, taxation in the form of relinquishing sacred objects to the Inca. The Aymara were also required to give labour and military service to

5096-578: The Incas by the finding of certain ceramics in archeological strata is, in this area, unreliable. Rather than one ethnically homogenous group, the Aymara consisted of sometimes warring clans of differing dialects, traditions and geographic distribution. Among them were the Huamallas, Hatuncollas, Chuquitos and Azángaros, and, the Lupaqa and Colla. Their loyalty remained to their village and their local chiefs. Unlike

5200-420: The Lupaqa and Colla. Their loyalty remained to their village and their local chiefs. Unlike the many groups of indigenous peoples who lost every vestige of their civilization under Inca rule, the Aymara civilisation survived, at least partially. The Aymara insurrections were violent but also organised and persistent (one of twelve years duration). In the end, though, the Aymara were unsuccessful in throwing off

5304-411: The Spanish conquest; it is all but impossible to convey in words a true picture of the barbarous treatment which they, as well as the neighbouring Indian tribes, experienced at the hands of the Spaniards. Treated infinitely worse than slaves, they were torn from their homes and families to be driven like cattle either to the Coca plantations and Gold washings in the Yungas , or hot unhealthy valleys to

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5408-659: The Spanish in his book, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indians . On 20 November 1542, in response to criticism, King Charles I of Spain issued the New Laws ( Ordenanzas de Barcelona or Leyes Nuevas ). Indigenous people could no longer be slaves. They could not be sent to the mines without cause. Clergy and Civil servants had to give up their encomiendas to the crown . New grants could not be given and importantly, an encomienda could not be an inheritable property. Among

5512-405: The Uru islands were located near the middle of the lake, about 9 miles from the shore; however, in 1986, after a major storm devastated the islands, many Uru rebuilt closer to shore. As of 2011, about 1,200 Uru lived on an archipelago of 60 artificial islands, clustering in the western corner of the lake near the port town of Puno. The islands have become one of Peru's tourist attractions, allowing

5616-419: The Uru to supplement their hunting and fishing by conveying visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling handicrafts. Aymara people The Aymara or Aimara ( Aymara : aymara listen ), people are an indigenous people in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America . Approximately 2.3 million Aymara live in northwest Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , and Peru . The ancestors of

5720-410: The abuse of the Aymara by the Spanish in his book, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indians . On 20 November 1542, in response to criticism, King Charles I of Spain issued the New Laws ( Ordenanzas de Barcelona or Leyes Nuevas ). Indigenous people could no longer be slaves. They could not be sent to the mines without cause. Clergy and Civil servants had to give up their encomiendas to

5824-423: The administrative capital of the viceroyalty. He was tasked with creating a successful system of governance throughout the viceroyalty. To this end, Toledo created provinces and aligned the population with them into new, concentrated settlements called " reductions " ( reducciones de indios ). This involved forced resettlement which caused disruption to aspects of life of the indigenous people such as importance of

5928-423: The administrative capital of the viceroyalty. He was tasked with creating a successful system of governance throughout the viceroyalty. To this end, Toledo created provinces and aligned the population with them into new, concentrated settlements called " reductions " ( reducciones de indios ). This involved forced resettlement which caused disruption to aspects of life of the indigenous people such as importance of

6032-421: The approximate five hundred encomiendas in the viceroyalty of Peru, there were cases of corruption and circumvention of the new laws. There were skirmishes between Royalist soldiers and groups of encomenderos, culminating in the death of many encomenderos in an insurrection led by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. The new laws started to stream line the encomienda system but Aymara numbers continued to fall. Furthermore,

6136-545: The arrival of Spanish reinforcements, Manco Inca Yupanqui withdrew. Having secured Cusco, Pizarro continued south with the resources, wealth and infrastructure of the Inca and native labour. He benefited from the lack of cohesion between the Altiplano ethnic groups. He had unstoppable soldiers and weapons. In 1542, Spain created the Viceroyalty of Peru . In the new viceroyalty, explorers, conquistadors, governors and generals were given encomiendas . These grants from Spain gave

6240-410: The bottom of the lake. Once the khili pallets are tied together and anchored, multiple layers of cut reeds are added. The bottom layer of covering reeds rot away fairly quickly, so new reeds are added to the top constantly, about every two weeks to three months depending on weather. This is especially important in the rainy season when the reeds rot much faster. Tourism via boats from Puno has become

