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123-695: The founder of the dynasty was Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Ukhaidhir ibn Ibrahim ibn Musa al-Djawn ibn Abd Allah al-Kāmil ibn Al-Hasan al-Mu'thannā bin Al- Hassan al-mujtaba bin Ali al Murtaza bin Abi Talib . Muhammad's brother Isma'il had launched a rebellion in the Tihamah in 865 against the Abbasid government and temporarily occupied the city of Mecca . After Isma'il's death the following year, Muhammad began stirring up trouble along

246-558: A battle with the Qarmatians. Isma'il was succeeded by his son al-Hasan, and at this point the amirate likely subordinate to the Qarmatians. After the rule of al-Hasan's son Ahmad, the history of the Banu 'l-Ukhaidhir becomes obscure. When the traveler Nasir-i Khusraw arrived in al-Yamamah in 1051, the Banu 'l-Ukhaidhir were still ruling there, but at some point after this the Banu Kilab took over

369-564: A council ( shura ) after Mu'awiya, and preference for the Banu Hashim over the Banu Umayyad in pensions. Another condition was that Mu'awiya should end the ritual cursing of Ali in mosques, writes Mavani. Jafri similarly notes that the terms are recorded differently and ambiguously by al-Tabari, Dinawari, Ibn Abd al-Barr, and Ibn al-Athir, while al-Ya'qubi and al-Mas'udi ( d.  956 ) are silent about them. In particular, Jafri finds

492-491: A letter, which he refused. As the news of the mutiny against Hasan and the attempt at his life arrived, however, both sides abstained from fighting and awaited further developments. Veccia Vaglieri writes that the Iraqis were reluctant to fight and a group deserted every day. By one account, 8,000 men out of 12,000 followed Ubayd Allah's example and joined Mu'awiya. When Hasan learned about this, al-Ya'qubi writes that he summoned

615-498: A mutiny at his military camp near al-Mada'in . Among the five surviving accounts, Jafri prefers the one by Abu Hanifa Dinawari ( d.  895 ), which states that Hasan was concerned about his troops' resolve by the time he reached the outskirts of al-Mada'in. He thus halted the army at Sabat and told them in a speech that he preferred peace over war because his men were reluctant to fight. According to al-Mada'ini ( d.  843 ), Hasan also quoted Ali as saying, "Do not loathe

738-510: A peace treaty with Mu'awiya on the condition that the latter should rule in compliance with the Quran and the sunna , a council should appoint his successor, and Hasan's supporters would receive amnesty. Hasan retired from politics and abdicated in Medina where he died either from illness or poisoning, though the early sources are nearly unanimous that he was poisoned. Mu'awiya is commonly viewed as

861-454: A pretext for him to seize the caliphate, according to Jafri. In the surrender ceremony, Mu'awiya demanded Hasan to publicly apologize. Hasan rose and reminded the people that he and Husayn were Muhammad's only grandsons and the right to the caliphate was his and not Mu'awiya's, but he had surrendered it to avoid bloodshed. Mu'awiya then spoke and recanted his earlier promises to Hasan and others, saying that those promises were made to shorten

984-407: A problem for Mu'awiya, who planned to designate his son Yazid ( r.  680–683 ) as his successor, in violation of the peace treaty with Hasan. Jafri thus believes that Mu'wiya should be suspected in the murder of Hasan, which removed an obstacle to the succession of his son. This view is echoed by Momen and Madelung. Hasan did not disclose who he suspected of his poisoning, fearing that

1107-504: A request from Mu'awiya to subdue a Kharijite revolt near Kufa. He wrote back to Mu'awiya that he had given up his claim to the caliphate for the sake of peace and compromise, not to fight on his side. Between his abdication in 41/661 and his death in 50/670, Hasan lived quietly in Medina and did not engage in politics. In compliance with the peace treaty, Hasan declined requests from (often small) Shia groups to lead them against Mu'awiya. He

1230-465: A share of five thousand dirhams in Umar's system of state pension. According to Ibn Isfandiyar , Hasan also took part in an expedition to Amol during the caliphate of Umar, though the veracity of such reports have been questioned by Paktchi et al. Defying Uthman, Hasan joined his father in bidding farewell to Abu Dharr al-Ghifari ( d.  652 ), who was exiled from Medina after he preached against

1353-538: A similar view. Madelung writes that the caliphate of Ali was characterized by his honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his equal treatment of the supporters, and his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies. Moojan Momen and Veccia Vaglieri share similar opinions. The latter adds that Ali fought against those whom he perceived as erring Muslims as a matter of duty, in order to uphold Islam. Shah-Kazemi says that Ali strived for justice and compassion for all, regardless of their religion. Ismail Poonawala writes that

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1476-493: A small house next to the mosque. According to al-Ya'qubi ( d.  897-8 ), "Ali never wore a new garment, never acquired a state, never set his heart on wealth, and used his assets for giving alms to the needy people." The view of Shah-Kazemi is that Ali respected private property rights but did not allow the rich to add to their wealth at the expense of the poor. To justify this policy, Shah-Kazemi cites verse 59:7, which warns Muslims about their wealth "circulating only among

1599-485: A territory that extended as far north as Qurran . The early rule of the Banu 'l-Ukhaidhir was characterized by a sustained economic depression. Thousands of people are recorded as having emigrated from al-Yamamah to various provinces of the caliphate in order to escape the turmoil. Muhammad has been blamed for this period of hardship due to his oppressive rule, although it has been noted that reports of mass emigration from al-Yamamah began years before his arrival. Muhammad

1722-405: A truce and then offering Ubayd Allah a million dirhams to switch sides. Ubayd Allah accepted and deserted at night to Mu'awiya, who fulfilled his promise to him. The next morning, Qays ibn Sa'd took charge of Hasan's troops as the second-in-command and denounced Ubayd Allah in a sermon. Mu'awiya now sent a contingent to force surrender but was pushed back twice. He then offered bribes to Qays in

1845-522: A universalist vision of Islam which offered them equal rights. More generally, the egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of nearly all underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, who were sidelined after Muhammad by the Qurayshite leadership, and the qurra ( lit.   ' Quran readers ' ), who sought pious Islamic leadership. This latter group of early Muslims were interested in restoring

