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64-436: In prehistoric times the village was probably on an island in the former 3 km lake, known as Llac d'Ullastret or Estany d'Ullastret , connected by a causway, but the lake dried up in the 19th century. It is home to ancient Iberian archaeological remains, in particular much of the thick walls around the village are ancient. There is a medieval church known from the 9th century, dedicated to SS. Paul and Peter. The economy

128-403: A "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" ( despotes hippon ). The female goddess Ataegina is also widely attested in the inscriptions. Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves. Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class and Silius Italicus mentions priests in the region of Tartessos at

192-579: A "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides". The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks. Horse breeding was particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova,

256-593: A certain politician or party. The relationship can also work in the opposite direction, where voters pressure politicians into clientelistic relationships in exchange for electoral support. Stokes' research on clientelism in Argentina assumed that the Peronist Party was providing financial support to prospective voters to buy their votes. It was hypothesized that Peronists targeted moderately opposed voters because they were thought to be easily persuaded to change sides at

320-662: A cost conditional on their returning the favor with a vote. The patron/client system can be defined as a mutual arrangement between a person that has authority, social status, wealth, or some other personal resource (patron) and another who benefits from their support or influence (client). The patron provides selective access to goods and opportunities, and place themselves or their support in positions from which they can divert resources and services in their favor. Their partners-clients- are expected to buy support, and in some cases, votes. Patrons target low-income families to exchange their needed resources for their abundant resources: time,

384-482: A few fortified towns like Numantia . They had a knowledge of writing , metalworking , including bronze , and agricultural techniques. In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew in social complexity , exhibiting evidence of social stratification and urbanization . This process was probably aided by trading contacts with the Phoenicians , Greeks , and Carthaginians . By

448-410: A form of non-programmatic policy within distributive politics. It meets the criteria through failing to meet the two requirements of programmatic distribution, that are (1) 'formalized and public' and (2) 'shape actual distribution of benefits or resources'. Within non-programmatic policy, clientelism is then distinguished from 'pork-barrel politics' in that voters are given a benefit or are able to avoid

512-507: A simpler hypothesis for the Argentinian election cycle: to prove Peronists that were solely buying supporting voters' turnout, not all of their votes. He dismissed Stokes's arguments on patrons spying on smaller and poorer communities and instead said the Peronists initially targeted votes assumed to be their strong supporters. In that case, the patrons would be reasonably sure that they received

576-407: A temple of Melqart . Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure. Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common. In Iberian eschatology , "death was seen as

640-659: A vote from a person who receives a good from them. In many young low-income democracies, clientelism may assume the form of group-level targeting in which parties channel benefits to specific groups of voters that are conditional on past or future electoral support. For group-based targeting to work, parties must find efficient ways to distribute benefits while also holding voters accountable, ensuring that they keep their commitments. That leads parties to hire intermediaries, often referred to as 'brokers', who supply them with fine-grained information about who needs what and what sorts of voters will and will not vote for them, regardless of

704-556: A vote, and insertion into networks of other potential supporters whom they can influence; however, patrons are unable to access the information needed to effectively form the exchange; thus they hire intermediaries, brokers, that more equipped to find out what the targeted voter needs, which voters will require less prodding, and if the voter followed through on their end of the bargain. As Stokes, Dunning, Nazareno, and Brusco emphasize, brokers in turn serve political leaders, and they may also not target resources exactly as leaders would wish;

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768-635: Is based mostly on tourism and agriculture. This Province of Girona location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Iberians The Iberians ( Latin : Hibērī , from Greek : Ἴβηρες , Iberes ) were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula , at least from the 6th century BCE. They are described in Greek and Roman sources (among others, by Hecataeus of Miletus , Avienius , Herodotus and Strabo ). Roman sources also use

832-465: Is commonly defined as "dishonest and fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery", while political clientelism is seen as "the distribution of benefits targeted to individuals or groups in exchange for electoral support". It is common to associate the two together because they moderately overlap. There are different forms of corruption that have nothing to do with clientelism, such as voter intimidation or ballot stuffing. "Clientelism

