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108-466: The United States Lakes Survey was created on 31 March 1841 by an act of Congress , appropriating $ 15,000 for a United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers led survey of the Great Lakes. William G. Williams was appointed the first commander of the survey. He was assisted by Howard Stansbury , James H. Simpson , Joseph E. Johnston , Thomas J. Cram and I. Carle Woodruff. They were headquartered at

216-620: A U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since

324-478: A federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . Furthermore, there were checks and balances within

432-544: A first complete set of charts. The surveys of Lake Michigan were completed in 1874, Lake Superior in 1874, Lake Ontario in 1875 and Lake Erie in 1877. Lake St. Clair and Lake Champlain were completed in 1871. During the summer of 1873 and the following winter, a complete survey of the city of Detroit and the Detroit River was made. A survey of the St. Lawrence began during 1871 at the boundary line near St. Regis, New York , and ended at

540-688: A major portion of the military's mapping activity. It took over and consolidated the former WPA cartographic units in New York, Chicago, and Detroit on 1 June 1942. It published 370 tons of maps, producing 8,109 different charts and maps, printing and distributing 9,190,000 copies to the armed forces. It was also responsible for Mosaic Mapping Unit in Detroit and the Military Grid Unit at New York City, accounting for another 885 separate mosaic maps with more than 3,128,000 copies being printed. The survey received

648-444: A powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as

756-514: A revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created

864-401: A six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be

972-517: A state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . Congress

1080-663: Is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created

1188-440: Is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from

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1296-486: Is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change,

1404-433: Is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body   ... Congress

1512-642: Is quite uncommon. Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while

1620-726: Is the legislature of the federal government of the United States . It is bicameral , composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives , and an upper body, the United States Senate . It meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The vice president of

1728-529: The tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed

1836-741: The Army-Navy "E" Award for its work. After World War II, work on the survey continued. During the shipping season of 1948, it began work on an experimental "radar chart". The mapping unit also continued to do some work for the War Department, particularly during the Korean War . Electronic surveying methods were also tested. The Survey grew further in 1962 with the establishment of the Great Lakes Research Center. The Center conducted strong programs in coastal engineering and water resources . It

1944-540: The Board of Education . Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as

2052-527: The Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico ,

2160-746: The Comstock Prize in Physics , the award in the amount of $ 20,000 is granted every five years by the Academy. Comstock was advanced to brigadier general on the retired list in April 1904. He died in New York City and was buried at the West Point Cemetery two days later. In 1869, Comstock married Elizabeth "Minnie" Blair, daughter of Montgomery Blair who had served as United States Postmaster General during

2268-463: The Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed

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2376-599: The Conservative Coalition . Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited

2484-644: The Great Depression , but aerial photography was introduced. In 1936, a total of over 1 million charts was reached. To support new equipment and new surveys, funding for the Lake Survey was expanded in the 1930s . The project begun in 1907 was completed, and resurveying began in 1937. Upon the outbreak of World War II , the survey began working in various war capacities. It published a "Submarine Training Chart of Upper Lake Michigan" pamphlet. The Lake Survey, with its cartographic and lithographic specialists, directed

2592-522: The National Ocean Survey . Various activities of the Lake Survey Center were transferred to other NOAA organizations between 1974 and 1976, and the Lake Survey Center was abolished on June 30, 1976. United States Congress This is an accepted version of this page Minority (49) Minority (212) Vacant (3) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The United States Congress

2700-513: The Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of

2808-737: The Regular Army of the United States. After graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1855, Comstock served with the Army Corps of Engineers . At the beginning of the American Civil War , he assisted with the fortification of Washington, D.C. In 1862, he was transferred to the field, eventually becoming chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac . In 1863 during

2916-597: The Siege of Vicksburg , he served as the chief engineer of the Army of the Tennessee . The most significant phase of Comstock's career began in November 1864 when he was appointed to the staff of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant , becoming Grant's senior aide-de-camp . In 1865, Comstock was appointed the senior engineer in the assault on Fort Fisher , North Carolina, and the assault on Mobile, Alabama , both of which were successful. By

