146-682: The Umfraville family were Anglo-Norman landowners, administrators and soldiers who were prominent from about 1120 to 1437 on the northern border of England , where they held the strategic lordships of Prudhoe and Redesdale in Northumberland . They held, for the English Crown, Tynedale to the Cumbrian Border up to the border with Scotland. It was in Scotland where the Umfravilles reached
292-538: A vulnerable position in medieval England, protected only by the King, were subject to huge taxes; £44,000 was extracted from the community by the tallage of 1210; much of it was passed on to the Christian debtors of Jewish moneylenders. John created a new tax on income and movable goods in 1207—effectively a version of a modern income tax—that produced £60,000; he created a new set of import and export duties payable directly to
438-413: A "powerful, barrel-chested body" and dark red hair; he looked to contemporaries like an inhabitant of Poitou . John enjoyed reading and, unusually for the period, built up a travelling library of books. He enjoyed gambling, in particular at backgammon , and was an enthusiastic hunter, even by medieval standards. He liked music, although not songs. John would become a "connoisseur of jewels", building up
584-523: A closer, more positive relationship. Chroniclers recorded that John had a "mad infatuation" with Isabella, and certainly the King and Queen had conjugal relations between at least 1207 and 1215; they had five children. In contrast to Vincent, historian William Chester Jordan concludes that the pair were a "companionable couple" who had a successful marriage by the standards of the day. John's lack of religious conviction has been noted by contemporary chroniclers and later historians, with some suspecting that he
730-502: A defensive posture along the eastern and southern Normandy borders. Both sides paused for desultory negotiations before the war recommenced; John's position was now stronger, thanks to confirmation that the counts Baldwin IX of Flanders and Renaud of Boulogne had renewed the anti-French alliances they had previously agreed to with Richard. The powerful Anjou nobleman William des Roches was persuaded to switch sides from Arthur to John; suddenly
876-501: A feudal lord; and revenue from taxation. Revenue from the royal demesne was inflexible and had been diminishing slowly since the Norman conquest . Matters were not helped by Richard's sale of many royal properties in 1189, and taxation played a much smaller role in royal income than in later centuries. English kings had widespread feudal rights which could be used to generate income, including the scutage system, in which feudal military service
1022-560: A high (46 mark/~£31) fine for the secret killing of a Norman (or an unknown person who was, under the murdrum laws, presumed to be Norman unless proven otherwise). In order to secure Norman loyalty during his conquest, William I rewarded his loyal followers by taking English land and redistributing it to his knights, officials, and the Norman aristocracy. In turn, the English hated him, but the king retaliated ruthlessly with his military force to subdue
1168-587: A large army to crush a rebellion by the Anglo-Norman lords; he reasserted his control of the country and used a new charter to order compliance with English laws and customs in Ireland. John stopped short of trying to actively enforce this charter on the native Irish kingdoms, but historian David Carpenter suspects that he might have done so, had the baronial conflict in England not intervened. Simmering tensions remained with
1314-413: A large collection, and became famous for his opulent clothes and also, according to French chroniclers, for his fondness for bad wine. As John grew up, he became known for sometimes being "genial, witty, generous and hospitable"; at other moments, he could be jealous, over-sensitive and prone to fits of rage, "biting and gnawing his fingers" in anger. During John's early years, Henry attempted to resolve
1460-424: A large military force in England intended for Poitou, and a large fleet with soldiers under his own command intended for Normandy. To achieve this, John reformed the English feudal contribution to his campaigns, creating a more flexible system under which only one knight in ten would actually be mobilised, but would be financially supported by the other nine; knights would serve for an indefinite period. John built up
1606-464: A less than satisfactory partnership. Eleanor, the queen mother, convinced Richard to allow John into England in his absence. The political situation in England rapidly began to deteriorate. Longchamp refused to work with Puiset and became unpopular with the English nobility and clergy. John exploited this unpopularity to set himself up as an alternative ruler with his own royal court, complete with his own justiciar, chancellor and other royal posts, and
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#17328560763361752-584: A major activity of the family in England. Anglo-Normans The Anglo-Normans ( Norman : Anglo-Normaunds , Old English : Engel-Norðmandisca ) were the medieval ruling class in the Kingdom of England following the Norman Conquest . They were primarily a combination of Normans , Bretons , Flemings , Frenchmen , indigenous Anglo-Saxons and Celtic Britons . A small number of Normans had earlier befriended future Anglo-Saxon king of England , Edward
1898-628: A model of utter loyalty. The most infamous case, which went beyond anything considered acceptable at the time, was that of the powerful William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber , who held lands in Ireland. De Braose was subjected to punitive demands for money, and when he refused to pay a huge sum of 40,000 marks (equivalent to £26,666 at the time), his wife, Maud , and one of their sons were imprisoned by John, which resulted in their deaths. De Braose died in exile in 1211, and his grandsons remained in prison until 1218. John's suspicions and jealousies meant that he rarely enjoyed good relationships with even
2044-551: A more reliable legal system that could bypass the barons, against whom such cases were often brought. John's reforms were less popular with the barons themselves, especially as they remained subject to arbitrary and frequently vindictive royal justice. One of John's principal challenges was acquiring the large sums of money needed for his proposed campaigns to reclaim Normandy. The Angevin kings had three main sources of income available to them, namely revenue from their personal lands, or demesne ; money raised through their rights as
2190-624: A potential alliance with Philip II in Paris during 1187, and the next year Richard gave homage to Philip in exchange for support for a war against Henry. Richard and Philip fought a joint campaign against Henry, and by the summer of 1189 Henry made peace, promising Richard the succession. John initially remained loyal to his father, but changed sides once it appeared that Richard would win. Henry died shortly afterwards. When Richard became king in September 1189, he had already declared his intention of joining
2336-420: A re-creation of Richard's old strategy of applying pressure from Germany. All of this would require a great deal of money and soldiers. John spent much of 1205 securing England against a potential French invasion. As an emergency measure, he recreated a version of Henry II's Assize of Arms of 1181 , with each shire creating a structure to mobilise local levies. When the threat of invasion faded, John formed
2482-416: A revolution in military styles and methods. A lot of the old Anglo-Saxon military elite began to emigrate, especially the generation next younger to that defeated at Hastings, who had no particular future in a country controlled by the conquerors. William (and his son, William Rufus ), encouraged them to leave, as a security measure. The first to leave went mostly to Denmark and many of these moved on to join
2628-728: A ruling class in England, distinct from (although intermarrying with) the native Anglo-Saxon and Celtic populations. Over time, their language evolved from the continental Old Norman to the distinct Anglo-Norman language . Anglo-Normans quickly established control over all of England, as well as parts of Wales (the Welsh-Normans ). After 1130, parts of southern and eastern Scotland came under Anglo-Norman rule (the Scots-Normans ), in return for their support of David I's conquest. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland from 1169 saw Anglo-Normans and Cambro-Normans conquer swaths of Ireland, becoming