896-447: Is considered negative because its intention is to generate 'private' revenue for patrons and clients and, as a result obstruct 'public' revenue for members of the general community who are not a part of the patron-client arrangement." Clientelism as a strategy of political organisation is substantially different from other strategies which rely on appeals to wider programmatic objectives or simply emphasize higher degrees of competence. It

960-399: Is evident in their sculptures. The man-bull Bicha of Balazote (possibly a fertility deity) and various depictions of sphinxes and lions bear a resemblance to eastern Mediterranean mythological creatures. The Lady of Elche and Lady of Guardamar show clear Hellenistic influence. Phoenician and Greek deities like Tanit , Baal , Melkart , Artemis , Demeter and Asclepius were known in

1024-446: Is that patrons often appear above the law in many clientelist systems. Also, some acts in clientelist systems such as vote buying, could be inherently illegal. Finally, resources needed for patrons to maintain the clientelist system may require illicit means to obtain goods. A 2021 study found that voters in clientelist systems are less willing to punish corrupt politicians electorally. Some scholars believe that because patrons focus on

1088-516: Is undermined by clientelism. That is because clientelism makes votes contingent on gifts to clients, rather than the performance of elected officials in office. Clientelism also degrades democratic institutions such as the secret ballot and administrative oversight. Such factors both weaken democratic institutions and negatively impact the efficiency of government. Corruption and the perception of corruption have also been established as strongly correlated with clientelist systems for many reasons. One

1152-573: The Ebro river (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in the Caucasus region, currently known as Caucasian Iberians . It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples. The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberian pottery and metalwork has been found in France , Italy , and North Africa . The Iberians had extensive contact with Greek colonists in

1216-486: The Greek alphabet had an influence too. Clientelism Clientelism or client politics is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit quid-pro-quo . It is closely related to patronage politics and vote buying . Clientelism involves an asymmetric relationship between groups of political actors described as patrons, brokers , and clients . In client politics, an organized interest group benefits at

1280-705: The Iberian Peninsula , that corresponds to the northwestern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (see the map), roughly in today's Catalonia , Eastern, Northeastern and Northern Aragon , Valencian Community , Murcia Region , Eastern Andalucia , and the Balearic Islands (in Spain ), and also in today's Roussillon and parts of Languedoc (in France ). The peninsula has this name because ancient Greeks , Romans and other mediterranean peoples first contacted with peoples (tribes or tribal confederacies) that were Iberians in

1344-690: The Punic wars was made up of Iberians and Celtiberians . Iberian warfare was endemic and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termed concursare by the Romans. The Iberians were particularly fond of ambushes and guerrilla tactics . Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry, scutati and caetrati . Scutati were heavily armored and carried large Italic style scutum shields . The caetrati carried

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1408-421: The familia was the basic unit underlying Roman society, the interlocking networks (clientela) acted as restrictions on their autonomy but allowed a more complex society to develop. Historians of the late medieval period evolved the concept into bastard feudalism . There is, as is usual, ambiguity in the use of political terminology and the terms "clientelism", the "patron–client relationship", " patronage ", and

1472-511: The occlusives and signs with monophonemic value for the rest of the consonants and vowels . As writing systems , they are neither alphabets nor syllabaries , but mixed scripts that normally are identified as semi-syllabaries . There is no agreement between researchers concerning the origin of the Iberian writing systems: for some they are only linked to the Phoenician alphabet while for others

1536-518: The political machine are sometimes used to describe similar or related concepts. The reigns of Julius Caesar (49–44 BCE) and Tiberius (14–16 AD) have been characterized as examples of widespread clientelism. In the 1500s, French political theorist Étienne de La Boétie did not use the term clientelism , but described the practice of emperors who used gifts to the public to gain loyalty from those who were eager to accept what amounted to bribery : Susan Stokes et al. distinguish clientelism as

1600-589: The H. Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conquered Lusitania and Celtiberia . The Romans fought a long and drawn out campaign for the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian peninsula would continue until 16 BCE, when the final rebellions of the Cantabrian Wars were defeated. Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus"), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called