1968-474: A vanguard under Ubayd Allah ibn al-Abbas to block Mu'awiya's advance until he arrived with the main army. Meanwhile, Hasan was severely wounded in an abortive assassination attempt by the Kharijites , a faction opposed to both Ali and Mu'awiya. This attack demoralized Hasan's army and led to widespread desertion. Ubayd Allah and most of his troops also defected after Mu'awiya bribed him. In August 661, Hasan signed

2091-497: Is close to that offered by Husain M. Jafri ( d.  2019 ), another expert. At the same time, the Shia representation of Abu Bakr and Umar as usurpers of Ali's rights is absent in the (Sunni) historical discourse from that period. Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues. He also equally distributed the taxes and booty amongst Muslims, following the precedent of Muhammad. Ayoub and Jafri write that Ali distributed

2214-514: Is considered the most reliable, reporting that Hasan had fifteen sons and nine daughters with six wives and three known concubines. His first marriage was contracted with Ja'da , daughter of the Kinda chief al-Ash'ath ibn Qays , soon after Ali relocated to Kufa. Madelung suggests that Ali with this marriage intended to establish ties with the powerful Yemeni tribes in Kufa. Hasan had no children with Ja'da, who

2337-445: Is described as a good orator, he might have also suffered from a speech defect, according to Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani. In contrast to Hasan, Madelung suggests that Husayn might have inherited his father's "fighting spirit." The sources hostile to Hasan interpret his peace treaty with Mu'awiya as a sign of weakness, saying that Hasan intended to surrender from the beginning. Some authors instead suggest that Hasan's decision to abdicate

2460-448: Is given by al-Shaybani, who also adds another report: Sawwar al-Manquri was brought to Ali for publicly cursing and threatening to kill him, Ali released the former. When the narrator apparently objected to this, Ali explained, "Shall I kill him even though he has not [yet] killed me?" The narrator then added that Sawwar had cursed the caliph, to which Ali replied that the former should then curse Sawwar or leave him alone. These reports set

2583-499: Is often accused of poisoning him. Umm Bashir was Hasan's second wife and bore him his eldest son Zayd, his daughter Umm al-Husayn, and probably another daughter Umm al-Hasan. Umm Bashir was the daughter of Abu Mas'ud Uqba ibn Amr , who had opposed the Kufan revolt against Uthman. Madelung writes that Ali was hoping to bring Abu Mas'ud to his side with the marriage. After his abdication and return to Medina, Hasan married Khawla, daughter of

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2706-627: Is regarded as an authority on the rules of intra-Muslim war in Islamic jurisprudence. He forbade Muslim fighters from looting, and instead equally distributed the taxes as salaries among his soldiers. This ruling probably became a subject of dispute between Ali and those who later formed the Kharijites. Before the Battle of the Camel (656), Ali also forbade chasing the fugitives, killing the prisoners, and dispatching

2829-409: Is said to have even rejected a request by his brother Aqil for public funds, whereas Mu'awiya readily offered all of them bribes. By comparison, Ali continued to pay the Kharijites their shares from the treasury after they rose against him. Regarding taxation, Ali instructed his officials to collect payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing

2952-468: Is the saying, "God has made it incumbent on true leaders to make themselves commensurable with the weakest people over whom they rule, so that the poverty of the poor will not engender covetousness." When he relocated to Kufa , as the new de-facto capital, Ali refused to reside in the governor's castle, says Madelung, calling it qasr al-khabal ( lit.   ' castle of corruption ' ). Instead, he stayed with his nephew Ja'da ibn Hubayra, or in

3075-467: The ahl al-dhimma for payments. Ali took some early measures toward the establishment of a welfare state. In his letter to al-Ashtar, he urged his commander to prioritize the needy, the afflicted, and the disabled, to assign a deputy to oversee their needs, and to attend to them personally. The Shia jurist Hossein Noori Hamedani cites an encounter between an old beggar and Ali, who reputedly gave

3198-527: The sayyid s ( lit.   ' chiefs ' ) of the youth in the paradise. Madelung adds that this hadith is widely reported, while Veccia Vaglieri ( d.  1989 ) notes that its authenticity was disputed by the Umayyad Marwan ( r.  684–685 ). The same source and the canonical Shia source Kitab al-Irshad narrate the prophetic hadith, "He who has loved Hasan and Husayn has loved me and he who has hated them has hated me." Similarly,

3321-467: The First Fitna (656-661). Indeed, when the Kharijites broke with Ali after this battle, some forty-thousand of his supporters offered him a second bay'ah and pledged to be friends to the friends of Ali and enemies to his enemies. The ranks of these devoted supporters likely included the Ansar and the tribes from southern Arabia . These supporters may have justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on

3444-468: The Quranic principle of equality among the faithful. In turn, Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. During his caliphate, the tribal elites returned to power at the cost of the early Muslims. The departure of Ali from the status quo on the distribution of revenues particularly appealed to the late immigrants to Iraq , among whom were the non-Arab converts in Kufa, for whom Ali championed

3567-537: The event of the mubahala . During the caliphate of Ali ( r.  656–661 ), Hasan accompanied him in the military campaigns of the First Fitna . Following Ali's assassination in January 661, Hasan was acknowledged caliph in Kufa . His sovereignty was not recognized by Mu'awiya I ( r.  661–680 ), the governor of Syria, who led an army into Kufa while pressing Hasan for abdication in letters. In response, Hasan sent

3690-544: The road running between the Hejaz and Iraq , but was defeated by the road's governor Abu 'l-Saj Dewdad . Fleeing from the government forces, he made his way in al-Yamamah and established himself there in 867. Al-Yamamah at the time was nominally part of the Abbasid Caliphate, but the central government had largely neglected the area for years due to its remoteness. With the exception of the occasional raid by government forces,

3813-452: The "Umayyad propaganda" reflected in the account of al-Zuhri, quoted by al-Tabari. Since Ali and his house rejected the conduct of Abu Bakr and Umar in the shura after Umar in 23/644, Jafri believes that the clause about following the Rashidun caliphs was inserted by later Sunni authors. That Mu'awiya agreed to an amnesty for the supporters of Ali indicates that the revenge for Uthman was

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3936-538: The Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyad, respectively, soon gathered with weapons. Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya reportedly intervened and reminded Hasan's burial request. He was then buried in al-Baqi. Dinawari writes the Umayyads shot arrows at the body during the standoff, and this is also the Shia view. Madelung suggests that Mu'awiya later rewarded Marwan for his stand by reinstating him as the governor of Medina. As Hasan's body