2774-649: A son Robert, who died before him. Succeeding his half-brother Gilbert IV in 1381, he married Joan, daughter of Adam Roddam, and had two sons Thomas II and Robert IV. Succeeding his father Thomas I in 1387, he married Agnes (died 1420), daughter of Sir Thomas Grey and his wife Margaret Pressene, and had a son Gilbert V. A daughter Maud married Sir William Ryther, of Ryther . He died on 12 February 1391. Succeeding his father Thomas II in 1391, in 1413 he married Anne, daughter of Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland , and his wife Margaret, daughter of Hugh Stafford, 2nd Earl of Stafford . They had no children, and he died fighting
2920-452: A strong team of engineers for siege warfare and a substantial force of professional crossbowmen. The King was supported by a team of leading barons with military expertise, including William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury , William the Marshal , Roger de Lacy and, until he fell from favour, the marcher lord William de Braose. John had already begun to improve his Channel forces before
3066-569: A successful crusade and return from the Levant without fear of John seizing power. Richard left political authority in England—the post of justiciar—jointly in the hands of Bishop Hugh de Puiset and William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex , and made William Longchamp , the Bishop of Ely , his chancellor. Mandeville immediately died, and Longchamp took over as joint justiciar with Puiset, which would prove
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#17328560763363212-414: A tournament in 1186, leaving a posthumous son, Arthur , and an elder daughter, Eleanor . Geoffrey's death brought John slightly closer to the throne of England. The uncertainty about what would happen after Henry's death continued to grow; Richard was keen to join a new crusade and remained concerned that whilst he was away Henry would appoint John his formal successor. Richard began discussions about
3358-547: A wealthy heiress or have one's debts remitted. By the time of Henry II, these posts were increasingly being filled by "new men" from outside the normal ranks of the barons. This intensified under John's rule, with many lesser nobles arriving from the continent to take up positions at court; many were mercenary leaders from Poitou. These men included soldiers who would become infamous in England for their uncivilised behaviour, including Falkes de Breauté , Gérard d'Athée , Engelard de Cigogné , and Philip Marc . Many barons perceived
3504-431: A wealthy magnate. Succeeding his father Odinel II in 1182, he left no children. Succeeding his brother Robert II around 1195, he was among the northern barons who resisted the exactions of King John and came under suspicion of treachery, being required in 1212 to hand over to the king his sons and his castle of Prudhoe. By 1216 he joined the rebels fighting John and his lands were forfeit, though he later made peace with
3650-402: A zeal and a tirelessness to which the English common law is greatly endebted". Seen more critically, John may have been motivated by the potential of the royal legal process to raise fees, rather than a desire to deliver simple justice; his legal system also applied only to free men, rather than to all of the population. Nonetheless, these changes were popular with many free tenants, who acquired
3796-402: Is less clear, however. None of his known illegitimate children were born after he remarried, and there is no actual documentary proof of adultery after that point, although John certainly had female friends amongst the court throughout the period. The specific accusations made against John during the baronial revolts are now generally considered to have been invented for the purposes of justifying
3942-519: Is taken to be the father of Odinel I and Gilbert I. Succeeding his father Robert I in England, he was also active in Scotland, being associated there with King David I and his grandson King Malcolm IV . He left no children. Succeeding his brother Odinel I after 1166, he had made his career mostly in Scotland, and was presumably the father of Odinel II. Succeeding his presumed father Gilbert I after 1175, he had been raised in Scotland, initially serving in
4088-473: Is used to describe them by leading late medievalists such as Seán Duffy. They increasingly integrated with the local Celtic nobility through intermarriage and some accepted aspects of Celtic culture , especially outside the Pale around Dublin . They are known as Old English , but this term came into use to describe them only in 1580, i.e., over four centuries after the first Normans arrived in Ireland. The Carol
4234-560: The Chancery kept written records and communications; the Treasury and the Exchequer dealt with income and expenditure respectively; and various judges were deployed to deliver justice around the kingdom. Thanks to the efforts of men like Hubert Walter , this trend towards improved record keeping continued into his reign. Like previous kings, John managed a peripatetic court that travelled around
4380-459: The Duchy of Brabant but actually recruited from across northern Europe, could operate all year long and provide a commander with more strategic options to pursue a campaign, but cost much more than equivalent feudal forces. As a result, commanders of the period were increasingly drawing on larger numbers of mercenaries. After his coronation, John moved south into France with military forces and adopted
4526-651: The Irish-Normans . The composite expression regno Norman-Anglorum for the Anglo-Norman kingdom that comprises Normandy and England appears contemporaneously only in the Hyde Chronicle . After the Norman Conquest of 1066, many of the Anglo-Saxon nobles lost lands and titles; the lesser thegns and others found themselves dispossessed of lands and titles. A number of free geburs had their rights and court access much decreased, becoming unfree villeins , despite
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4672-561: The Lord of Ireland and replaced him with the ten-year-old John. Henry the Young King fought a short war with his brother Richard in 1183 over the status of England, Normandy and Aquitaine. Henry II moved in support of Richard, and Henry the Young King died from dysentery at the end of the campaign. With his primary heir dead, Henry rearranged the plans for the succession: Richard was to be made King of England, albeit without any actual power until
4818-584: The Papal interdict of 1208 as well as John's excommunication the following year, a dispute he finally settled in 1213. John's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed because of the French victory over John's allies at the Battle of Bouvines . When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England's most powerful nobles. Magna Carta
4964-561: The Third Crusade . He set about raising the huge sums of money required for this expedition through the sale of lands, titles and appointments, and attempted to ensure that he would not face a revolt while away from his empire. John was made Count of Mortain , was married to the wealthy Isabella of Gloucester, and was given valuable lands in Lancaster and the counties of Cornwall , Derby , Devon, Dorset , Nottingham and Somerset , all with
5110-661: The Varangian Guard in Constantinople . The Anglo-Saxons as a whole, for practical reason, however were not demilitarised. Instead, William arranged for the Saxon infantry to be trained up by Norman cavalry in anti- cavalry tactics . This led quickly to the establishment of an Anglo-Norman army made up of Norman horsemen of noble blood, Saxon infantrymen often of equally noble blood, assimilated English freemen as rank-and-file, and foreign mercenaries and adventurers from other parts of
5256-606: The Victorian era , and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture, primarily as a villain in Robin Hood folklore. John was born on 24 December 1166. His father, King Henry II of England , had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard — Anjou , Normandy and England — and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany . John's mother was Eleanor ,
