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111-443: Harriet Lane measured 177.5 feet long, 30.5 feet wide and 12 feet from the bottom of the hull to the main deck. Her propulsion was a double-right-angled marine engine with two side paddles, supported by two masts; the entire ship was sheathed and fastened with copper . From stern to bow, the captain's cabin and stateroom sat above an aft magazine, forward of which was a second magazine with the officer quarters above. Forward of this, in

222-573: A Gilman reagent . These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products ; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis . Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling and the Sonogashira coupling . Conjugate addition to enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms

333-696: A covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper. At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice , such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms. The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity ( 59.6 × 10   S /m ) and high thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room temperature. This

444-636: A nickel ) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in homogeneous composition. Prior to the introduction of cupronickel, which was widely adopted by countries in the latter half of the 20th century, alloys of copper and silver were also used, with the United States using an alloy of 90% silver and 10% copper until 1965, when circulating silver was removed from all coins with the exception of the half dollar—these were debased to an alloy of 40% silver and 60% copper between 1965 and 1970. The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel, remarkable for its resistance to corrosion,

555-425: A spin of 3 ⁄ 2 . The other isotopes are radioactive , with the most stable being Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Seven metastable isomers have been characterized; Cu is the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β , whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β . Cu , which has

666-399: A blast furnace. A potential source of copper is polymetallic nodules, which have an estimated concentration 1.3%. Like aluminium , copper is recyclable without any loss of quality, both from raw state and from manufactured products. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. An estimated 80% of all copper ever mined is still in use today. According to

777-459: A blue crystalline penta hydrate , the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture . Polyols , compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group , generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars . Specifically, using Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of

888-563: A fleet under the command of Captain David D. Porter at the mouth of the Mississippi River . On March 4, 1862, this fleet moved to attack Confederate forts south of New Orleans in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip , advancing up the river and engaging Fort Jackson on April 18 and passing it on April 24, with New Orleans falling the next day. Harriet Lane was sent on June 29, 1862, to attack

999-519: A frustrating encounter with the new Confederate ironclad ram Arkansas , Farragut ran back down past Vicksburg while Harriet Lane and her sister vessels in the Mortar Flotilla again covered the dash by bombarding the Confederate batteries 15 July. In September, she was sent to Galveston, Texas as part of a blockade fleet under the command of Commodore Eagle, whose flagship was too large to enter

1110-457: A green patina of compounds called verdigris . Copper is sometimes used in decorative art , both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents , fungicides , and wood preservatives . Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase . In molluscs and crustaceans , copper

1221-495: A half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways. Cu and Cu have significant applications. Cu is used in Cu Cu-PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography . Copper is produced in massive stars and is present in the Earth's crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million (ppm). In nature, copper occurs in

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1332-683: A layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion ( passivation ). A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings and the Statue of Liberty . Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides . There are 29 isotopes of copper. Cu and Cu are stable, with Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have

1443-532: A natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. This is due to the low plasma frequency of the metal, which lies in the red part of the visible spectrum, causing it to absorb the higher-frequency green and blue colors. As with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal in the presence of an electrolyte , galvanic corrosion will occur. Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form

1554-599: A peculiarity in the drawing of the Virginia-North Carolina border, Knott's Island in that county is connected to Virginia by land, but is only accessible to other parts of North Carolina by water via a ferry system. Each of the following current cities, counties and towns is included by at least one of the three organizations that define Hampton Roads: The Hampton Roads area consists of nine independent cities (which are not part of any county). Chesapeake , Norfolk , Portsmouth , Suffolk , and Virginia Beach cover

1665-711: A population of about 1.8 million, is the seventh-largest metropolitan area in the Southeastern United States , after the Washington metropolitan area ; Miami–Fort Lauderdale–Pompano Beach, FL, MSA ; Atlanta–Sandy Springs–Marietta, GA, MSA , Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, FL, MSA ; Orlando–Kissimmee, FL, MSA ; and Charlotte–Gastonia-Rock Hill, NC–SC, MSA . The first colonists arrived in 1607 when English Captain Christopher Newport landed at Cape Henry , today's City of Virginia Beach, an event now called

1776-407: A red-brown precipitate with copper(II) salts. Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry . They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents , terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents ; in particular, the last reaction described produces

1887-451: A rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric , respectively. Copper compounds promote or catalyse numerous chemical and biological processes. As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides . Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known. Among

1998-507: A role in capturing the ship, having been placed in command of the ship by Major General John B. Magruder and in control of additional ships improvised as a " cottonclad fleet". The ship was also considered by the navy to be too slow and inefficient to become a blockade runner . Barney conceded the appointment, and in a letter to Confederate naval secretary Stephen Mallory recommended that the navy relinquish control. Barney later explained that he made his recommendation since he considered that