4059-585: The Family of the Prophet. Ali's commander Qays ibn Sa'd was the first to pledge his allegiance to Hasan. Qays offered his oath based on the Quran, precedent ( sunna ), and jihad against those who declared lawful ( halal ) what was unlawful ( haram ). Hasan, however, avoided the last condition by saying that it was implicit in the first two. About this episode, Jafri ( d.  2019 ) suggests that Hasan

4182-523: The Fazara chief Manzur ibn Zabban. Khawla already had two sons and a daughter from Muhammad ibn Talha , who was killed in the Battle of the Camel. After her father protested that he had been ignored, Hasan presented Khawla to her father and remarried her with his approval. Khawla bore Hasan his son, Hasan . Hasan in Medina also married Hafsa bint Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr . It is said that al-Mundhir ibn al-Zubayr

4305-583: The Imam victorious. Hasan was born in Medina in c.  625 . Sources differ on whether he was born in the Islamic months of Sha'ban or Ramadan , though most early works give his birthdate as 15 Ramadan 3 AH (2 March 625 CE), which is annually celebrated by the Shia. Hasan was the firstborn of Muhammad's daughter Fatima and his cousin Ali . Their union holds a special spiritual significance for Muslims, write Nasr and Afsaruddin , and Muhammad said he followed divine orders to marry Fatima to Ali, narrates

4428-616: The Iraqi nobles and reproached them for their unreliability and fickle-mindedness, echoing the speeches of Ali after Siffin. Mu'awiya now sent envoys to propose that Hasan abdicate in his favor to spare Muslim blood. In return, Mu'awiya was ready to designate Hasan as his successor, grant him safety, and offer him a large financial settlement. Hasan accepted the overture in principle and sent his representative(s) to Mu'awiya, who sent them back to Hasan with carte blanche , inviting him to dictate whatever he wanted. Hasan wrote that he would surrender

4551-506: The Muslim rule to Mu'awiya if he would comply with the Quran and sunna , his successor would be appointed by a council ( shura ), the people would remain safe, and Hasan's supporters would receive amnesty. His letter was witnessed by two representatives, who carried it to Mu'awiya. Hasan thus renounced the caliphate in August 661 after a seven-month reign. This year is considered by a number of

4674-434: The Quran. Ali lived an austere life, and strictly separated his public and private spending. Hassan Abbas writes that Ali had a simple diet and mended his own things. In a letter to Uthman ibn Hunayf attributed to Ali, the governor of Basra is admonished for accepting an invitation to a banquet, asking how he could go to bed with his belly full, while there were people around him who are hungry. Also ascribed to Ali

4797-541: The Quran. There was no response at first, possibly because some tribal chiefs were bribed by Mu'awiya. Hasan's companions now scolded the crowd and inspired them to leave in large numbers for the army campgrounds in Nukhayla. Hasan soon joined them and appointed Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas as the commander of a vanguard of twelve thousand men tasked with holding Mu'awiya back in Maskin until the arrival of Hasan's main army. Ubayd Allah

4920-548: The Shia who might have transferred the blame to his daughter. Alternatively, the Sunni al-Haytham ibn Adi identifies the daughter of Suhayl ibn Amr as the murderer . Another account by the Sunni al-Waqidi pins the crime on a servant of Hasan at the instigation of Mu'awiya. Yet another account is that Yazid proposed to Zaynab bint Ja'far ibn Abi Talib , who refused and instead married Hasan. The enraged Yazid subsequently had Hasan poisoned. A recent article by Burke et al. examined

5043-648: The Sunni Ibn 'Abd al-Barr ( d.  1071 ) lists Hasan as a commander at Siffin and the Shia Nasr ibn Muzahim ( d.  827-8 ) narrates that Mu'awiya offered Hasan to switch sides at Siffin but was rejected. Haj-Manouchehri writes that Hasan persuaded some neutral figures to support Ali at Siffin, including Sulayman ibn Surad al-Khuza'i. He adds that Hasan vigorously opposed the arbitration process after Siffin, alongside his father. In November 658, Ali placed Hasan in charge of his land endowments. In January 661, Ali

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5166-597: The Sunni al-Suyuti ( d.  1505 ), among others. Ali reportedly had chosen another name in Sunni sources but deferred to Muhammad who named the child Hasan ( lit.   ' good, virtuous ' ). To celebrate his birth, Muhammad sacrificed a ram, while Fatima shaved Hasan's head and donated the weight of his hair in silver. Hasan was raised in Muhammad's household until the age of seven when his grandfather died. Early sources widely report Muhammad's love for Hasan and his brother Husayn, saying that Muhammad allowed

5289-471: The Sunni al-Tabari and Ibn Sa'd ( d.  845 ). In contrast, Ali used his rule to disseminate Islamic sciences, writes Tabatabai, pioneering Arabic grammar and Islamic metaphysics. Shah-Kazemi suggests that the public sermons attributed to Ali in Nahj al-balagha go beyond addressing the basic ethical and religious needs of the Muslim community, for they are replete with higher esoteric teachings. To show

5412-560: The absence of his family and the majority of the Muhajirun ( Meccan Muslims). Ali, Fatima, and some supporters did not recognize the caliphate of Abu Bakr, saying that Muhammad had appointed Ali as his successor, possibly referring to the Ghadir Khumm in 632. Fatima died also in 632, within six months of Muhammad's death, at the age of about eighteen or twenty-seven years old. Shias hold that she miscarried her child and died from

5535-434: The administrators of the divine law. In return, some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who demanded the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did. These felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty ( walaya ) to Ali that transcended politics. The existence of this group is evidenced by Sunni and Shia reports from the Battle of Siffin (657) and some literary works dating to

5658-515: The basis of his merits, precedent in Islam, his kinship with Muhammad, and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm shortly before his death in 632. It is also probable that many of these supporters viewed Ali as the legatee ( wasi ) of Muhammad and thus his rightful successor after his death, as evidenced in the poetry from the period. The word wasi also appears in Malik's address at

5781-423: The boys to climb on his back while he was prostrate in prayer, and interrupted a sermon to pick Hasan up after his grandson fell. On one occasion, Hasan later recalled, his grandfather took away a date from him and explained that receiving alms ( sadaqa ) was forbidden for his family. A hadith ( lit.   ' saying ' ) in the canonical Sunni collection Sunan ibn Majah names Hasan and Husayn as