5402-502: The collapse of his empire in northern France in 1204. He spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. His judicial reforms had a lasting effect on the English common law system, as well as providing an additional source of revenue. His dispute with Pope Innocent III over the election of Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton led to
5548-500: The 12th century, initially to support Irish regional kings such as Diarmuid Mac Murchadha whose name has arrived in modern English as Dermot MacMurrough . Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke , known as "Strongbow", was the leader of the Anglo-Norman Knights whom MacMurrough had requested of Henry II of England to help him to re-establish himself as King of Leinster. Strongbow died a very short time after invading Ireland but
5694-425: The 12th century, there were contrary opinions expressed about the nature of kingship, and many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, and take counsel of the leading members of the realm. There was as yet no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so. Despite his claim to unique authority within England, John would sometimes justify his actions on
5840-468: The Alps and joined Henry II's court, but she died before marrying John, which left the prince once again without an inheritance. In 1173 John's elder brothers, backed by Eleanor, rose in revolt against Henry in the short-lived rebellion of 1173 to 1174 . Growing irritated with his subordinate position to Henry II and increasingly worried that John might be given additional lands and castles at his expense, Henry
5986-584: The Angevin empire was held by Henry only as a vassal of the king of France of the rival line of the House of Capet . Henry had often allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor against France, making the feudal relationship even more challenging. Shortly after his birth, John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a wet nurse , a traditional practice for medieval noble families. Eleanor then left for Poitiers ,
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6132-661: The Angevin territories on the continent. With Arthur's army pressing up the Loire Valley towards Angers and Philip's forces moving down the valley towards Tours , John's continental empire was in danger of being cut in two. Warfare in Normandy at the time was shaped by the defensive potential of castles and the increasing costs of conducting campaigns. The Norman frontiers had limited natural defences but were heavily reinforced with castles, such as Château Gaillard , at strategic points, built and maintained at considerable expense. It
6278-453: The Angevin throne: John, whose claim rested on being the sole surviving son of Henry II, and young Arthur I of Brittany, who held a claim as the son of John's elder brother Geoffrey. Richard appears to have started to recognise John as his heir presumptive in the final years before his death, but the matter was not clear-cut and medieval law gave little guidance as to how the competing claims should be decided. With Norman law favouring John as
6424-525: The Anglo-Norman nobility took up places in the Scottish aristocracy and he introduced a system of feudal land tenure, which produced knight service , castles and an available body of heavily armed cavalry. He created an Anglo-Norman style of court, introduced the office of justiciar to oversee justice, and local offices of sheriffs to administer localities. He established the first royal burghs in Scotland, granting rights to particular settlements, which led to
6570-477: The Church. Historian Frank McLynn argues that John's early years at Fontevrault, combined with his relatively advanced education, may have turned him against the church. Other historians have been more cautious in interpreting this material, noting that chroniclers also reported his personal interest in the life of St Wulfstan and his friendships with several senior clerics, most especially with Hugh of Lincoln , who
6716-540: The Confessor , during his exile in his mother's homeland of Normandy in northern France. When he returned to England, some of them went with him; as such, there were Normans already settled in England before the conquest. Edward's successor, Harold Godwinson , was defeated by Duke William the Conqueror of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings , leading to William's accession to the English throne. The victorious Normans formed
6862-625: The Continent was now the Duchy of Aquitaine. The nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. John's predecessors had ruled using the principle of vis et voluntas ("force and will"), taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Both Henry II and Richard had argued that kings possessed a quality of " divine majesty "; John continued this trend and claimed an "almost imperial status" for himself as ruler. During
7008-404: The Continent. The younger Norman aristocracy showed a tendency towards Anglicisation, adopting such Saxon styles as long hair and moustaches, upsetting the older generation. (The Anglo-Saxon cniht did not take the sense of the French chevalier before the latest period of Middle English. John Wycliffe (1380s) uses the term knyytis generically for men-at-arms, and only in the 15th century did
7154-631: The Crown. He found that these measures enabled him to raise further resources through the confiscation of the lands of barons who could not pay or refused to pay. At the start of John's reign there was a sudden change in prices , as bad harvests and high demand for food resulted in much higher prices for grain and animals. This inflationary pressure was to continue for the rest of the 13th century and had long-term economic consequences for England. The resulting social pressures were complicated by bursts of deflation that resulted from John's military campaigns. It
7300-503: The Duke of Normandy, who was exempt by feudal tradition from being called to the French court. Philip argued that he was summoning John not as the Duke of Normandy, but as the Count of Poitou, which carried no such special status. When John still refused to come, Philip declared John in breach of his feudal responsibilities, reassigned all of John's lands that fell under the French crown to Arthur—with
7446-452: The French at Baugé in 1421. Succeeding his nephew Gilbert V in 1421, his wife was named Isabel and they had no children. He was the last of the family and his lands passed to Sir William Tailboys , a remote cousin. In 1245 the Umfraville arms were recorded as: gules, a cinquefoil pierced or in a bordure azure, the bordure being sometimes shown charged with horseshoes . Horse breeding was
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#17328560763367592-455: The King kept the rebel leaders in such bad conditions that twenty-two of them died. At this time most of the regional nobility were closely linked through kinship, and this behaviour towards their relatives was regarded as unacceptable. William de Roches and others of John's regional allies in Anjou and Brittany deserted him in favour of Philip, and Brittany rose in revolt. John's financial situation
7738-429: The King's household as what Ralph Turner has characterised as a "narrow clique enjoying royal favour at barons' expense" staffed by men of lesser status. This trend for the King to rely on his own men at the expense of the barons was exacerbated by the tradition of Angevin royal ira et malevolentia ("anger and ill-will") and John's own personality. From Henry II onwards, ira et malevolentia had come to describe
7884-535: The May 1200 Treaty of Le Goulet ; by this treaty, Philip recognised John as the rightful heir to Richard in respect to his French possessions, temporarily abandoning the wider claims of his client, Arthur. John, in turn, abandoned Richard's former policy of containing Philip through alliances with Flanders and Boulogne, and accepted Philip's right as the legitimate feudal overlord of John's lands in France. John's policy earned him
8030-577: The Treaty of Norham, which gave John control of William's daughters and required a payment of £10,000. This effectively crippled William's power north of the border, and by 1212 John had to intervene militarily to support William against his internal rivals. John made no efforts to reinvigorate the Treaty of Falaise, though, and William and his son Alexander II of Scotland in turn remained independent kings, supported by, but not owing fealty to, John. John remained Lord of Ireland throughout his reign. He drew on