1664-619: The Iberian Ilergetes tribe north of the Ebro who were allied with Carthage, conquered the Iberian oppidum of Tarraco and defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BCE, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in

1728-565: The Iberian peninsula. The Iberians lived in villages and oppida (fortified settlements) and their communities were based on a tribal organization. The Iberians in the Spanish Levant were more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of the Iberian peninsula . The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly speakers of Celtic dialects, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had

1792-601: The Iberians sent emissaries to Alexander the Great in 324 BCE, along with other embassies of Carthaginians , Italics and Gauls , to request his friendship. After the First Punic war , the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula. Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from his base at Cádiz by conquering the Tartessian Guadalquivir river region, which

1856-783: The Iberians south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated the Olcades , the Vaccaei and the Carpetani expanding his control over the river Tagus region. Hannibal then laid siege to Roman ally of Saguntum and this led to the beginning of the Second Punic War . The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage. Rome sent Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated

1920-535: The Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region. A distinct feature of the culture, the pottery was primarily decorated with geometric forms in red but in some areas (from Murcia to the south of Catalonia ) it also included figurative images. The Iberian polytheistic religion was influenced by the Greek and Phoenician practices, as it

1984-496: The benefit(s) provided. Party brokers are not the only type of intermediaries that mediate clientelist exchanges. There are also organizational brokers who represent specific interest groups but mobilize voters for multiple parties, hybrid brokers who also represent specific interest groups but demonstrate strong party loyalties, and independent brokers who neither represent specific group interests nor exhibit stable partisan attachments. Scholarly consensus has thus far eluded

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2048-403: The bulk of their vote-buying efforts at persuadable swing voters, those who are either indifferent to the party's professed programmatic goals or moderately opposed to them. Some studies have challenged those claims but suggest that most instances of vote-buying in clientelist democracies might actually be instances of turnout-buying in which parties shower benefits on their most loyal supporters in

2112-532: The caetra, a small Iberian buckler . Iberian armaments included the famed Gladius Hispaniensis , a curved sword called the falcata , straight swords, spears, javelins and an all iron spear called the Soliferrum . Iberian horsemen were a key element of Iberian forces as well as Carthaginian armies. Spain was rich with excellent wild horses and Iberian cavalry was some of the best in the ancient Mediterranean. Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of

2176-548: The colonies of Emporion , Rhode , and Hemeroskopeion . The Iberians may have adopted some of the Greeks ' artistic techniques. Statues such as the Lady of Baza and the Lady of Elx are thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greek art . Thucydides stated that one of the three original tribes of Sicily , the Sicani , were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at

2240-543: The control and procurement of private goods, they also neglect public goods such as roads and public schools, which aid economic development. Scholars also note that rent-seeking and corruption, prevalent in clientelist systems, could negatively impact the economy as well. Nevertheless, there is still great uncertainty in the economic effects of clientelism. It is common to link clientelism with corruption; both involve political actors using public and private resources for personal gain, but they are not synonymous. Corruption

2304-421: The eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula , which by the 6th century BCE had absorbed cultural influences from the Phoenicians and the Greeks . This pre-Indo-European cultural group spoke the Iberian language from the 7th to at least the 1st century BCE. The rest of the peninsula, in the northern, central, and northwestern areas, was inhabited by Vascones , Celts or Celtiberians groups and

2368-469: The entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain. After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces, Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior . In 197 BCE, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in

2432-553: The ethnic and linguistic sense, although the majority of the Iberian Peninsula 's peoples, that dwelt in the Northern, Central and Western regions (the majority of the peninsula's area), were not Iberians themselves in the ethnic and linguistic sense (they could only be considered Iberians in the geographical sense, i.e. they dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula). The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were: The Iberian language, like

2496-513: The expense of the public. Client politics may have a strong interaction with the dynamics of identity politics . This is particularly common in an elite pluralist or rigidly duopolistic system, such as in the United States, where lobbying can have considerable power shaping public policy. The opposite of client politics is entrepreneurial politics, or conviction politics . Although many definitions for clientelism have been proposed, according to