5904-475: The caliphate within the Quraysh. Hassan also wrote that Mu'awiya had no true merit in Islam and was the son of Muhammad's arch-enemy Abu Sufyan . Mu'awiya replied that he was better suited for the caliphate because of his age, governing experience, and superior military strength, thus implying that these qualities were more important than religious precedence. Jafri comments that Mu'awiya's response made explicit

6027-432: The caliphate. Jafri suggests that he might have hoped to force Hasan to abdicate or attack the Iraqi forces before they were fortified. Mu'awiya might have believed that Hasan would remain a threat even if he was defeated and killed, since another Hashemite could continue the fight. If Hasan abdicated in favor of Mu'awiya, he writes, such claims would have no weight. The view of Momen is similar. Their letters revisit

6150-446: The caliphate. Some Shia reports add that Ali also designated Hasan as his waliu'l amr , thus giving him his own authority to command, and also his waliu'l dam , responsible for punishing his assassin. Some authors have noted that Muhammad's surviving companions were primarily in Ali's army and must have therefore pledged allegiance to Hasan, as evidenced by the lack of any reports to

6273-464: The canonical Sahih Muslim and Sahih al-Tirmidhi . Madelung suggests that their inclusion by Muhammad in this significant ritual must have raised the religious rank of his family. A similar view is voiced by Lalani. Muhammad died in 11/632 when Hasan was about seven. As his family prepared for the burial, a group of Muslims gathered at the Saqifa and appointed Abu Bakr as Muhammad's successor, in

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6396-525: The canonical Sunni source Sahih al-Tirmidhi ascribes to Muhammad, "Whoever loves me and loves these two [Hasan and Husayn] and loves their mother and father [Fatima and Ali], will be with me in my station on the Day of Resurrection ." After an inconclusive debate in 10/631-2, Muhammad and the Najranite Christians decided to engage in mubuhala , where both parties would pray to invoke God's curse upon

6519-482: The circumstances surrounding Hasan's death. Using mineralogical, medical, and chemical evidence, they suggested that the mineral calomel (mercury(I) chloride, Hg 2 Cl 2 ), sourced from the Byzantine Empire , was the substance primarily responsible for Hasan's death. Because historical sources indicate that another member of Hasan's household also suffered similar symptoms, the article considers Hasan's wife to be

6642-497: The claims were by al-Mada'ini and were often vague; some had a clear defamatory intent. In particular, the ninety-wives allegation was first made by Muhammad al-Kalbi and later picked up by al-Mada'ini, who was unable to list more than eleven names, five of whom are uncertain or highly doubtful. Veccia Vaglieri holds that the marriages of Hasan received little contemporary censure. In contrast, Lammens ( d.  1937 ) suggests that Hasan married and divorced so frequently that he

6765-495: The content of the treasury of Kufa every Friday. This practice may indicate the egalitarian views of Ali, who thus attempted to unravel the social order established under his predecessors: Umar distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit and precedence, which nevertheless led to class differences in the Islamic community, placing the Quraysh above the rest of Arabs, and Arabs above non-Arabs. Umar apparently later came to regret this system, which replaced

6888-556: The contrary. In his inaugural speech at the Great Mosque of Kufa , Hasan praised the ahl al-bayt and quoted verse 42:23 of the Quran: I am of the Family of the Prophet from whom God has removed filth and whom He has purified, whose love He has made obligatory in His Book when He said, "Whosoever performs a good act, We shall increase the good in it." Performing a good act is love for us,

7011-538: The country. (Established in 866 by Muḥammad ibn Yūsūfūʾl-Ukhayḍir ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Mūsā al-Jawn after the unsuccessful revolt of his brother Ismā'īl ibn Yūsūf ūʾl-Ukhayḍir in April 865) After Ahmad, the list of rulers becomes uncertain, but later amirs were descendants of his son Abu 'l-Muqallid Ja'far. Hassan al-mujtaba Hasan ibn Ali ( Arabic : الْحَسَنِ بْن عَلِيّ , romanized :  al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ; c.  625  – 2 April 670)

7134-555: The dedication of Ali to knowledge ( ilm ), Shah-Kazemi highlights his answer during the Battle of the Camel (656) to a question about the oneness of God ( tawhid ), "That which has no second (God) does not enter into the category of number." Ali also trained students, among whom are the first scholars in jurisprudence, theology, Quranic exegesis and recitation, and also the forefathers of Sufism , including Uways al-Qarani , Kumayl ibn Ziyad , Maytham al-Tammar , Roshaid al-Hajari, Hasan al-Basri , and al-Rabi' ibn Khaytham . Ali

7257-552: The early Muslim sources as 'the year of unity' and is generally regarded as the start of Mu'awiya's caliphate. Veccia Vaglieri finds certain variants of the treaty impossible to reconcile. She lists several conditions in the early sources and questions their veracity, including an annual payment of one or two million dirhams to Hasan, a single payment of five million dirhams from the treasury of Kufa, annual revenues from variously named districts in Persia , succession of Hasan to Mu'awiya or

7380-551: The early sources are nearly unanimous that Hasan was poisoned. Mu'awiya is usually identified as the instigator in the murder of Hasan. Aside from the Shia sources, this is also the view of some notable Sunni historians, including al-Waqidi ( d.  823 ), al-Mada'ini, Umar ibn Shabba ( d.   c.  877 ), al-Baladhuri , al-Haytham ibn Adi ( d.  822 ), and Abu Bakr ibn Hafs. These reports are nevertheless suppressed by al-Tabari, perhaps because he found them insignificant or far more likely because he

7503-535: The early sources. Jafri thus concludes that Hasan's final conditions in carte blanche were that Mu'awiya should act according to the Quran, sunna , and the conduct of the Rashidun caliphs , that the people should remain safe, and that the successor to Mu'awiya should be appointed by a council. These conditions are echoed by Madelung, who adds that Hasan made no financial stipulations in his peace proposal and Mu'awiya consequently made no payments to him, contrary to

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7626-476: The enslavement of women and children in victory, even though some protested. He advised al-Ashtar not to reject any call to peace and not to violate any agreements, warned him against unlawful shedding of blood, urged him to resort to war only when negotiations failed, and to avoid commencing hostilities, which Ali himself observed. He forbade his commanders from disturbing the civilians except when lost or in dire need of food, and barred his troops from killing