8176-542: The Young King travelled to Paris and allied himself with Louis VII. Eleanor, irritated by her husband's persistent interference in Aquitaine, encouraged Richard and Geoffrey to join their brother Henry in Paris. Henry II triumphed over the coalition of his sons, but was generous to them in the peace settlement agreed at Montlouis . Henry the Young King was allowed to travel widely in Europe with his own household of knights, Richard
8322-422: The absence of any actual military campaign, which ran counter to the original idea that scutage was an alternative to actual military service. John maximised his right to demand relief payments when estates and castles were inherited, sometimes charging enormous sums, beyond barons' abilities to pay. Building on the successful sale of sheriff appointments in 1194, the King initiated a new round of appointments, with
8468-454: The additional ability to "cripple his vassals" on a significant scale using his new economic and judicial measures, which made the threat of royal anger all the more serious. John was deeply suspicious of the barons, particularly those with sufficient power and wealth to potentially challenge him. Numerous barons were subjected to his malevolentia , even including the famous knight William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke , normally held up as
8614-410: The aim of buying his loyalty to Richard whilst the King was on crusade. Richard retained royal control of key castles in these counties, thereby preventing John from accumulating too much military and political power. The King named his four-year-old nephew Arthur as his heir. In return, John promised not to visit England for the next three years, thereby in theory giving Richard adequate time to conduct
8760-484: The balance seemed to be tipping away from Philip and Arthur in favour of John. Neither side was keen to continue the conflict, and following a papal truce the two leaders met in January 1200 to negotiate possible terms for peace. From John's perspective, what then followed represented an opportunity to stabilise control over his continental possessions and produce a lasting peace with Philip in Paris. John and Philip negotiated
8906-466: The basis that he had taken council with the barons. Modern historians remain divided as to whether John had a case of "royal schizophrenia " in his approach to government, or if his actions merely reflected the complex model of Angevin kingship in the early 13th century. John inherited a sophisticated system of administration in England, with a range of royal agents answering to the Royal Household:
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#17328560763369052-465: The capital of Aquitaine, and sent John and his sister Joan north to Fontevrault Abbey . This may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son, with no obvious inheritance, towards a future ecclesiastical career. Eleanor spent the next few years conspiring against Henry and neither parent played a part in John's very early life. John was probably, like his brothers, assigned a magister whilst he
9198-534: The castle of Rouen ... when John was drunk he slew Arthur with his own hand and tying a heavy stone to the body cast it into the Seine ." Rumours of the manner of Arthur's death further reduced support for John across the region. Arthur's sister, Eleanor , who had also been captured at Mirebeau, was kept imprisoned by John for many years, albeit in relatively good conditions. In late 1203, John attempted to relieve Château Gaillard , which although besieged by Philip
9344-403: The castles of Chinon , Loudun and Mirebeau into John's name; as John was only five years old his father would continue to control them for practical purposes. Henry the Young King was unimpressed by this; although he had yet to be granted control of any castles in his new kingdom, these were effectively his future property and had been given away without consultation. Alais made the trip over
9490-524: The conflict (as did the de Brus family). Perhaps coming from the French village of Offranville ( Ulfranville 1087–88; Apud Wlfranvillam ab. 1130; Ulfranvilla before 1164; W. de Hunffranvilla before 1164; Apud Unfranvillam 1155; Wulfranvilla 1177; Apud Unfranvillam 1178; Wlfranvilla 1202; Apud Vulfranvillam 1188–89; O. de Umfranvile [var. Unfrenivile et Unfrenvile ]; O. de Humfravile end 12th century) in Normandy . Another hypothesis links
9636-580: The conflict, but Innocent's efforts were unsuccessful. As the situation became worse for John, he appears to have decided to have Arthur killed, with the aim of removing a potential rival and to undermine the rebel forces in Brittany. Arthur had initially been imprisoned at Falaise and was then moved to Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains uncertain, but modern historians believe he was murdered by John. The annals of Margam Abbey suggest that "John had captured Arthur and kept him alive in prison for some time in
9782-478: The conquest include William Pece, Richard Juvenis and Odo, a Norman knight. Eventually, even this distinction largely disappeared in the course of the Hundred Years War (1337–1453), and by the 14th century Normans identified themselves as English, having been fully assimilated into the emerging English population. The Normans also led excursions into Wales from England and built multiple fortifications as it
9928-482: The continent, apparently loyally. Richard's policy on the continent was to attempt to regain through steady, limited campaigns the castles he had lost to Philip II whilst on crusade. He allied himself with the leaders of Flanders , Boulogne and the Holy Roman Empire to apply pressure on Philip from Germany. In 1195 John successfully conducted a sudden attack and siege of Évreux castle, and subsequently managed
10074-428: The country for resources to fight his war with Philip on the continent. Conflict continued in Ireland between the Anglo-Norman settlers and the indigenous Irish chieftains, with John manipulating both groups to expand his wealth and power in the country. During Richard's rule, John had successfully increased the size of his lands in Ireland, and he continued this policy as king. In 1210 the King crossed into Ireland with
10220-412: The country with him. They also played an important role in organising and leading military campaigns. Another section of royal followers were the curia regis ; these curiales were the senior officials and agents of the King and were essential to his day-to-day rule. Being a member of these inner circles brought huge advantages, as it was easier to gain favours from the King, file lawsuits, marry
10366-403: The crown by the King's favoured supporters might be forgiven; collection of those owed by enemies was more stringently enforced. The result was a sequence of innovative but unpopular financial measures. John levied scutage payments eleven times in his seventeen years as king, as compared to eleven times in total during the reign of the preceding three monarchs. In many cases these were levied in
10512-480: The crown now passing down the main line of descent through primogeniture, leading to the first of a series of minorities. John of England John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216. He lost the Duchy of Normandy and most of his other French lands to King Philip II of France , resulting in the collapse of the Angevin Empire and contributing to
10658-620: The crusade, John began to assert that his brother was dead or otherwise permanently lost. Richard had in fact been captured shortly before Christmas 1192, while en route to England, by Duke Leopold V of Austria and was handed over to Emperor Henry VI , who held him for ransom. John seized the opportunity and went to Paris, where he formed an alliance with Philip. He agreed to set aside his wife, Isabella of Gloucester, and marry Philip's sister, Alys , in exchange for Philip's support. Fighting broke out in England between forces loyal to Richard and those being gathered by John. John's military position
10804-439: The death of his father; Geoffrey would retain Brittany; and John would now become the Duke of Aquitaine in place of Richard. Richard refused to give up Aquitaine; Henry II was furious and ordered John, with help from Geoffrey, to march south and retake the duchy by force. The two attacked the capital of Poitiers, and Richard responded by attacking Brittany. The war ended in stalemate and a tense family reconciliation in England at