6344-426: The builders of the ancient city. Pedro Cieza de León (1518-1554), the Spanish chronicler of Peru, wrote that the Aymara people he met did not know who had built the ancient city. When Inca migrants first arrived at the traditional lands of the Aymara people, some Aymara people and other ethnic groups were living side by side in the village of Acamaca. Acamaca, located to the north of Lake Titicaca, would grow to be

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6448-463: The chronology of the spread of the Inca empire from Cusco, south to the Altiplano, may be more complex. For example, the names of Incan leaders are variable and may have been used across generations; there were revolts amongst the elite of the Inca Kingdom of Cusco itself; and the history given by the Inca to the Spanish chroniclers was given as part mythology. Furthermore, the dating of the conquest of

6552-493: The coca plant contain less potent or non-toxic alkaloids and give only a mild stimulant effect. See Evangelisation Aymara religion is a syncretic system of faith, bringing indigenous spirituality and Catholicism into close proximity. The syncretism is evident in the liturgy of the Aymara lands. Christian feast days which coincide temporally with Aymara spiritual events have associated, or even combined, meaning and ritual. Aymara indigenous spirituality ( pachakuti )

6656-493: The coca plant contain less potent or non-toxic alkaloids and give only a mild stimulant effect. See Evangelisation Aymara religion is a syncretic system of faith, bringing indigenous spirituality and Catholicism into close proximity. The syncretism is evident in the liturgy of the Aymara lands. Christian feast days which coincide temporally with Aymara spiritual events have associated, or even combined, meaning and ritual. Aymara indigenous spirituality ( pachakuti )

6760-439: The construction workers. Plants available to the traditional Aymara for through subsistence agriculture or trade were wild tomato ( Solanum huaylasense ); lucuma ( Pouteria lucuma ), a sweet fruit; a small orange fruit of the nightshade family which grows within a green calyx; qamasa and quinoa (Amaranthaceae ) of the amaranth family for their seeds and leaves; purple corn (of the flint maize family); maca ( Lepidium meyenii )

6864-439: The construction workers. Plants available to the traditional Aymara for through subsistence agriculture or trade were wild tomato ( Solanum huaylasense ); lucuma ( Pouteria lucuma ), a sweet fruit; a small orange fruit of the nightshade family which grows within a green calyx; qamasa and quinoa (Amaranthaceae ) of the amaranth family for their seeds and leaves; purple corn (of the flint maize family); maca ( Lepidium meyenii )

6968-543: The day. It provides food security in time of famine. However, it is not of high nutritional value. It is used in a variety of dishes. One traditional dish, common in La Paz , is Chairo. It is a type of stew made with Chuño, meat, carrots, onions and corn. The Aymara word for tree is khoka from which the word coca is derived. Aymara people have had, throughout their history, traditional, recreational, ritual and medicinal uses for coca. The whole leaves can be chewed, brewed as

7072-495: The day. It provides food security in time of famine. However, it is not of high nutritional value. It is used in a variety of dishes. One traditional dish, common in La Paz , is Chairo. It is a type of stew made with Chuño, meat, carrots, onions and corn. The Aymara word for tree is khoka from which the word coca is derived. Aymara people have had, throughout their history, traditional, recreational, ritual and medicinal uses for coca. The whole leaves can be chewed, brewed as

7176-437: The east of the high Andes (where they rapidly fell victims to a climate altogether unsuited to their constitution), or to the Silver mines of Potosí , Chayanta , Oruro , &c. (where from forced labour, ill-treatment, and insufficient food, they succumbed equally fast, only to be replaced by fresh supplies similarly obtained). In 1542, the Dominican friar, Bartolomé de las Casas (1474 - 1566) published his testimony of

7280-419: The encomenderos the right to demand taxes and labour from the indigenous people in return for military protection and religious instruction. They were a sign of an elite status in society. Indigenous males between the ages of 18 and 50 were taxed in money and labour. Tax was collected by the village chiefs. One sixth of taxable males were already assigned to encomenderos who collected the taxes. Twenty percent of