7749-414: The final day, however, Hasan and most of the guards are said to have laid down their weapons at Uthman's request. Yet another report states that Hasan arrived at the scene of Uthman's murder in time to identify his assassins. According to Madelung, Hasan later criticized Ali for not doing enough to defend Uthman. Ali was elected caliph after the assassination of Uthman. Immediately after his accession,

7872-490: The funds. Ali was concerned with agriculture, suggests Ann Lambton , and instructed Malik al-Ashtar in a letter to pay more attention to land development than short-term taxation. Tabatabai contends that the Islamic sciences were largely overlooked during the Muslim conquests , with the immense material wealth they brought. He adds that it was also forbidden after Muhammad to commit his sayings ( hadith s) to writing, citing

7995-449: The governor to surrender Hasan to Mu'awiya but was rejected. The Kufan vanguard arrived in Maskin and found Mu'awiya camped there. Through a representative, he urged them not to commence hostilities until he concluded his peace talks with Hasan. This was likely a false claim. The Kufans, however, insulted Mu'awiya's envoy and sent him back. Mu'awiya then sent the envoy to visit Ubayd Allah privately, telling him that Hasan had requested

8118-686: The governors who had served Uthman, explaining that the likes of those men should not be appointed to any office. He replaced them with men whom he considered pious, largely from the Ansar and the Banu Hashim . Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, apparently following the practice of Muhammad. He is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption, as apparent from his instructions for his commander Malik al-Ashtar ( d.  657 ), and also from his letters of admonition to his official Ziyad ibn Abihi , and his cousin Ibn Abbas . It

8241-534: The inauguration of Ali in Tarikh al-Ya'qubi . There is, however, a report by the Sunni historian al-Tabari ( d.  923 ) that links the notion of Ali as the wasi of Muhammad to the legendary figure of Abd-Allah ibn Saba . In turn, such a link is rejected by the Islamicist Maria M. Dakake , who believes that the term was widely used among the supporters of Ali by the time of the Battle of Siffin. Her view

8364-469: The injuries she suffered in an attack on her house , intended to subdue Ali, at the order of Abu Bakr. These allegations are rejected by Sunnis, who believe that Fatima died from grief after Muhammad's death and that her child died in infancy of natural causes. Hasan did not play a major role under the first three caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ), Umar ( r.  634–644 ), and Uthman ( r.  644–656 ). He might have had

8487-404: The instigator in the murder of Hasan, which removed an obstacle to the succession of his son Yazid I ( r.  680–683 ). Critics of Hasan call his treaty with Mu'awiya an indication of weakness, saying that he intended to surrender from the beginning. Given Mu'awiya's military superiority, supporters of Hasan maintain that his abdication was inevitable after his soldiers mutinied and that he

8610-499: The liar. Madelung argues that Muhammad participated in this event alongside Hasan, Husayn, and their parents. This is also the Shia view. In contrast, most Sunni accounts by al-Tabari ( d.  923 ) do not name the participants of the event, while some other Sunni historians agree with the Shia view. During the event, Muhammad gathered Hasan, Husayn, Ali, and Fatima under his cloak and addressed them as his ahl al-bayt , according to some Shia and Sunni sources, including

8733-452: The man a regular stipend from the treasury after reprimanding the man's neighbors, "You have employed him to the point where he is old and infirm, and now you refuse to help him." The Sunni Ahmad ibn Hanbal ( d.  855 ) famously said that Ali adorned the caliphate. Linda Jones holds the caliphate of Ali as a model for socio-political and religious righteousness that defies worldly corruption and social injustice. John Esposito has

8856-400: The misdeeds of the powerful. When Uthman's half-brother al-Walid ibn Uqba was accused of drinking alcohol, Ali asked Hasan to carry out the punishment of forty lashes, though the latter reportedly refused and Abdullah ibn Ja'far instead administered the penalty. Veccia Vaglieri does not mention any disagreements and writes that Ali meted out the punishment himself. She also suggests that

8979-406: The moral basis of his caliphate. Alternatively, Ali Bahramian proposes that replacing the governors was the only available course of action for Ali, both on principle and in practice. He writes that injustice was the main grievance of the provincial rebels and they would have turned against Ali had he confirmed Uthman's governors. This is echoed by Shah-Kazemi, who adds that the equal distribution of

9102-408: The most comprehensive account is the one given by Ahmad ibn A'tham , probably taken from al-Mada'ini, who recorded the terms in two parts. The first part is the conditions proposed by Abd Allah ibn Nawfal, who negotiated on Hasan's behalf with Mu'awiya in Maskin. The second part is what Hasan stipulated in carte blanche . These two sets of conditions together encompass all the conditions scattered in

9225-415: The new caliph faced a rebellion led by Aisha , a widow of Muhammad and daughter of Abu Bakr , and Talha and Zubayr , two companions of Muhammad. Hasan and Ammar ibn Yasir ( d.  657 ) were subsequently sent to Kufa to rally support and raised an army of some 6,000 men. He also helped remove Abu Musa al-Ash'ari from the rule of Kufa, as the latter continued to hinder Ali's efforts against

9348-468: The oath was identical to the one demanded earlier by Ali and denounced by the Kharijites. The view of Dakake is similar. Having been at war with Ali, Mu'awiya did not recognize the caliphate of his successor and prepared for war. He marched an army of sixty thousand men through al-Jazira to Maskin, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of the present-day Baghdad . Concurrently, Mu'awiya also corresponded with Hasan, urging him to give up his claim to

9471-542: The precedent in Islamic law for a commensurate response to opposition, writes Kelsay. Unless the rebel party actually resorts to violence, the caliph must refrain from use of force. It is not even enough to know that the rebels intend to attack. There are indications that Ali considered the religious minorities ( ahl al-dhimma ) legally equal to non-Muslims, reputedly setting the same blood money for all citizens, regardless of their faith. For their tax ( jizya ), letters attributed to Ali forbade his officials from pressing

9594-406: The pretext of revenge for Uthman in the Battle of the Camel (656) and the protracted Battle of Siffin (657). The latter fight ended in arbitration and led to the creation of the Kharijites , a member of whom is thought to be responsible for the assassination of Ali in 661. For some, the brief caliphate of Ali was characterized by his honesty, his unbending devotion to Islam, his equal treatment of