10950-480: The death of his mother, Eleanor, in April 1204. John's preferred plan was to use Poitou as a base of operations, advance up the Loire Valley to threaten Paris, pin down the French forces and break Philip's internal lines of communication before landing a maritime force in the Duchy itself. Ideally, this plan would benefit from the opening of a second front on Philip's eastern frontiers with Flanders and Boulogne—effectively
11096-503: The defences of Normandy against Philip. The following year, John seized the town of Gamaches and led a raiding party within 50 miles (80 km) of Paris, capturing the Bishop of Beauvais . In return for this service, Richard withdrew his malevolentia (ill-will) towards John, restored him to the county of Gloucestershire and made him again the Count of Mortain. After Richard's death on 6 April 1199 there were two potential claimants to
11242-535: The development of the first true Scottish towns and helped facilitate economic development as did the introduction of the first recorded Scottish coinage. He continued a process begun by his mother and brothers, of helping to establish foundations that brought the reformed monasticism based on that at Cluny . He also played a part in the organisation of diocese on lines closer to those in the rest of Western Europe. These reforms were pursued under his successors and grandchildren Malcolm IV of Scotland and William I , with
11388-401: The disparate parts each had their own histories, traditions and governance structures. As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine, the extent of Henry's power in the provinces diminished considerably, scarcely resembling the modern concept of an empire at all. Some of the traditional ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time. The future of
11534-497: The disrespectful title of "John Softsword" from some English chroniclers, who contrasted his behaviour with his more aggressive brother, Richard. The new peace would last only two years; war recommenced in the aftermath of John's decision in August 1200 to marry Isabella of Angoulême . In order to remarry, John first needed to abandon his wife Isabella, Countess of Gloucester; the King accomplished this by arguing that he had failed to get
11680-411: The east of Normandy. Opinions vary amongst historians as to the military skill shown by John during this campaign, with most recent historians arguing that his performance was passable, although not impressive. John's situation began to deteriorate rapidly. The eastern border region of Normandy had been extensively cultivated by Philip and his predecessors for several years, whilst Angevin authority in
11826-413: The economy. The result was political unrest across the country. John attempted to address some of the problems with the English currency in 1204 and 1205 by carrying out a radical overhaul of the coinage, improving its quality and consistency. John's royal household was based around several groups of followers. One group was the familiares regis , his immediate friends and knights who travelled around
11972-476: The empire upon Henry's eventual death was not secure: although the custom of primogeniture , under which an eldest son would inherit all his father's lands, was slowly becoming more widespread across Europe, it was less popular amongst the Norman kings of England. Most believed that Henry would divide the empire, giving each son a substantial portion, and hoping that his children would continue to work together as allies after his death. To complicate matters, much of
12118-403: The end of 1184. In 1185 John made his first visit to Ireland , accompanied by 300 knights and a team of administrators. Henry had tried to have John officially proclaimed King of Ireland, but Pope Lucius III would not agree. John's first period of rule in Ireland was not a success. Ireland had only recently been conquered by Anglo-Norman forces, and tensions were still rife between Henry II,
12264-483: The entire rebel leadership at the battle of Mirebeau . With his southern flank weakening, Philip was forced to withdraw in the east and turn south himself to contain John's army. John's position in France was considerably strengthened by the victory at Mirebeau, but John's treatment of his new prisoners and of his ally, William de Roches, quickly undermined these gains. De Roches was a powerful Anjou noble, but John largely ignored him, causing considerable offence, whilst
12410-669: The exception of Normandy, which he took back for himself—and began a fresh war against John. John initially adopted a defensive posture similar to that of 1199: avoiding open battle and carefully defending his key castles. John's operations became more chaotic as the campaign progressed, and Philip began to make steady progress in the east. John became aware in July that Arthur's forces were threatening his mother, Eleanor, at Mirebeau Castle. Accompanied by William de Roches, his seneschal in Anjou, he swung his mercenary army rapidly south to protect her. His forces caught Arthur by surprise and captured
12556-559: The fact that this status did not exist in Normandy itself (compared to other "French" regions). At the same time, many of the new Norman and Northern-France magnates were distributed lands by the King that had been taken from the English nobles. Some of these magnates used their original French-derived names, with the prefix 'de,' meaning they were lords of the old fiefs in France , and some instead dropped their original names and took their names from new English holdings. [1] [2] The Norman conquest of England brought Britain and Ireland into
12702-778: The founder of the family in England was Robert de Umfraville, called Robert "with the Beard" ( cum Barba ), who came into England with William the Conqueror . There is a possible connection with another Umfraville family in Glamorgan . Traditions of their origins and early exploits appearing in past writers are fanciful. The first historical member of the family, he held the lordships of Prudhoe and Redesdale for King Henry I in England and also acquired interests in Scotland. Associated there with King David I and his son Henry, lands in Stirlingshire held by his descendants were probably granted then. He
12848-686: The government of King Henry III . With a wife whose name is unknown he had at least four sons, including Gilbert II, and two daughters. Succeeding his father Richard in 1226, his first wife was Tiffany, a member of the Balliol family. After she died, in 1243 he married Maud , widow of John Comyn and daughter of Malcolm, Earl of Angus , who was the mother of his only son, Gilbert III. He is usually called Earl of Angus in right of his wife, who remarried after his death. Succeeding his father Gilbert II in 1245 while still an infant, he married Elizabeth, daughter of Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan and their second son
12994-564: The growth in Capetian power was beginning to concern France's neighbours. By 1212 John had successfully concluded alliances with his nephew Otto IV , a contender for the crown of Holy Roman Emperor in Germany, as well as with the counts Renaud of Boulogne and Ferdinand of Flanders . The invasion plans for 1212 were postponed because of fresh English baronial unrest about service in Poitou. Philip seized
13140-539: The household of King William I . He married Alice, daughter of the justiciar Richard Lucy , and had four or five sons, including Robert II and Richard, and at least three daughters, one being Alice who married William Bertram of Mitford . At his death in 1182 his estates in Northumberland alone were valued at nearly £60 a year and other English lands in Yorkshire , Suffolk , and Rutland may have doubled that, making him
13286-548: The initiative in 1213, sending his elder son, Louis , to invade Flanders with the intention of next launching an invasion of England. John was forced to postpone his own invasion plans to counter this threat. He launched his new fleet to attack the French at the harbour of Damme . The attack was a success, destroying Philip's vessels and any chances of an invasion of England that year. John hoped to exploit this advantage by invading himself late in 1213, but baronial discontent again delayed his invasion plans until early 1214, in what