2109-424: A variety of minerals, including native copper , copper sulfides such as chalcopyrite , bornite , digenite , covellite , and chalcocite , copper sulfosalts such as tetrahedite-tennantite , and enargite , copper carbonates such as azurite and malachite , and as copper(I) or copper(II) oxides such as cuprite and tenorite , respectively. The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and

2220-436: A variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide , especially in the presence of amine ligands. Copper(III) is most often found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate , KCuO 2 , a blue-black solid. The most extensively studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors . Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 ) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride

2331-603: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Cu (from Latin cuprum ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity . A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color . Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material , and as a constituent of various metal alloys , such as sterling silver used in jewelry , cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins , and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement. Copper

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2442-579: Is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin , replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates . In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, and bone. The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. In the Roman era , copper was mined principally on Cyprus , the origin of the name of the metal, from aes cyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted to cuprum (Latin). Coper ( Old English ) and copper were derived from this,

2553-405: Is a highly basic anion and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known, K 3 CuF 6 and Cs 2 CuF 6 , respectively. Some copper proteins form oxo complexes , which, in extensively studied synthetic analog systems, feature copper(III). With tetrapeptides , purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by

2664-401: Is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak in a soft metal. The maximum possible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1 × 10  A/m , above which it begins to heat excessively. Copper is one of a few metallic elements with

2775-530: Is known for its large military presence, ice-free harbor, shipyards, coal piers , and miles of waterfront property and beaches, all of which contribute to the diversity and stability of the region's economy. The body of water known as Hampton Roads is one of the world's largest natural harbors (more accurately a roadstead or "roads"). It incorporates the mouths of the Elizabeth , Nansemond , and James rivers, together with several smaller rivers, and empties into

2886-521: Is larger. The metropolitan area and water area is in the Tidewater region , a low-lying plains region composed of southeastern portions of Virginia and northeastern portions of North Carolina . The water area known as Hampton Roads is a wide channel through which the waters of the James River , Nansemond River , and Elizabeth River pass (between Old Point Comfort to the north and Sewell's Point to

2997-529: Is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots ; lower-purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid . The environmental cost of copper mining was estimated at 3.7 kg CO2eq per kg of copper in 2019. Codelco, a major producer in Chile, reported that in 2020 the company emitted 2.8t CO2eq per ton (2.8 kg CO2eq per kg) of fine copper. Greenhouse gas emissions primarily arise from electricity consumed by

3108-762: Is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form ( native metals ). This led to very early human use in several regions, from c.  8000 BC . Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, c.  5000 BC ; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c.  4000 BC ; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin , to create bronze , c.  3500 BC . Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite , malachite , and turquoise , and have been used widely and historically as pigments. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form

3219-444: Is one of the most important constituents of silver and karat gold solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys. Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals. The alloy of copper and nickel , called cupronickel , is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US five-cent coin (currently called

3330-437: Is recovered from mine tailings and heaps. A variety of methods are used including leaching with sulfuric acid, ammonia, ferric chloride. Biological methods are also used. A significant source of copper is from recycling. Recycling is facilitated because copper is usually deployed in its metallic state. In 2001, a typical automobile contained 20–30 kg of copper. Recycling usually begins with some melting process using

3441-411: Is used for various objects exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries. Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in decorations. Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be patinated to a dark blue or black color. Copper forms

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3552-675: The British Geological Survey , in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one-third of the world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method. The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage. An alternative source of copper for collection currently being researched are polymetallic nodules , which are located at

3663-1010: The Chesapeake Bay near its mouth leading to the Atlantic Ocean. The land area includes a collection of cities, counties, and towns on the Virginia Peninsula and in South Hampton Roads . Some of the outlying areas further from the harbor may or may not be included as part of "Hampton Roads", depending upon the organization or usage. For example, as defined for federal economic purposes, the Hampton Roads metropolitan statistical area ( MSA ) includes three counties in northeastern North Carolina and two counties in Virginia's Middle Peninsula . The Virginia Beach–Chesapeake–Norfolk, VA–NC, MSA has an estimated 2023 population of 1,787,169, making it

3774-731: The Elizabeth City, NC, Micropolitan Statistical Area , comprising: and the Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina , Micropolitan Statistical Area, comprising: The estimated population in 2023 of the Combined Statistical Area was 1,866,723. It is the 35th largest in the country. Among the metropolitan areas in Virginia, only the Northern Virginia portion of the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV, MSA

3885-788: The Fort Sumter garrison after the outbreak of the American Civil War . She departed New York April 8 and arrived off Charleston April 11. On the evening of the 11th, Harriet Lane fired on the civilian steamship Nashville when that merchantman appeared with no colors flying. Nashville avoided further attack by promptly hoisting the United States ensign. When Major Robert Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter 13 April, Harriet Lane withdrew with her sister ships. According to Coast Guard historian Captain Commandant Horatio Davis Smith, USRCS, Ret; Second Lieutenant Daniel Thompkins fired