2560-554: The good or service is a question of "did you or will you vote for me?" Politicians can engage in clientelism on either (or both) a group or individual level. One way individual level clientelism can manifest itself is in a vote buying relationship: a politician gives a citizen goods or services, and, in exchange, that individual citizen promises to vote for that politician in the next election. Individual level clientelism can also be carried out through coercion where citizens are threatened with lack of goods or services unless they vote for

2624-498: The hope they will show up at the polling booth on election day. However, the lack of well-developed political machines does not preclude clientelist targeting. Recent studies have shown that in many emerging democracies, parties often lack the organizational capacity to monitor individual-level voting behavior and so they finetune their targeting strategies by updating their beliefs about what sorts of groups have been most responsive to their clientelist appeals. Clientelism may not look

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2688-491: The iron mines in the Ebro valley, as well as the exploitation of tin and copper deposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as the falcata . The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which

2752-517: The landscape and the political space." The settlement of Castellet de Banyoles in Tivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927. Lucentum was another ancient Iberian settlement, as well as Castelldefels Castle . Mausoleum of Pozo Moro near

2816-402: The late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE a series of important social changes led to the consolidation of an aristocracy and the emergence of a clientele system. "This new political system led, among other things, to cities and towns that centered around these leaders, also known as territorial nucleation . In this context, the oppidum or fortified Iberian town became the centre of reference in

2880-504: The origin of the Iberian language. According to the Catalan theory, the Iberian language originated in northern Catalonia , from where it expanded north and south. The Iberians use three different scripts to represent the Iberian language . Northeastern Iberian script and southeastern Iberian script share a common distinctive typological characteristic, also present in other paleohispanic scripts : they use signs with syllabic value for

2944-485: The party's minimal expense. Stokes elaborated on the need of the Peronist Party to be able to track its clientele despite the secret ballot system. Stokes's argument was that the potential for vote buying depends on the accuracy with which the patron party, the Peronists in the case of Argentina, can monitor votes. She uses evidence to show that overall smaller communities offer less anonymity, which makes it easier for

3008-404: The patrons to find out who committed to supporting them. Thus, Stokes concluded that to be one of the reasons that vote buying is more frequent in relatively small communities. Another reason is that smaller communities are generally poorer. Furthermore, smaller communities, which are generally poorer and have a greater need for resources, are a more attractive target. Research by Nichter promoted

3072-428: The political process. While the obligations between these were mutual, the key point is they were hierarchical. These relationships might be best viewed not as an entity but rather as a network (clientela) , with the patronus himself perhaps being obligated to someone of greater power, and the cliens perhaps having more than one patron. These extensions increase the possibilities of conflicting interests arising. While

3136-400: The political scientist Allen Hicken, it is generally thought that there are four key elements of clientelistic relationships: Contingency and iteration are the two components shared across most definitions of clientelism. The origin of the practice has been traced to ancient Rome. Here relationships between the patron (patronus) and client (cliens) were seen as crucial to understanding

3200-472: The polls is surprisingly uncommon. Patronage, turnout buying, abstention buying, and vote buying are subcategories of clientelism. Patronage refers to an intra-party flow of benefits to members. Turnout buying, coined by Nichter, treats or bribes voters to the polls whereas abstention buying treats or bribes voters to keep them from going to the polls. Vote buying is a direct transfer of goods or services, in exchange for one's support and vote. The result for

3264-471: The possibly Pre-Celtic or Proto-Celtic Indo-European Lusitanians , Vettones , and Turdetani . Starting in the 5th century BCE, Iberian soldiers were frequently deployed in battles in Italy, Greece and especially Sicily due to their military qualities. The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BCE, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BCE in the eastern and southern coasts of

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3328-478: The practice negatively. Not all voters view clientelistic behavior as a positive trait in politicians, especially voters of higher socioeconomic statuses. In short, there is no single factor that causes clientelism to take hold. Clientelism has generally negative consequences on democracy and government and has more uncertain consequences on the economy. The accountability relationship in a democracy in which voters hold elected officials accountable for their actions,