13432-402: The kingdom, dealing with both local and national matters as he went. John was very active in the administration of England and was involved in every aspect of government. In part he was following in the tradition of Henry I and Henry II, but by the 13th century the volume of administrative work had greatly increased, which put much more pressure on a king who wished to rule in this style. John
13578-536: The leading loyalist barons. John's personal life greatly affected his reign. Contemporary chroniclers state that John was sinfully lustful and lacking in piety . It was common for kings and nobles of the period to keep mistresses, but chroniclers complained that John's mistresses were married noblewomen, which was considered unacceptable. John had at least five children with mistresses during his first marriage, and two of those mistresses are known to have been noblewomen. John's sexual behaviour after his second marriage
13724-463: The loss of Normandy and he rapidly built up further maritime capabilities after its collapse. Most of these ships were placed along the Cinque Ports , but Portsmouth was also enlarged. By the end of 1204 he had around 50 large galleys available; another 54 vessels were built between 1209 and 1212. William of Wrotham was appointed "keeper of the galleys", effectively John's chief admiral. Wrotham
13870-418: The men he brought with him remained to support Henry II of England and his son John as Lord of Ireland . Chief among the early Anglo-Norman settlers was Theobald Walter (surname Butler) appointed hereditary chief Butler of Ireland in 1177 by King Henry II and founder of one of the oldest remaining British dignities. Most of these Normans came from Wales, not England, and thus the epithet ' Cambro-Normans '
14016-496: The name with one or the other Amfrevilles in Normandy such as Amfreville-la-Mi-Voie near Rouen mentioned variously in the Middle Ages as Onfreville (1217); Offravilla (1282); Onfreville (1291); Onffreville (1319); Onfrevilla (1337); Onffreville-la-mi-voie (1395); Saint Rémy d'Unfreville la mivoie (2-6-1466) or Amfréville (Calvados) cited as Unfarvilla (1277) and Onfreville (1371). According to Mark Antony Lower ,
14162-453: The necessary papal dispensation to marry the Countess in the first place—as a cousin, John could not have legally wedded her without this. It remains unclear why John chose to marry Isabella of Angoulême. Contemporary chroniclers argued that John had fallen deeply in love with her, and John may have been motivated by desire for an apparently beautiful, if rather young, girl (Isabella of Angoulême
14308-529: The new incumbents making back their investment through increased fines and penalties, particularly in the forests. Another innovation of Richard's, increased charges levied on widows who wished to remain single, was expanded under John. John continued to sell charters for new towns, including the planned town of Liverpool , and charters were sold for markets across the kingdom and in Gascony . The King introduced new taxes and extended existing ones. The Jews, who held
14454-508: The new settlers and the existing inhabitants. John infamously offended the local Irish rulers by making fun of their unfashionable long beards, failed to make allies amongst the Anglo-Norman settlers, began to lose ground militarily against the Irish and finally returned to England later in the year, blaming the viceroy, Hugh de Lacy , for the fiasco. The problems amongst John's wider family continued to grow. His elder brother Geoffrey died during
14600-573: The novel Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott . Some residual ill-feeling is suggested by contemporary historian Orderic Vitalis , who in Ecclesiastical Historii (1125) wrote in praise of native English resistance to "William the Bastard" ( William I of England ). In addition, a fine called the " murdrum ", originally introduced to English law by the Danes under Canute , was revived, imposing on villages
14746-486: The only surviving son of Henry II and Angevin law favouring Arthur as the only son of Henry's elder son, the matter rapidly became an open conflict. John was supported by the bulk of the English and Norman nobility and was crowned at Westminster Abbey, backed by his mother, Eleanor. Arthur was supported by the majority of the Breton, Maine and Anjou nobles and received the support of Philip II, who remained committed to breaking up
14892-700: The orbit of the European continent, especially what remained of Roman-influenced language and culture. The England emerging from the Conquest owed a debt to the Romance languages and the culture of ancient Rome . It transmitted itself in the emerging feudal world that took its place. That heritage can be discerned in language, incorporating the French language and the Roman past, and in the emerging Romanesque (Norman) architecture. [3] [4] The Norman conquest of England also signalled
15038-488: The pinnacle of their power. As a prominent border landowning family, it is likely that they were invited, along with dozens of other Anglo-Norman knights, administrators, and warlords to settle in Scotland by David I of Scotland as part of his policy of modernising Scotland by introducing feudalism , now known as the Davidian Revolution by historians. The Umfravilles, who were granted lands in Stirlingshire , were by
15184-476: The powerful duchess of Aquitaine , who had a tenuous claim to Toulouse and Auvergne in southern France and was the former wife of King Louis VII of France . The territories of Henry and Eleanor formed the Angevin Empire , named after Henry's paternal title as Count of Anjou and, more specifically, its seat in Angers . The Empire, however, was inherently fragile: although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry,
15330-463: The question of his succession. Henry the Young King had been crowned King of England in 1170, but was not given any formal powers by his father; he was also promised Normandy and Anjou as part of his future inheritance. His brother Richard was to be appointed the count of Poitou with control of Aquitaine, whilst his brother Geoffrey was to become the duke of Brittany. At this time it seemed unlikely that John would ever inherit substantial lands, and he
15476-758: The rebel barons the following year. Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John's performance as king, and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards. Historian Jim Bradbury has summarised the current historical opinion of John's positive qualities, observing that John is today usually considered a "hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general". Nonetheless, modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king, including what historian Ralph Turner describes as "distasteful, even dangerous personality traits", such as pettiness, spitefulness, and cruelty. These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in
15622-652: The rebellions and discontentment. Mike Ashley writes on this subject; "he [William I] may have conquered them [the English], but he never ruled them ". Not all of the Anglo-Saxons immediately accepted him as their legitimate king. Whatever the level of dispute, over time, the two populations intermarried and merged. This began soon after the conquest. Tenants-in-chief following the conquest who married English women included Geofrey de la Guerche, Walter of Dounai and Robert d'Oilly. Other Norman aristocrats with English wives following
15768-495: The relationship remained uneasy. John began his reign by reasserting his sovereignty over the disputed northern counties. He refused William's request for the earldom of Northumbria , but did not intervene in Scotland itself and focused on his continental problems. The two kings maintained a friendly relationship, meeting in 1206 and 1207, until it was rumoured in 1209 that William was intending to ally himself with Philip II of France. John invaded Scotland and forced William to sign
15914-477: The remainder of his reign, John focused on trying to retake Normandy. The available evidence suggests that he did not regard the loss of the Duchy as a permanent shift in Capetian power. Strategically, John faced several challenges: England itself had to be secured against possible French invasion, the sea-routes to Bordeaux needed to be secured following the loss of the land route to Aquitaine, and his remaining possessions in Aquitaine needed to be secured following
16060-425: The revolt; nonetheless, most of John's contemporaries seem to have held a poor opinion of his sexual behaviour. The character of John's relationship with his second wife, Isabella of Angoulême, is unclear. John married Isabella whilst she was relatively young—her exact date of birth is uncertain, and estimates place her between at most 15 and more probably towards nine years old at the time of her marriage. Even by