3996-588: The Great Lakes may have also been mining copper during this time, making it one of the oldest known examples of copper extraction in the world. There is evidence from prehistoric lead pollution from lakes in Michigan that people in the region began mining copper c.  6000 BC . Evidence suggests that utilitarian copper objects fell increasingly out of use in the Old Copper Complex of North America during

4107-532: The Harriet Lane only to realize his son was near death. During the Battle of Galveston , Harriet Lane sank the Rebel tugboat Neptune , leaving one-half of the two-vessel Confederate fleet lying on the bottom of the harbor. However, the Confederate gunboat CS  Bayou City circled and made a second run on Harriet Lane . At daybreak, Harriet Lane was listing steeply, and a boat was dispatched from her side to

4218-536: The International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report , the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita). The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High-purity scrap copper

4329-507: The Mississippi River Delta below New Orleans . Comdr. Porter embarked at Washington. During her passage to Hampton Roads, Harriet Lane was taken under fire by the Confederate battery at Shipping Point, Virginia , which inflicted such damage to her port wheel that her departure for Key West was delayed another two days. On February 24 she captured the Confederate schooner Joanna Ward off Florida . Harriet Lane then targeted

4440-699: The Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), when copper tools were used with stone tools. The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world, the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during

4551-643: The Treasury Department by William H. Webb , was launched in New York City, in November 1857. She was a copper-plated steamer that could make speeds of up to eleven knots. Her battery consisted of three thirty-two-pounders and four twenty-four-pound howitzers. She served as a revenue cutter until temporarily transferred to the Navy late in 1858. Her new assignment took her to Paraguay with a squadron ordered to support

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4662-521: The Vinča culture date to 4500 BC. Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. Egyptian Blue , or cuprorivaite (calcium copper silicate) is a synthetic pigment that contains copper and started being used in ancient Egypt around 3250 BC. The manufacturing process of Egyptian blue was known to the Romans, but by the fourth century AD the pigment fell out of use and

4773-650: The "First Landing." However, his party moved on, in search of a more defensible area upriver, mindful of competitors such as the Spanish, who had built a failed settlement on the Virginia Peninsula known as the Ajacán Mission . After exploring the James River , they established the first successful English colony in the New World on Jamestown Island on May 14, 1607. But the low, marshy site proved unhealthy and most of

4884-519: The "Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News MSA". In 1993, Isle of Wight, Mathews and Surry counties were added. Although Virginia Beach had passed Norfolk as the state's largest city by 1990, it was not made the first primary city of the MSA until 2010. As a result of the 2010 Census, Gates County, North Carolina was added to the MSA, while Surry County, Virginia was removed. The Virginia Beach–Chesapeake, VA–NC, Combined Statistical Area additionally includes

4995-474: The 37th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. The Combined Statistical Area includes two additional counties in North Carolina, pushing the regional population to 1,866,723 residents, the 35th-largest CSA in the country. The area is home to hundreds of historical sites and attractions. The harbor was the key to Hampton Roads' growth, both on land and in water-related activities and events. While

5106-539: The 9th or 10th century AD. Carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire , UK, at 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman , a male dated from 3300 to 3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting. Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting likely led to

5217-635: The American Civil War (1861–1865), the historic Battle of Hampton Roads between the first American ironclad warships , the USS ; Monitor and the CSS Virginia , took place off Sewell's Point in 1862. The battle was inconclusive, but Union forces later took control of Hampton Roads, Norfolk, and the lower James River, though they were thwarted from venturing further upstream by a strong Confederate battery at Drewry's Bluff . Also in 1862, Fort Monroe

5328-512: The Bronze Age and a shift towards an increased production of ornamental copper objects occurred. Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC. Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use. Bronze artifacts from

5439-538: The Chesapeake Bay. Hampton Roads is among the world's largest natural harbors. It is the northernmost major East Coast port of the United States which is ice-free year round. (This status is claimed with the notable exception of the extraordinarily cold winter of 1917, which was the entire U.S.'s coldest year on record.) Over time, the entire region has come to be known as "Hampton Roads", a label more specific than its other moniker, "Tidewater Virginia", which includes

5550-570: The Confederate fleets in Louisiana and Texas as part of the West Gulf Squadron under the command of Commodore Farragut, a duty for which her firepower was upgraded as mentioned above. Commanded by Commander Jonathan M. Wainwright and Lieutenant Commander Edward Lea at this point, she was used as Farragut's flagship until he transferred to the Hartford on January 20. She was then ordered to join