7384-550: The encomienda system but Aymara numbers continued to fall. Furthermore, the indigenous labour force was redistributed causing forced and permanent displacement to cities, factories or mines. By example, in 1573, the indigenous population of labourers at the Potosí silver mines was 11,000. By 1673, the same population numbered 1,600. In 1569, Francisco de Toledo (1515 - 1582 CE) was appointed fifth viceroy of Peru by Philip II of Spain . Toledo served in this role until 1581. He made Lima

7488-404: The extended family clan ( allyu ), authority of the clan and regional chiefs ( curacas ), land ownership, farming, language, rituals and sacred life (for example, sacred places known as huacas ). Toledo was also asked to consider the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest. Toledo concluded that the conquistadors were no more legitimate in their rule than the Inca. However, the viceroyalty of Peru

7592-404: The extended family clan ( allyu ), authority of the clan and regional chiefs ( curacas ), land ownership, farming, language, rituals and sacred life (for example, sacred places known as huacas ). Toledo was also asked to consider the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest. Toledo concluded that the conquistadors were no more legitimate in their rule than the Inca. However, the viceroyalty of Peru

7696-479: The floating islands are mostly made of reeds too; some have corrugated metal roofs. Few are insulated. All houses are built on top of an extra 1 m (3.3 ft) layer of dry reeds to prevent rheumatism . Much of the Urus' diet and medicine also revolve around the same totora reeds used to construct the islands. When a reed is pulled, the white bottom is often eaten for iodine to prevent goitres . This white part of

7800-470: The history of this era is more complex then the romantic version involving Amaru with intricate and various associations between ethnic groups. The War of the Pacific (1 March 1879 - 20 October 1883) or the nitrate war, was a conflict between Chile and an alliance of Bolivia and Peru. It was precipitated by a northward incursion by Chile to control sources of guano in the Litoral province of Bolivia and

7904-421: The history of this era is more complex then the romantic version involving Amaru with intricate and various associations between ethnic groups. The War of the Pacific (1 March 1879 - 20 October 1883) or the nitrate war, was a conflict between Chile and an alliance of Bolivia and Peru. It was precipitated by a northward incursion by Chile to control sources of guano in the Litoral province of Bolivia and

8008-430: The indigenous labour force was redistributed causing forced and permanent displacement to cities, factories or mines. By example, in 1573, the indigenous population of labourers at the Potosí silver mines was 11,000. By 1673, the same population numbered 1,600. In 1569, Francisco de Toledo (1515 - 1582 CE) was appointed fifth viceroy of Peru by Philip II of Spain . Toledo served in this role until 1581. He made Lima

8112-406: The indigenous people in return for military protection and religious instruction. They were a sign of an elite status in society. Indigenous males between the ages of 18 and 50 were taxed in money and labour. Tax was collected by the village chiefs. One sixth of taxable males were already assigned to encomenderos who collected the taxes. Twenty percent of the monies went to the crown. In practice,

8216-542: The islets. They also run crafts stalls aimed at the numerous tourists who visit ten of the islands each year. They barter totora reeds on the mainland in Puno to get products they need, such as quinoa and other foods. The Uru people have domesticated local animals to assist with producing food and other purposes. For example, cormorants , waterbirds who catch fish, are kept tethered with wool tied to their feet, so that they can catch fish for human consumption. Another local bird,

8320-436: The lake and water. According to the legend, Uru used to say that they had black blood, because they did not feel the cold. They historically called themselves Lupihaques , "sons of the Sun". Although the Uru language is nearly extinct, the Uru continue to maintain their identity and some old customs. The purpose of the island settlements was originally defensive: they could be moved if a threat arose. The largest island retains

8424-483: The lake area (and) offered precious objects to the cold waters. In 1438, Aymara warriors were, be it as mercenaries, volunteers or conscripts, present in the army of the Inca ruler, Pachacuti in the defense of Cusco during the Chanka–Inca War . The date of Inca conquest of the Altiplano is uncertain beyond that, it began later than 1438 CE and was well completed by 1500 CE. The often quoted Spanish conquistador and chronicler, Pedro Cieza de León travelled through

8528-399: The main flotation and stability devices of the islands. Each floating block of khili measures approximately 4 m × 10 m (13 ft × 33 ft). The blocks used to be harvested with eucalyptus wedges, but are now sourced using 1.5 m (4.9 ft) long metal saws custom made for this purpose. They are anchored with ropes attached to large eucalyptus poles driven into