16206-462: The right of the King to express his anger and displeasure at particular barons or clergy, building on the Norman concept of malevolentia —royal ill-will. In the Norman period, suffering the King's ill-will meant difficulties in obtaining grants, honours or petitions; Henry II had infamously expressed his fury and ill-will towards Thomas Becket , which ultimately resulted in Becket's death. John now had
16352-705: The royal courts had a more significant role in local law cases, which had previously been dealt with only by regional or local lords. John increased the professionalism of local sergeants and bailiffs, and extended the system of coroners first introduced by Hubert Walter in 1194, creating a new class of borough coroners. The King worked extremely hard to ensure that this system operated well, through judges he had appointed, by fostering legal specialists and expertise, and by intervening in cases himself. He continued to try relatively minor cases, even during military crises. Viewed positively, Lewis Warren considers that John discharged "his royal duty of providing justice ... with
16498-482: The royal succession. Henry II began to find more lands for John, mostly at various nobles' expense. In 1175 he appropriated the estates of the late Earl of Cornwall and gave them to John. The following year, Henry disinherited the sisters of Isabella of Gloucester , contrary to legal custom, and betrothed John to the now extremely wealthy Isabella. In 1177, at the Council of Oxford, Henry dismissed William FitzAldelm as
16644-540: The sensitive eastern Normandy border. Just as John stood to benefit strategically from marrying Isabella, so the marriage threatened the interests of the Lusignans , whose own lands currently provided the key route for royal goods and troops across Aquitaine. Rather than negotiating some form of compensation, John treated Hugh "with contempt"; this resulted in a Lusignan uprising that was promptly crushed by John, who also intervened to suppress Raoul in Normandy. Although John
16790-502: The south had been undermined by Richard's giving away of various key castles some years before. His use of routier mercenaries in the central regions had rapidly eaten away his remaining support in this area too, which set the stage for a sudden collapse of Angevin power. John retreated back across the Channel in December, sending orders for the establishment of a fresh defensive line to
16936-411: The standards of the time, she was married whilst very young. John did not provide a great deal of money for his wife's household and did not pass on much of the revenue from her lands, to the extent that historian Nicholas Vincent has described him as being "downright mean" towards Isabella. Vincent concluded that the marriage was not a particularly "amicable" one. Other aspects of their marriage suggest
17082-604: The subsequent growth in power of the French Capetian dynasty during the 13th century. The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta , a document considered an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom . John was the youngest son of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine . He was nicknamed John Lackland ( Norman : Jean sans Terre , lit. 'John without land') because he
17228-589: The third generation established as members of Court and for three generations became Mormaer of Angus through marriage into the Scots-Gaelic aristocracy. The split loyalties between the Kings of Scotland and the Kings of England meant the family frequently found itself as unsettled as the border and this came to a head during the Wars of Scottish Independence where they fought for both Scotland and England at various points of
17374-500: The west of Chateau Gaillard. In March 1204, Gaillard fell. John's mother Eleanor died the following month. This was not just a personal blow for John, but threatened to unravel the widespread Angevin alliances across the far south of France. Philip moved south around the new defensive line and struck upwards at the heart of the Duchy, now facing little resistance. By August, Philip had taken Normandy and advanced south to occupy Anjou and Poitou as well. John's only remaining possession on
17520-483: The word acquire the overtones of a noble cavalryman corresponding to the meaning of chevalier ). The Anglo-Norman conquest in the 12th century brought Norman customs and culture to Ireland. The degree of subsequent Norman-Saxon conflict (as a matter of conflicting social identities) is a question disputed by historians. The 19th-century view was of intense mutual resentment, reflected in the popular legends of Robin Hood and
17666-520: Was Robert III. His effigy can be seen in Hexham Abbey Succeeding his father Gilbert III in 1307, he married first Lucy, daughter of Sir Philip Kyme, and secondly Eleanor, daughter of Robert Lumley. With his first wife he had a son Gilbert IV and with his second wife a son Thomas I. Succeeding his father Robert III in 1325, he married first Joan, daughter of Sir Robert Willoughby, and secondly Maud, daughter of Sir Thomas Lucy. With Joan he had
17812-449: Was a popular Norman dance in which the leader sang and was surrounded by a circle of dancers who replied with the same song. This Norman dance was performed in conquered Irish towns. David I , who had spent most of his life as an English baron, became king of Scotland in 1124. His reign saw what has been characterised as a "Davidian Revolution", by which native institutions and personnel were replaced by English and French ones. Members of
17958-466: Was at Fontevrault, a teacher charged with his early education and with managing the servants of his immediate household; he was later taught by Ranulf de Glanvill , a leading English administrator. John spent some time as a member of the household of his eldest living brother Henry the Young King , where he probably received instruction in hunting and military skills. John grew up to be around 5 ft 5 in (1.65 m) tall, relatively short, with
18104-472: Was at best impious, or even atheistic , a very serious issue at the time. Contemporary chroniclers catalogued his various anti-religious habits at length, including his failure to take communion, his blasphemous remarks, and his witty but scandalous jokes about church doctrine, including jokes about the implausibility of the Resurrection of Jesus . They commented on the paucity of John's charitable donations to
18250-406: Was avoided by a cash payment to the King. He derived income from fines, court fees and the sale of charters and other privileges. John intensified his efforts to maximise all possible sources of income, to the extent that he has been described as "avaricious, miserly, extortionate and moneyminded". He also used revenue generation as a way of exerting political control over the barons: debts owed to
18396-439: Was difficult for a commander to advance far into fresh territory without having secured his lines of communication by capturing these fortifications, which slowed the progress of any attack. Armies of the period could be formed from either feudal or mercenary forces. Feudal levies could be raised only for a fixed length of time before they returned home, forcing an end to a campaign; mercenary forces, often called Brabançons after
18542-427: Was drafted as a peace treaty between John and the barons, and agreed in 1215. However, neither side complied with its conditions and civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Prince Louis of France . It soon descended into a stalemate. John died of dysentery contracted while on campaign in eastern England during late 1216; supporters of his son Henry III went on to achieve victory over Louis and
18688-521: Was either 12 or 14 at the time of their marriage). On the other hand, the Angoumois lands that came with her were strategically vital to John: by marrying Isabella, John was acquiring a key land route between Poitou and Gascony, which significantly strengthened his grip on Aquitaine. Isabella, however, was already engaged to Hugh IX of Lusignan , an important member of a key Poitou noble family and brother of Raoul I, Count of Eu , who possessed lands along