3024-445: The U.S. Senate confirmed the award on May 4, 1866. In May 1865, while still serving on Grant's staff, Comstock was called to serve as one of the nine military commissioners to oversee the trial of the conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln . At first, Comstock was eager to see the prosecution of the conspirators, writing that, for them, "death is too good." However, as the trial proceeded, Comstock became disturbed by

3132-466: The U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. Cyrus B. Comstock Cyrus Ballou Comstock (February 3, 1831 – May 29, 1910) was a career officer in

3240-555: The United States Geological Survey , and resumed field surveys, resurveying Apostle Islands and vicinity on Lake Superior, the St. Lawrence River, and northern Lake Michigan and the Straits of Mackinac. Several more steamers were acquired to cope with increased workload. Areas that needed the most work were identified, being the east end of Lake Superior and the waters around Isle Royale ; the southern end of Lake Michigan;

3348-445: The second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of

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3456-479: The "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5% in October 2013. In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for

3564-439: The 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. Carol Moseley Braun became

3672-575: The 19th century, members of Congress are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with a political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this

3780-841: The 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $ 12.5   million to $ 120   million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. From 1970 to 2009,

3888-563: The American response as a "police action". According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War   II." Disagreement about

3996-533: The Army of the Potomac in the spring of 1863, Comstock was removed as chief engineer of that army and placed in command of a battalion of engineers. In that capacity, he played an important role in the Battle of Chancellorsville , overseeing the construction of pontoon bridges over various rivers which first allowed the advance of the Army of the Potomac and later facilitated its retreat after Union forces were defeated. After

4104-660: The Army of the Potomac through the remainder of the Peninsular Campaign and through the Maryland Campaign . Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside succeeded McClellan and appointed Comstock the chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac. During the Fredericksburg Campaign , Comstock was faced with the difficult task of constructing pontoon bridges over the Rappahannock River , a debacle which proved to be one of

4212-524: The Army of the Tennessee. The Siege of Vicksburg was successful, in part due to Comstock's supervision of the overall siege works, and the city surrendered to Union forces on July 4, 1863. This victory marked a major turning point in the war as the Union Army gained control of the Mississippi River . The impression that Comstock made on Grant would have a significant impact on Comstock's career later in

4320-504: The Battle of Chancellorsville, Comstock was transferred to the Army of the Tennessee which was, at that time, involved in the Siege of Vicksburg , Mississippi, under the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant. Comstock arrived at Vicksburg in June 1863 and set to work on improving the siege works. His efforts earned Grant's respect. Comstock was soon promoted to major and appointed chief engineer of

4428-458: The Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage

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4536-594: The Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing

4644-486: The House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. In

4752-448: The House initiates revenue -raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 118th Congress , began on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025. Since

4860-477: The House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated

4968-598: The Jeffersonian Republican Party and began the era of the First Party System . In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving

5076-549: The Lincoln administration. They had a daughter, Elizabeth Marion Comstock, who was born in Detroit, Michigan in 1872 while Comstock was at work on the geodetic survey of the Great Lakes . He had an interest in family history and in later years he published two books about Comstock genealogy. The first one, published in 1905, was titled Some Descendants of Samuel Comstock of Providence, R.I. In 1907, he published an expanded version of

5184-644: The Permanent Board of Engineers in New York City, the geodetic survey of the north and northwestern lakes of the United States, and was president for many years of the Mississippi River Commission. Comstock was a prominent member of the National Academy of Sciences and bequeathed a fund to the Academy to support an award to a scientist conducting innovative work in the investigation of electricity, magnetism, or radiant energy . Today known as

5292-538: The Straits of Mackinac and the approaches 30 miles (48 km) to 40 miles (64 km) either side of Mackinac Island, part of the north end of Lake Michigan, all of the St. Marys River , and a few harbors on Lake Superior. As a result of this work the Lake Survey published three new charts. A second steamer, the Jefferson Davis (after Jefferson Davis ) was launched in 1856, and soon renamed Search . On 20 May 1857, Kearney