9717-712: The prime suspect. The article cites a historical document, according to which the Byzantine emperor (likely Constantine IV ) sent Mu'awiya a poisoned drink at the request of the latter. The authors thus conclude that their forensic hypothesis is consistent with the historical narrative that Hasan was poisoned by his wife Ja'da at the instigation of Mu'awiya and with the involvement of the Byzantine emperor. Before his death, Hasan had instructed his family to bury him next to Muhammad. According to Madelung, if they "feared evil," Hasan asked them to bury him near his mother in al-Baqi cemetery. The Umayyad governor of Medina, Sa'id ibn al-As ,

9840-411: The prominent Kufan tribal chief who undermined Ali at Siffin (657) by supporting the arbitration , and sabotaged Ali's campaign after being bribed by Mu'awiya, according to Madelung. As with Jafri, Veccia Vaglieri notes that many early sources hold Ja'da bin al-Ash'ath responsible for poisoning Hasan at the instigation of Mu'awiya, though she also observes that al-Ash'ath was regarded as a traitor by

9963-403: The rebels. Hasan later fought in the Battle of the Camel (656) against Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr. Hasan also fought against Mu'awiya ( r.  661–680 ) in the Battle of Siffin (657), though (Sunni) sources do not view him as a prominent participant. Madelung writes that Hasan criticized Ali's alleged aggressive war policy, saying that it stoked division among Muslims. In contrast,

10086-500: The reign of Mu'awiya," which Madelung finds incredible. Taking the speech as a sign that Hasan intended to pursue peace, Kharijite sympathizers in Hasan's army looted his tent and pulled his prayer rug from under him. Alternatively, Jafri and al-Ya'qubi ( d.  897-8 ) hold Mu'awiya responsible for the mutiny through his network of spies, about which letters were earlier exchanged between Mu'awiya and Hasan and Ubayd Allah. As he

10209-430: The rich." Shah-Kazemi believes that Ali upheld the freedom of speech in his tolerance of the Kharijites as long as their protests remained peaceful. When some encouraged him to punish the Kharijites, Ali said that he would defend himself with his words as long they attacked him with words, with his hands if they attacked him with their hands, and with his sword only if they attacked him with their swords. A similar report

10332-489: The ruler as a charismatic figure who guides the Islamic community. Ali thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunnah , and particularly the esoteric message of the script. He is reported by al-Tabari to have said, "We fought against them on the exoteric ( zahir ) content of the revelation and today we are fighting them for its esoteric ( batin ) message." This claim of Ali distinguished him from his predecessors who have been viewed as merely

10455-479: The second Shia Imam further justified his course of action. As the rightful successor of Muhammad in Shia Islam, Hasan's all-inclusive temporal and religious authority came from divinely-inspired designation ( nass ), which was not annulled by abdication to Mu'awiya, who usurped only the temporal authority. The imamate and caliphate are viewed as separate institutions in Shia Islam until such time that God would make

10578-465: The separation of politics and religion, which later became a tenet of Sunni Islam. In contrast, Shia Islam vested all authority in the household of Muhammad. As the news of Mu'awiya's advance reached Hasan, he ordered his local governors to mobilize and invited the Kufans to prepare for war, "God had prescribed the jihad for his creation and called it a loathsome duty ( kurh )," referring to verse 2:216 of

10701-399: The social order of Umar and saw Ali as their best hope for achieving that. In contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman. They both revolted against Ali after the caliph refused to grant them favors. Some other figures among the Quraysh also turned against Ali for the same reason, write Ayoub and John McHugo. Ali

10824-469: The sources are unanimous about the devotion of Ali to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Quran and the Sunnah. Muhammad al-Buraey views the instructions of Ali for his governor of Egypt as a model for just Islamic governance, "where justice and mercy is shown to human beings irrespective of class, creed and color, where poverty is neither a stigma or disqualification and where justice

10947-402: The state wealth by Ali was a necessary change to address the inevitable societal impacts of the gross inequalities created under Umar and Uthman. Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority. This is evident in his inaugural speech as the caliph, writes Madelung, while the historian Hugh N. Kennedy adds that Ali saw

11070-472: The straight path after Muhammad, and stressed the need to bring forth the virtuous and send back the unworthy. He also promised there to repossess the public lands gifted by Uthman during his caliphate. Intent on restoring his vision of the prophetic governance, Ali thus undertook radical policies during his caliphate, which the Shia scholar Muhammad H. Tabatabai ( d.  1981 ) describes as "revolutionary." The caliph immediately dismissed nearly all

11193-491: The succession of Muhammad. Hasan urged Mu'awiya to pledge allegiance to him with the same arguments advanced by Ali against Abu Bakr after Muhammad's death. Ali had said that if the Quraysh could successfully claim the leadership because Muhammad belonged to them, then Muhammad's family was the most qualified to lead. Mu'awiya replied that Muslims were not unaware of the merits of the ahl al-bayt but had selected Abu Bakr to keep

11316-638: The supporters, and his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies, while others criticize his policies for idealism and lack of political expediency. The Islamicist Laura Veccia Vaglieri ( d.  1989 ) describes Ali as deeply devoted to the cause of Islam, and her view is echoed by some others. The brief caliphate of Ali was thus characterized by his strict justice, as suggested by some authors, including Reza Shah-Kazemi , Wilferd Madelung , Moojan Momen , Mahmoud M. Ayoub ( d.  2021 ), John Esposito , and Hassan Abbas , among others. In his inaugural speech, Ali rebuked Muslims for straying from

11439-440: The timing of Mu'awiya's carte blanche problematic in al-Tabari's account. Al-Tabari also mentions a single payment of five million dirhams to Hasan from the treasury of Kufa, which Jafri rejects because the treasury of Kufa was already in Hasan's possession at the time. He adds that Ali regularly emptied the treasury and distributed the funds among the public, and this is also reported by Veccia Vaglieri. Jafri then argues that

11562-534: The tribes there were largely self-governing. When Muhammad arrived in al-Yamamah, he likely gained the support of the Banu Hanifa , the largest tribe in the area, and created an independent amirate . It is not known how much of al-Yamamah was ruled by Muhammad and his descendants. Descriptions of the extent of the amirate by medieval Muslim historians vary; one source states that it controlled only al-Khidhrimah and its outskirts, while another claims that it ruled over