8632-448: The main island is home to an Uru-run FM radio station , which plays music for several hours a day. High ultraviolet radiation levels occur throughout the Altiplano region of Peru and Bolivia. Kindergarten and elementary schooling is done on several islands, including a traditional school and a school run by a Christian church. Older children and university students attend school on the mainland, often in nearby Puno. Historically, most of

8736-446: The many groups of indigenous peoples who lost every vestige of their civilization under Inca rule, the Aymara civilisation survived, at least partially. The Aymara insurrections were violent but also organised and persistent (one of twelve years duration). In the end, though, the Aymara were unsuccessful in throwing off the Inca. The outcome was harsh retribution in the form of executions or exile. In addition to this direct punishment,

8840-468: The monies went to the crown. In practice, the responsibilities of the encomiendas were applied partially or not at all, while the taxes were. In 1870, David Forbes (1828 - 1876), Mineralogist and voyager, wrote to the Ethnological Society of London , of his observations in Bolivia and Peru, Whatever may have been the condition of the Aymaras under the Incas, it became infinitely worse after

8944-467: The most part, dialects of Aymaran or Quechuan . Some efforts were made to provide simple lexicons for religious teaching. However, this was difficult because the Aymara language had no orthography and Aymara phonetics did not compare well with those of the Spanish language . Ludovico Bertonio (1552 - 1625 CE) was an Italian Jesuit missionary who, in 1603 CE, wrote about the Aymara language. On one hand, some clergy tried to adapt notable aspects of

9048-467: The most part, dialects of Aymaran or Quechuan . Some efforts were made to provide simple lexicons for religious teaching. However, this was difficult because the Aymara language had no orthography and Aymara phonetics did not compare well with those of the Spanish language . Ludovico Bertonio (1552 - 1625 CE) was an Italian Jesuit missionary who, in 1603 CE, wrote about the Aymara language. On one hand, some clergy tried to adapt notable aspects of

9152-486: The primary financial income for people living on the islands. The Uru's islands are located at 3,810 m (12,500 ft) above sea level, and just five kilometers east from the Puno port. Around 2,000 descendants of the Uru were counted in the 1997 census, although only a few hundred still live on and maintain the islands; most have moved to the mainland. The Uru also bury their dead on the mainland in special cemeteries. Food

9256-492: The reed is called the chullo ( Aymara [tʃʼuʎo] ). The Uru rely on totora reeds in the same way that the Andean people of Peru rely on the coca leaf for relief from hunger and the harsh climate. When in pain, they may wrap the reed around the body part that is in pain. If it is hot outside, they sometimes roll the white part of the reed in their hands and split it open, placing the reed on their forehead. In this form, it

9360-514: The reeds and the inhabitants build a new island and let the old one sink to the bottom of the lake. The islets are made of multiple natural layers harvested in Lake Titicaca. The base is made of large pallets of floating totora roots, which are tied together with ropes and covered in multiple layers of totora reeds. These dense roots that the plants develop and interweave form a natural layer called khili (about one to two meters thick), which are

9464-459: The region occurred in an intermittent, semi-organised manner from as early as 1629 CE through to the Peruvian war of Independence (1809 - 1826 CE) when Spanish colonial rule ended. A larger and more persistent insurrection occurred between 1779 and 1781 CE. The Inca descendant, Túpac Amaru , is described as its grand leader. However, historians Julian Steward in 1946 and Steve Stern in 1987 warn that

9568-409: The region occurred in an intermittent, semi-organised manner from as early as 1629 CE through to the Peruvian war of Independence (1809 - 1826 CE) when Spanish colonial rule ended. A larger and more persistent insurrection occurred between 1779 and 1781 CE. The Inca descendant, Túpac Amaru , is described as its grand leader. However, historians Julian Steward in 1946 and Steve Stern in 1987 warn that

9672-428: The resources, wealth and infrastructure of the Inca and native labour. He benefited from the lack of cohesion between the Altiplano ethnic groups. He had unstoppable soldiers and weapons. In 1542, Spain created the Viceroyalty of Peru . In the new viceroyalty, explorers, conquistadors, governors and generals were given encomiendas . These grants from Spain gave the encomenderos the right to demand taxes and labour from