5400-508: The Straits of Mackinac; both ends of Lake Erie; and the east end of Lake Ontario including the head of the St. Lawrence River. In addition, along the shores of the Lakes in inadequately surveyed areas, sounding and sweeping were necessary. Specifically, these areas were the south shore of Lake Superior, Grand and Little Traverse Bays, the Keweenaw Peninsula , the west shore of Lake Michigan, and

5508-628: The Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled

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5616-617: The Survey's charts only showed depths of 18 feet (5.5 m) or less. Though work on charts had continued in the time between the survey, the Lake Survey was officially re-formed on 9 January 1901, having been part of the Detroit office of the Army Corps of Engineers since 1889. For the first time, the Survey published maps in color, and the Great Lakes Bulletin. The charts and bulletin were increasingly requested. The Survey collaborated with

5724-485: The Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for

5832-476: The United States , as President of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members . Congress convenes for a two-year term , commencing every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and

5940-538: The White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against

6048-500: The Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. On January 6, 2021, the Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C police evacuated

6156-722: The Wilderness for which Comstock won a commendation from Grant and a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the Regular Army. Comstock was temporarily detached from Grant's staff and appointed by Grant to the post of chief engineer of the Department of North Carolina in January 1865. The transfer was prompted by Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler 's failure to take Fort Fisher in December 1864. The fort

6264-433: The Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in

6372-474: The adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it

6480-430: The area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and

6588-400: The areas outside the Great Lakes, and other items requested by the War Department. By the end of 1918, it had printed and distributed 573,000 charts of the Great Lakes. Mason Patrick was one of the commanders during this time. Work continued throughout the 1920s. By 1922, the Lake Survey was distributing 123 different charts. The Superior Shoal was discovered. Funding shrunk at the onset of

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6696-417: The budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among

6804-414: The campaign against the city of Mobile and its defenses, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on March 12, 1866. On April 10, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Comstock for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general, U.S. Army, ( Regular Army ), to rank from March 13, 1865, for gallant and meritorious services in the campaign ending with the capture of Mobile, Alabama, and

6912-440: The capture of Fort Fisher and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on February 14, 1865. He returned to Virginia and to his role as Grant's senior aide, but did not remain long. In March 1865, Grant again dispatched Comstock to aid in a key siege operation—this time to Mobile, Alabama, the last Confederate stronghold on the Gulf of Mexico. There Comstock served under Maj. Gen. Edward Canby and assisted in operations leading to

7020-458: The conspirators and the commissioners felt that Comstock, due to his closeness to Grant, could not be counted on to act impartially. Comstock served on Grant's staff until 1866, then returned to service with the Corps of Engineers and remained on active duty until 1895 when he retired with the rank of colonel upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64. In the course of his post-war duty, he served with several boards and commissions including

7128-404: The early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or

7236-404: The electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards

7344-468: The element of surprise, the Confederate army had dug in at Fredericksburg, Virginia and morale within the Army of the Potomac had sunk. When the material for the bridges finally did arrive, Comstock personally led men from the 50th New York Engineers in seeing to the task of construction. In piecing together the bridges on the Rappahannock River, Comstock and other soldiers were dangerously exposed to enemy fire. When Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker reorganized

7452-399: The end of the war, Comstock had earned the awards of the honorary grades of brevet major general in the Volunteer Army and brevet brigadier general in the Regular Army . After the close of the war, Comstock served on the military commission for the trial of the conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln . He was dismissed from the commission for his criticism of

7560-424: The engineer in charge of the fortifications of Washington and later chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac . When the Army of the Potomac took the field in the spring of 1862 during Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's Peninsular Campaign , Comstock continued to serve as Barnard's assistant. On June 1, 1862, during the Peninsular Campaign, Comstock was appointed chief engineer of the II Corps . He continued with

7668-425: The exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and

7776-577: The executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees (a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946). The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed

7884-463: The extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in

7992-551: The fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had

8100-459: The field, following and directing the movements of the Army of the Potomac in a major offensive during the summer of 1864 known as the Overland Campaign . During the campaign, Comstock played a key role in coordinating the movements of the various corps of the army and personally conveying Grant's orders to the corps commanders. His efforts were particularly successful during the Battle of

8208-412: The first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress

8316-654: The head of the river on Lake Ontario in 1873. The survey work on the Mississippi , for which Congress appropriated $ 16,000 in 1876, began in Cairo, Illinois , and was completed at the mouth of the Arkansas River in 1879. The survey was officially completed in 1882, when the original mandate was completed, with 76 charts produced. A historian at the time said: It is probable that thousands of lives and hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of property would be lost annually except for

8424-403: The information afforded through the Lake Survey. In fact, the navigation of the lakes would of necessity almost entirely cease but for the information thus supplied. In the decade after the original survey was ended, it became clear that the charts were not sufficient; for example, since the deepest draft vessels used in the Great Lakes in the mid-late 1800s drew only 12 feet (3.7 m) of water,

8532-402: The internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and

8640-486: The lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until

8748-430: The late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as

8856-488: The law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause and of

8964-441: The legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789. Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in

9072-530: The most challenging of his career. Due to confusion in Washington, D.C. at the War Department , the materials necessary for the construction of the bridges did not arrive at Falmouth, Virginia at the same time as the Army of the Potomac. Despite Comstock's urgent telegraphs and messages, which went unanswered, it took nearly a month for the pontoons to arrive during which time the Union army had completely lost

9180-479: The mouth of the Buffalo River . In the first summer, a detailed topographical survey of Mackinac Island was completed, reconnaissance surveys in the northern part of Lake Michigan were made and a site for a baseline near the entrance to Green Bay was selected and partly cleared. The first four years of the survey largely dealt with the baseline at Green Bay, and building triangulation stations . Surveying work

9288-400: The number issued since 1852 to 30,120. In 1869, distribution was further expanded as the Lake Survey was authorized to sell surplus charts for the first time. In the spring of 1867, a program of river flow measurement was created. Three years later, Reynolds was removed from his command. Cyrus B. Comstock replaced him. Comstock oversaw the completion of a larger observatory, the publishing of

9396-580: The other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has

9504-531: The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, he offered his services to the Union Army . James D. Graham replaced Meade in 1861, and led the survey through much of the Civil War, during which it was the only active topographical field office still operating. During the war, the department still increased, with appropriations rising to $ 125,000 in 1865. Surveys were completed of Portage Entry on Keweenaw Bay , and

9612-560: The proceedings. Later Comstock continued with the Army Corps of Engineers, took part in several engineering projects, and served on the Mississippi River Commission , of which he was president. Born in Wrentham, Massachusetts , to Nathan and Betsy Comstock on February 3, 1831, Cyrus Comstock attended the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated first in his class in 1855. Following his graduation, Comstock

9720-636: The process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described

9828-703: The ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until

9936-495: The reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to

10044-418: The secrecy of the military proceedings. Concerned about the violation of the defendants' rights, he began to openly argue for the case to be transferred to a civilian court. President Andrew Johnson removed Comstock from the commission due to Comstock's protests. The rationale for the removal, as explained to Comstock by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , was that Grant had also been a potential target of

10152-413: The several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, the Senate and

10260-559: The south and west shores of Lake Huron. It worked on those projects for the next 30 years. The Survey worked on several water diversion projects, including that undertaken by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company (in 1906) and water diversion into the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal (1912), both times it was called upon to study the effect the diversion would have. On 4 March 1911, its jurisdiction

10368-731: The spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under

10476-543: The surrender of Mobile after the Battle of Spanish Fort and the Battle of Fort Blakely in April 1865. While Comstock was serving in Alabama, Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant after the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , essentially ending the Civil War. On January 13, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Comstock for the award of the honorary grade of brevet major general, U.S. Volunteers , to rank from March 26, 1865, for faithful and meritorious services during