11685-658: The two provinces. Madelung regards this account as fictitious because Hasan had just refused to join Mu'awiya in fighting the Kharijites. He adds that Hasan had made no financial stipulations in his peace proposal and Mu'awiya consequently made no payments to him. Madelung suggests that the relations between the two men deteriorated when Mu'awiya realized that Hasan would not actively support his regime. Hasan most likely died on 2 April 670 (5 Rabi' al-Awwal 50 AH), though other given dates are 49, 50, 48, 58 and 59 AH. Veccia Vaglieri suggests that Hasan died from an illness or poisoning, while

11808-427: The usage of the term is sometimes extended to Husayn's descendants as well. Tendentious (Sunni) reports describe that Hasan married seventy (or ninety) women in his lifetime and had a harem of three hundred concubines. Madelung regards these as absurd, and Pierce believes that these accusations were made by later Sunni writers who were nevertheless unable to list more than sixteen names. Madelung writes that most of

11931-493: The view of al-Zuhri ( d.  741-2 ), the Umayyad-era historian who adopted the pro-Umayyad account that depicts a greedy Hasan eager to renounce his caliphate for money. This must have been the official Umayyad account, distributed to legitimize Mu'awiya's rule in the absence of a council ( shura ) or election or designation ( nass ), suggests Jafri. While the vanguard was awaiting his arrival in Maskin, Hasan faced

12054-493: The war. As reported by the Mu'tazilite Ibn Abi'l-Hadid ( d.  1258 ) and Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani ( d.  967 ), Mu'awiya added that he had not fought the Iraqis so that they would practice Islam, which they were already doing, but to be their master ( amir ). Al-Baladhuri writes that Mu'awiya then gave the Kufans three days to pledge allegiance or be killed. After this, the people rushed to vow allegiance to Mu'awiya. Hasan left Kufa for Medina but soon received

12177-443: The widow of Abd al-Rahman ibn Attab, who was divorced by Abd Allah ibn Amir. Hasan had no children with Hind. Hasan's other children were probably from concubines, including Qasim and Abd Allah (or Abu Bakr), both of whom were killed in the Battle of Karbala (680), and Umm Abd Allah , who married Zayn al-Abidin and bore him Muhammad al-Baqir , the fifth Shia Imam. Hasan's descendants are usually known as sharif , though

12300-495: The wounded and those who flee, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming the women. Prior to the Battle of Siffin (657), Ali did not deprive the Syrians of drinking water, even though they had earlier done so to his troops. In the opinion of Kelsay, the texts attributed to Ali and his practices indicate that he saw reconciliation as the final aim of intra-Muslim warfare, in line with verses 49:9-10 of

12423-463: The wounded. With these rulings, Ali thus recognized the rebels' rights as Muslims, even though they were considered a threat to order. Ali also pardoned them in victory, and these practices were soon enshrined in the Islamic law, for instance in the rulings of the prominent Sunni jurist Muhammad al-Shaybani ( d.  805 ) about rebellions. Beyond these measures, Ali has often been noted for his magnanimity to his defeated foes, preventing

12546-507: The wrong person might be punished. The Shia al-Mufid ( d.  1022 ) reports that Hasan's wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath poisoned him with the promise of 100,000 dirhams from Mu'awiya and marriage to his son Yazid. Jafri writes that the majority of Sunni and Shia reports are similar to this one, including those by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani, al-Mas'udi ( d.  956 ), and al-Ya'qubi. In contrast, Ahmed regards these reports as " Alid propaganda" against al-Ash'ath, Ja'da's father and

12669-399: The young Hasan and his brother Husayn lived in a state of obedience to their father Ali, following Ali whenever he opposed Uthman. In June 656, Uthman was besieged in his home by rebels. Hasan and Husayn were likely wounded while guarding Uthman's house at the request of Ali. In particular, the reports that Hasan was among the defenders are considered numerous and reliable by Madelung. On

12792-735: Was a quality of Muhammad, though this is rejected by Tabatabai, who asserts that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, quoting verse 68:9, "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise." To support his view, Tabatabai notes that Muhammad repeatedly rejected calls for peace from his enemies in return for leaving their gods alone. In this vein, Shah-Kazemi writes that Muhammad indeed appointed some of his erstwhile enemies to leadership positions, but only to give them an opportunity to redeem themselves after accepting Islam, without compromising his principles. In contrast, confirming those whom Ali dismissed would have been tantamount to overlooking their corruption and undermining

12915-419: Was acclaimed as the caliph in 656 CE after the assassination of his predecessor Uthman , who was killed by Egyptian rebels amidst widespread accusations of nepotism, injustice, and corruption. Ali undertook radical changes upon accession and his strictly egalitarian policies garnered him the support of underprivileged groups while alienating the powerful Quraysh tribe, some of whom revolted against Ali under

13038-719: Was accused by al-Mundhir. Hafsa's next marriage ended similarly. When she finally married al-Mundhir, Hasan visited the couple and forgave al-Mundhir for spreading those false rumors out of love for Hafsa. Hasan also returned Khawla to her father Manzur when he objected that he had been ignored and then remarried her with his approval. Hasan is also said to have divorced his wife Hind when he saw evidence of renewed love by her former husband. For Madelung, Hasan's divorces do not indicate any inordinate sexual appetite. He also writes that Hasan comes across as noble and forbearing in dealing with his wives. Madelung cites Hasan's advice to Husayn to marry his widow Umm Ishaq after his death. When he

13161-400: Was advised not to fight unless attacked and to consult with Qays ibn Sa'd, the second in command. Wellhausen ( d.  1918 ) names Abd Allah ibn Abbas as the commander of the vanguard, but this is rejected by Madelung, who suggests that the choice of Ubayd Allah indicates Hasan's peace intentions because the former had earlier surrendered Yemen to Mu'awiya without a fight. This is

13284-486: Was an Alid political and religious leader. The eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , Hasan briefly ruled as Rashidun caliph from January 661 until August 661. He is considered as the second Imam in Shia Islam , succeeding Ali and preceding his brother Husayn . As a grandson of the prophet, he is part of the ahl al-bayt and the ahl al-kisa , and also participated in

13407-466: Was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam . Hasan was subsequently acknowledged caliph in Kufa, the seat of Ali's caliphate. Madelung writes that Ali had apparently not nominated a successor before his sudden death but had often said that only members of Muhammad's household ( ahl al-bayt ) were entitled to the caliphate. As Ali's legatee, Hasan must have been the obvious choice for