18834-568: Was forced to divert south to counter a threat to Gascony from Alfonso VIII of Castile . After a successful campaign against Alfonso, John headed north again, taking the city of Angers. Philip moved south to meet John; the year's campaigning ended in stalemate and a two-year truce was made between the two rulers. During the truce of 1206–1208, John focused on building up his financial and military resources in preparation for another attempt to recapture Normandy. John used some of this money to pay for new alliances on Philip's eastern frontiers, where
18980-473: Was given Aquitaine back, and Geoffrey was allowed to return to Brittany; only Eleanor was imprisoned for her role in the revolt. John had spent the conflict travelling alongside his father, and was given widespread possessions across the Angevin empire as part of the Montlouis settlement; from then onwards, most observers regarded John as Henry II's favourite child, although he was the furthest removed in terms of
19126-524: Was guarding the eastern flank of Normandy. John attempted a synchronised operation involving land-based and water-borne forces, considered by most historians today to have been imaginative in conception, but overly complex for forces of the period to have carried out successfully. John's relief operation was blocked by Philip's forces, and John turned back to Brittany in an attempt to draw Philip away from eastern Normandy. John successfully devastated much of Brittany, but did not deflect Philip's main thrust into
19272-599: Was happy to be portrayed as an alternative regent, and possibly the next king. Armed conflict broke out between John and Longchamp, and by October 1191 Longchamp was isolated in the Tower of London with John in control of the city of London, thanks to promises John had made to the citizens in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive. At this point Walter of Coutances , the Archbishop of Rouen , returned to England, having been sent by Richard to restore order. John's position
19418-537: Was his final Continental campaign. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries the border and political relationship between England and Scotland was disputed, with the kings of Scotland claiming parts of what is now northern England. John's father, Henry II, had forced William the Lion to swear fealty to him at the Treaty of Falaise in 1174. This had been rescinded by Richard I in exchange for financial compensation in 1189, but
19564-406: Was in England for much longer periods than his predecessors, which made his rule more personal than that of previous kings, particularly in previously ignored areas such as the north. The administration of justice was of particular importance to John. Several new processes had been introduced to English law under Henry II, including novel disseisin and mort d'ancestor . These processes meant
19710-431: Was jokingly nicknamed "Lackland" by his father. Henry II wanted to secure the southern borders of Aquitaine and decided to betroth his youngest son to Alais, the daughter and heiress of Humbert III of Savoy . As part of this agreement John was promised the future inheritance of Savoy , Piedmont, Maurienne , and the other possessions of Count Humbert. For his part in the potential marriage alliance, Henry II transferred
19856-489: Was later declared a saint. Financial records show a normal royal household engaged in the usual feasts and pious observances—albeit with many records showing John's offerings to the poor to atone for routinely breaking church rules and guidance. The historian Lewis Warren has argued that the chronicler accounts were subject to considerable bias and the King was "at least conventionally devout", citing his pilgrimages and interest in religious scripture and commentaries. During
20002-421: Was not expected to inherit significant lands. He became Henry's favourite child following the failed revolt of 1173–1174 by his brothers Henry the Young King , Richard , and Geoffrey against the King. John was appointed Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent. He unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against the royal administrators of his brother, King Richard I, while Richard
20148-871: Was one of William's ambitions to subdue the Welsh as well as the English, however, he was not entirely successful. Afterward, however, the border area known as the Marches was set up and Norman influence increased steadily. Encouraged by the invasion, monks (usually from France or Normandy ) such as the Cistercian Order also set up monasteries throughout Wales. By the 15th century a large number of Welsh gentry, including Owain Glyndŵr , had some Norman ancestry. The majority of knights who invaded Ireland were also from or based in Wales (see below). Anglo-Norman barons also settled in Ireland from
20294-440: Was participating in the Third Crusade , but he was proclaimed king after Richard died in 1199. He came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace treaty of Le Goulet in 1200. When war with France broke out again in 1202, John achieved early victories, but shortages of military resources and his treatment of Norman , Breton , and Anjou nobles resulted in
20440-407: Was persuaded not to pursue an alliance by his mother. Longchamp, who had left England after Walter's intervention, now returned, and argued that he had been wrongly removed as justiciar. John intervened, suppressing Longchamp's claims in return for promises of support from the royal administration, including a reaffirmation of his position as heir to the throne. When Richard still did not return from
20586-541: Was responsible for fusing John's galleys, the ships of the Cinque Ports and pressed merchant vessels into a single operational fleet. John adopted recent improvements in ship design, including new large transport ships called buisses and removable forecastles for use in combat. Baronial unrest in England prevented the departure of the planned 1205 expedition, and only a smaller force under William Longespée deployed to Poitou. In 1206 John departed for Poitou himself, but
20732-404: Was tenuous, once factors such as the comparative military costs of materiel and soldiers were taken into account. While Philip enjoyed a considerable, although not overwhelming, advantage of resources over John. Further desertions of John's local allies at the beginning of 1203 steadily reduced his freedom to manoeuvre in the region. He attempted to convince Pope Innocent III to intervene in
20878-573: Was the Count of Poitou and therefore the rightful feudal lord over the Lusignans, they could legitimately appeal John's actions in France to his own feudal lord, Philip. Hugh did exactly this in 1201 and Philip summoned John to attend court in Paris in 1202, citing the Le Goulet treaty to strengthen his case. John was unwilling to weaken his authority in western France in this way. He argued that he need not attend Philip's court because of his special status as
21024-527: Was undermined by Walter's relative popularity and by the news that Richard had married whilst in Cyprus, which presented the possibility that Richard would have legitimate children and heirs. The political turmoil continued. John began to explore an alliance with King Philip II of France , who had returned from the crusade in late 1191. John hoped to acquire Normandy, Anjou and the other lands in France held by Richard in exchange for allying himself with Philip. John
21170-583: Was usual at the time for the King to collect taxes in silver, which was then re-minted into new coins; these coins would then be put in barrels and sent to royal castles around the country, to be used to hire mercenaries or to meet other costs. At those times when John was preparing for campaigns in Normandy, for example, huge quantities of silver had to be withdrawn from the economy and stored for months, which unintentionally resulted in periods during which silver coins were simply hard to come by, commercial credit difficult to acquire and deflationary pressure placed on
21316-457: Was weak and he agreed to a truce; in early 1194 the King finally returned to England, and John's remaining forces surrendered. John retreated to Normandy, where Richard finally found him later that year. Richard declared that John—despite being 27 years old—was merely "a child who has had evil counsellors" and forgave him, but removed his lands with the exception of Ireland. For the remaining years of Richard's reign, John supported his brother on
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