10584-418: The survey to Detroit. Work was temporarily halted for most of the Mexican–American War . After the war, work resumed and the west end of Lake Erie was completed in 1849. John N. Macomb took command of the lake survey in 1851. It greatly increased in size and appropriations. It published its first charts in 1852–covering all of Lake Erie . During the 1852–55 seasons, the areas surveyed by the Lake Survey included

10692-448: The survey, including the construction of an observatory in Detroit and the first systematic recording of lake water levels. In 1859, a network of 19 meteorological stations around the Lakes were completed. From 1858 through 1861, the federal appropriations for the Lake Survey grew to $ 75,000 annually. Meade would later write that he considered his early work on the lakes survey as among the most important duties of his extensive career. Upon

10800-740: The war. Comstock remained with the Army of the Tennessee into the fall of 1863. On November 19, he became assistant inspector general of the Department of the Mississippi and promoted to lieutenant colonel of volunteers. He served in this role until March 1864. On March 12, 1864, Grant was appointed general-in-chief of the United States Army and moved his headquarters to the eastern theater in Virginia. Grant asked Comstock to come with him as his senior aide-de-camp. Grant determined to command in

10908-580: The waters of the Keweenaw Waterway . In 1863, the survey formally became part of the United States Army Corps of Engineers . In 1864, William F. Reynolds replaced Graham. As a result of the work on Lake Superior, eight new charts of that lake were published between 1865 and 1873. The charts were given away for free to mariners. Between October 1861 and October 1865, 15,210 navigational charts had been distributed to Great Lakes mariners, bringing

11016-535: Was a "driving force in American government" and a "remarkably resilient institution". Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and

11124-630: Was additionally done on Lakes Michigan, St. Clair , and Erie , and at the Straits of Mackinac . To conduct hydrographic surveys , in 1843, an iron steamer named the Abert (after John James Abert ) was built for the survey. Flaws in the ship's design were soon discovered, and it was overhauled and renamed Surveyor in early 1845 . By the end of 1845, all harbors besides those in Lake Superior had been surveyed. James Kearney replaced Williams in 1845, relocating

11232-404: Was assigned to the Army Corps of Engineers and assisted with the design and construction of several fortifications. He also served as an instructor of engineering at West Point. At the commencement of the Civil War, Comstock, then holding the rank of first lieutenant in the Regular Army, was transferred from West Point to Washington, D.C. He became an assistant to Brig. Gen. John G. Barnard ,

11340-586: Was expanded to include the New York State Barge Canal System and the areas between Lake Superior and Lake of the Woods , which included the Boundary Waters . After several other expansions, in 1914, it became responsible for "an inland waterway system extending nearly halfway across the continental United States". During World War I , the Lake Survey printed recruiting posters, charts and maps for

11448-539: Was involved heavily in the building of the Saint Lawrence Seaway . Growth of the survey continued, reaching over two million dollars of appropriations in 1968. By Reorganization Plan Number 4 of 1970, effective October 3, 1970, the Lake Survey Office was transferred to newly established National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), where it was redesignated the Lake Survey Center and assigned to

11556-461: Was replaced by George Meade . Meade completed the survey of Lake Huron during the 1857–59 seasons and completed the survey of Saginaw Bay as well. He surveyed the Fox and Manitou Islands, and Grand and Little Traverse Bays . The Lake Survey completed a few local harbor surveys on Lake Superior by 1859 and began a general survey of the western end of that lake in 1861. He oversaw a dramatic expansion in

11664-507: Was the last Confederate stronghold on the east coast. Serving under the command of Maj. Gen. Alfred Terry , Comstock assisted in planning a second and successful assault on Fort Fisher. Following this victory, Comstock was awarded the grade of brevet colonel in the Regular Army. Comstock also was nominated by President Abraham Lincoln on January 23, 1865 for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general, U.S. Volunteers , to rank from January 15, 1865, for gallant services in

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