13530-576: Was being escorted away to safety, the Kharijite al-Jarrah ibn Sinan attacked and wounded Hasan while shouting, "You have become an infidel ( kafir ) like your father." Al-Jarrah was overpowered and killed, while Hasan, bleeding profusely, was taken for treatment to the house of Sa'd ibn Mas'ud al-Thaqafi, the governor of al-Mada'in . The news of this attack further demoralized Hasan's army and led to widespread desertions. Sa'd's nephew Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubayd ( d.  687 ) reportedly recommended

13653-787: Was called mitlaq ( lit.   ' the divorcer ' ) and his behavior earned Ali new enemies. Madelung rejects this claim, saying that Hasan – living in his father's household – could not enter into any marriages not arranged (or approved) by Ali. In particular, the narratives in which Ali warns the Kufans not to marry their daughters to Hasan are fabricated. Madelung believes that Hasan's marriages in Ali's lifetime were intended to strengthen political alliances, as evidenced by Hasan reserving his kunya (Abu Muhammad) for his first son with his first freely-chosen wife Khawla. When Muhammad died in childhood, Hasan chose Khawla's second son Hasan as his primary heir. Hasan divorced his wife Hafsa out of propriety when she

13776-498: Was carried to al-Baqi, however, Marwan reportedly joined the procession and paid tribute to a man "whose forbearance ( hilm ) weighed mountains." Following the norms, Hasan's funeral prayer was led by Sa'id ibn al-As , the governor of Medina . Hasan's tomb was later made a domed shrine, which was destroyed twice by the Wahhabis first in 1806 and then 1927. Sources differ about Hasan's wives and children. The account of Ibn Sa'd

13899-401: Was concerned for the faith of the common people ( awamm ) in this and similar instances, as suggested by Madelung and Donaldson ( d.  1976 ). Some other early Sunni sources deny the poisoning, saying that Hasan died of "consumption." At the time of his abdication, Hasan was about thirty-eight years old while Mu'awiya was fifty-eight. Jafri suggests that the age difference presented

14022-413: Was in love with her and his rumors compelled Hasan to divorce her. The rumors also ended Hafsa's next marriage and she eventually married al-Mundhir. Hasan also married Umm Ishaq bint Talha ibn Ubayd Allah . Mu'awiya reputedly asked her brother Ishaq ibn Talha to marry her to Yazid but Ishaq married her to Hasan instead and she bore a son named Talha . Another wife of Hasan was Hind bint Suhayl ibn Amr,

14145-447: Was motivated by the desire for unity and peace among Muslims, which was reportedly predicted by Muhammad in a Sunni hadith . Another Sunni hadith, also attributed to Muhammad, predicted that the prophetic succession would last for thirty years, which may have been interpreted by some early Sunni scholars as evidence that Hasan's caliphate was rightly-guided ( rāshid ). In Shia theology, the divine infallibility ( isma ) of Hasan as

14268-454: Was motivated by the lure of the life of ease and luxury, while Western historians tend to criticize Hasan for ceding the caliphate. Ali as Caliph Administrative policies of Ali ibn Abi Talib highlights the policies of Ali , the son-in-law and cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ( d.  632 ). Ali is recognized as the first Shia imam and the fourth Rashidun caliph . He

14391-494: Was nevertheless considered the head of the house of Muhammad by the Banu Hashim and Ali's partisans, who had probably pinned their hopes on his succession to Mu'awiya. The Sunni al-Baladhuri in his Ansab writes that Hasan sent tax collectors to the Fasa and Darabjird provinces of Iran in accordance with the treaty but the governor of Basra, instructed by Mu'awiya, incited the people against Hasan and his tax collectors were driven out of

14514-483: Was not opposed to burying Hasan near Muhammad, whereas Marwan ibn al-Hakam strongly opposed it, arguing that Uthman had been buried in al-Baqi. In his opposition, Marwan was joined by Muhammad's widow Aisha , who is often considered hostile to Ali. Muhammad's companion Abu Hurayra unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Marwan to allow Hasan's burial next to Muhammad by reminding him of Muhammad's high esteem for Hasan and Husayn. Supporters of Husayn and Marwan from

14637-546: Was not politically naive but idealistic, adding that the uncompromising uprightness of Ali and his strictly egalitarian policies alienated the Arabs and the powerful Quraysh tribe, in particular. Both authors, however, concede that these qualities of Ali also turned him into a paragon of Islamic virtues for his followers. In his defense, Tabatabai and Ayoub propound that Ali ruled with righteousness rather than political expediency. Yet Ayoub also suggests that political flexibility

14760-539: Was perhaps these radical policies of Ali which compelled the disgruntled to revolt under the pretext of revenge for Uthman, notable among them Mu'awiya , the former governor of Syria under Uthman. Veccia Vaglieri thus criticizes Ali for his "excessive rigorism," adding that he lacked political flexibility. Madelung similarly views the above policies of Ali as an indication of his political naivety and his unwillingness to compromise his principles for political expediency. Mahmoud M. Ayoub ( d.  2021 ) says that Ali

14883-443: Was poisoned, Hasan also reputedly refrained from disclosing the suspect in his household to Husayn. Hasan has been described as closely resembling Muhammad in his appearance. Madelung suggests that Hasan might have also inherited Muhammad's temperament and describes him as a pacifist. Veccia Vaglieri writes that he was of mild disposition ( halim ), generous, pious, and known to have made several pilgrimages on foot. While Hasan

15006-454: Was probably already apprehensive about the Kufans' support and wanted to avoid unrealistic commitments. The oath stipulated that people "should make war on those who were at war with Hasan, and should live in peace with those who were at peace with him," writes the Sunni al-Baladhuri ( d.  892 ), adding that this condition astonished the people, who suspected that he intended to make peace with Mu'awiya. In contrast, Madelung notes that

15129-476: Was succeeded as amir by his son Yusuf, who was himself succeeded by his son Isma'il. Isma'il established an alliance with the powerful Qarmatians of neighboring Al-Hasa . He participated in the capture of Kufa in 925 and was given command of the town by the Qarmatian leader Abu Tahir . Relations between the two sides, however, subsequently soured, and in 928 Isma'il and several members of his family were killed in

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