3392-441: The question of why parties channel clientelist benefits to certain groups more than others. Some of the earlier work on group-level targeting argues that politicians are more likely to direct party largesse to their co-ethnics because ethnicity helps parties solve the commitment problems that are so critical to making clientelism work. Some of the more contemporary work underscores the salience of partisan loyalties: politicians direct

3456-540: The region and worshiped. Currently few native Iberian gods are known, though the oracular healing deity "Betatun" is known from a Latin inscription at Fuertes del Rey. There was clearly an important female deity associated with the earth and regeneration as depicted by the Lady of Baza and linked with birds, flowers and wheat. The horse was also an important religious figure and an important sanctuary dedicated to Horses has been found in Mula ( Murcia ). There are many depictions of

3520-631: The rest of the paleohispanic languages , became extinct by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced by Latin . The Iberian language remains an unclassified non-Indo European language. A 1978 study claimed many similarities between Iberian and the Messapic language . Iberian languages also share some elements with the Basque language . Links have also been found with the Etruscan language and Minoan Linear A . There are different theories about

3584-435: The resulting principal-agent problems can have important implications for understanding how clientelism works. A key to understanding clientelism might come in stressing not only the mutually beneficial relationships of exchange but also asymmetries in power or standing. Implied is a certain selectivity in access to key resources and markets. Those with access, the patrons and/or sometimes sub-patrons or brokers rely on

3648-597: The retreat. The tide turned with the arrival of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in 210 BCE. Scipio attacked and conquered Carthago Nova and defeated the army of Hasdrubal Barca at the Battle of Baecula (209–208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until the Battle of Ilipa (modern Alcalá del Río in Sevilla province ), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated to Gades , and Publius Scipio gained control over

3712-967: The same from context to context. Several individual and country-level factors may shape if and how clientelism takes hold in a country including the types of individual leaders, socio-economic status of individuals, economic development, democratization, and institutional factors. In some contexts, clientelistic behavior is almost expected, as such interactions can become embedded in the formal political structures. Some types of leaders such as hereditary traditional leaders, who remain in power for extended periods of time, are more effective in carrying out clientelistic relationships than others such as elected officials. Research has also shown that politicians can benefit electorally from clientelistic relationships by gaining support from those who receive goods from them, but there are also potential costs since clientelistic politicians may lose support from wealthier voters, who do not engage in clientelistic relationships themselves view

3776-564: The starting point for a journey symbolised by a crossing of the sea, the land or even the sky. Supernatural and mythical beings, such as the Sphinx or the wolf, and sometimes Divinity itself, accompanied and guided the deceased on this journey". The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs. Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during

3840-501: The subordination and dependence of the clients. In return for receiving some benefits the clients should provide political support. Standard modeling of clientelism assumes that politicians are able to monitor votes, and in turn reward or punish voters based on their choices. Quid pro quo would dissolve in the absence of such monitoring, rendering clientelism highly inefficient at best and completely ineffective at worst; however, evidence suggests that systematic monitoring of voter choice at

3904-417: The term Hispani to refer to the Iberians. The term Iberian , as used by the ancient authors, had two distinct meanings. One, more general, referred to all the populations of the Iberian peninsula without regard to ethnic differences ( Pre-Indo-European , Celts and non-Celtic Indo-Europeans ). The other, more restricted ethnic sense and the one dealt with in this article, refers to the people living in

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3968-517: The time could have included what we think of as Gaul . The Iberians also had contacts with the Phoenicians , who had established various colonies in southern Andalucia . Their first colony on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BCE and was originally called Gadir , later renamed by the Romans as Gades (modern Cádiz ). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka ( Málaga ), Sexi and Abdera . According to Arrian ,

4032-464: The town of Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón in Castile-La Mancha seems to mark the location of another big settlement. Sagunto is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BCE. Greek colonists made the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BCE. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of

4096-446: Was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern Cartagena ) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the river Ebro . After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BCE, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of

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