9776-426: The responsibilities of the encomiendas were applied partially or not at all, while the taxes were. In 1870, David Forbes (1828 - 1876), Mineralogist and voyager, wrote to the Ethnological Society of London , of his observations in Bolivia and Peru, Whatever may have been the condition of the Aymaras under the Incas, it became infinitely worse after the Spanish conquest; it is all but impossible to convey in words

9880-421: The seminal work of John Howland Rowe . However, more recent historians warn that the chronology of the spread of the Inca empire from Cusco, south to the Altiplano, may be more complex. For example, the names of Incan leaders are variable and may have been used across generations; there were revolts amongst the elite of the Inca Kingdom of Cusco itself; and the history given by the Inca to the Spanish chroniclers

9984-457: The site of the ancient city of Tiwanaku . A radiocarbon dating study suggests the ancient city was founded in about 110 CE. Origin legends of the Aymara people in terms of time frame seem inconsistent to archeologists. Archeologist Carlos Mamani Condori suggests this is because the Aymara tradition may see the passage of time as a continuum rather than in terms of prehistory and history. The Aymara may have been settlers from elsewhere rather than

10088-406: The site of the later Kingdom of Cusco , the capital of the Inca Empire and the current day city of Cusco . The Inca arrived not as an army but as migrants searching for agricultural land. The Aymara people of the Altiplano, the Titicaca basin, and the ancient city of Tiwanaku to the south of Lake Titicaca, also encountered the Inca civilisation prior to the rise of the Inca Empire . One of

10192-653: The village of Tupe , in Yauyos Province , in the remote highlands southwest of Lima . Other related languages are presumable extinct. Aymara people spin alpaca and llama wool and then colour it with vegetable and mineral dyes . Urine may be used as a mordant (colour fixative). Wools and cotton are woven on a horizontal peg loom by both men and women. There is no broad loom weaving and so, traditional garments such as carrying cloths and ponchos are made by joining two pieces. The colours are vibrant. Patterns are striped or geometrical. Traditional clothing items include

10296-596: The village of Tupe , in Yauyos Province , in the remote highlands southwest of Lima . Other related languages are presumable extinct. Aymara people spin alpaca and llama wool and then colour it with vegetable and mineral dyes . Urine may be used as a mordant (colour fixative). Wools and cotton are woven on a horizontal peg loom by both men and women. There is no broad loom weaving and so, traditional garments such as carrying cloths and ponchos are made by joining two pieces. The colours are vibrant. Patterns are striped or geometrical. Traditional clothing items include

10400-515: Was executed in July 1533. Pizarro reached Cusco by 1534. Some native groups saw the Spaniards as liberators and lent support to Pizarro. Pizarro also secured a lineage of Inca puppet rulers , including Manco Inca Yupanqui . Manco Inca Yupanqui, was ill treated by Pizarro's men. He escaped then returned with tens of thousands warriors, forcing Cusco into siege . After ten months, and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements, Manco Inca Yupanqui withdrew. Having secured Cusco, Pizarro continued south with

10504-404: Was given as part mythology. Furthermore, the dating of the conquest of the Incas by the finding of certain ceramics in archeological strata is, in this area, unreliable. Rather than one ethnically homogenous group, the Aymara consisted of sometimes warring clans of differing dialects, traditions and geographic distribution. Among them were the Huamallas, Hatuncollas, Chuquitos and Azángaros, and,

10608-431: Was legitimate on the basis of the Spanish bringing Catholic Christianity to the indigenous people. Toledo instructed the secular clergy and the leaders of the monastic orders to begin the evangelisation of the viceroyalty. This was not an easy task due to a lack of clergy, lack of experience of the monastic orders in evangelizing and the language barrier between the Spanish and the indigenous groups who spoke, for

10712-431: Was legitimate on the basis of the Spanish bringing Catholic Christianity to the indigenous people. Toledo instructed the secular clergy and the leaders of the monastic orders to begin the evangelisation of the viceroyalty. This was not an easy task due to a lack of clergy, lack of experience of the monastic orders in evangelizing and the language barrier between the Spanish and the indigenous groups who spoke, for

10816-443: Was unsuccessful in securing the area. Again, de León records Viracocha's successor, Pachacuti ( c.  1418 – 1471 CE) as the leader who succeeded in bringing the area under Inca control, effected by his son, Yupanqui ( c.  1471 – 1493 CE). This chronology has been used widely by historians and archeologists in this field following the seminal work of John Howland Rowe . However, more recent historians warn that

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