5661-535: The Middle East; a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron (but not smelted iron) were the only metals used by humans before copper. The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence: first, cold working of native copper, then annealing , smelting , and, finally, lost-wax casting . In southeastern Anatolia , all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at

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5772-821: The Middle Peninsula. While Southampton is adjacent to Surry, Isle of Wight, and the City of Suffolk, the Census Bureau does not consider it part of the metro area. Five incorporated towns are in the metro area, including Claremont in Surry County, Dendron in Surry County, Smithfield in Isle of Wight County, Surry , Surry County's seat, and Windsor in Isle of Wight County. (Two other incorporated towns, Boykins and Courtland , are in Southampton County, and therefore, like

5883-542: The Mississippi with Porter's mortar boats to engage enemy batteries on the cliffs of Vicksburg, Mississippi , while Farragut ran past this river stronghold to join Flag Officer Charles Henry Davis in an effort to clear the entire Mississippi Valley of obstructions to Union shipping. However, sufficient ground forces to take Vicksburg were not made available, nullifying the value of his operation, and after

5994-551: The Revolution was won at Yorktown in 1781, and the first naval action of the War of 1812 took place in Hampton Roads, when a Royal Naval vessel was seized by the American privateer Dash . Later the entrance from Chesapeake Bay was equipped with new fortifications ( Fort Monroe and Fort Wool ), much of the building work being supervised by a young military engineer Robert E. Lee . During

6105-591: The Roman Empire. Hampton Roads 36°58′N 76°22′W  /  36.967°N 76.367°W  / 36.967; -76.367 Hampton Roads is the name of a body of water in the United States that serves as a wide channel for the James , Nansemond , and Elizabeth rivers between Old Point Comfort and Sewell's Point near where the Chesapeake Bay flows into the Atlantic Ocean . It also gave its name to

6216-555: The Southside of Hampton Roads while Hampton , Newport News , Poquoson , and Williamsburg are on the Peninsula. Franklin borders Suffolk but the Census Bureau does not consider it part of the metro area. The metro area has one county in North Carolina, Currituck . The remaining counties, in Virginia, include Isle of Wight and Surry on the Southside, James City and York on the Virginia Peninsula, and Gloucester and Mathews on

6327-520: The Union fleet while ground troops attempted to board the anchored ships. The late arrival of a Confederate fleet enabled the troops to board the Harriet Lane , which was raked by gunfire and rammed, leaving Wainright dead and Lea mortally wounded. In one of the war's most poignant incidents, when Lea was mortally wounded, his father, Confederate Major Albert M. Lea was serving ashore in Galveston. He came aboard

6438-623: The Vicksburg batteries. Farragut ordered the Mortar Flotilla to Ship Island May 1, and Harriet Lane continued to Pensacola, Florida , where she transported Brigadier General Lewis G. Arnold 's troops from Fort Pickens to the other side of the bay, where they occupied Forts Barrancas and McRee , Barancas Barracks, and the Navy Yard which had been abandoned by the Confederates. Back at Ship Island for repairs May 30, Harriet Lane prepared to ascend

6549-722: The Virginia Company in 1619. The town at the center of Elizabeth Cittie became known as "Hampton", and a nearby waterway was designated Hampton Creek (also known as Hampton River). Other references to the Earl include the area to the north across the bay (in what is now the Eastern Shore ) which became known as Northampton , and an area south of the James River which became Southampton . As with Hampton, both of these names remain in use today. The term "Roads" (short for roadstead ) indicates

6660-521: The affected areas is highly acidic, with a pH range of 2.1–4.9, and shows elevated electrical conductivity levels between 280 and 1561 mS/cm. These changes in water chemistry make the environment inhospitable for fish, essentially rendering the water uninhabitable for aquatic life. Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc . Bronze usually refers to copper- tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze . Copper

6771-426: The approaching Confederate vessels. The Westfield grounded, but the attack was reckoned to be merely a retreat by Confederate ships, and the alarm was cancelled. There was, however, a Confederate land force under the command of General John B. Magruder that was approaching Galveston. At four o'clock that morning, in what would come to be known as the Battle of Galveston , the reoccupied Confederate forts opened fire on

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6882-531: The atmosphere; 150 mg/kg in soil; 30 mg/kg in vegetation; 2 μg/L in freshwater and 0.5 μg/L in seawater. Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata , in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine , in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine , in New Mexico, United States. According to

6993-734: The beginning of the Neolithic c.  7500 BC . Copper smelting was independently invented in different places. The earliest evidence of lost-wax casting copper comes from an amulet found in Mehrgarh , Pakistan, and is dated to 4000 BC. Investment casting was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia Smelting was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa about

7104-400: The cabin door with a revolver in each hand and never ceased firing until he had expended every shot. The capture of the Harriet Lane involved also possibly the oldest active combatant of the Civil War. Captain Levi C. Harby of the Texas Maritime Service, 69 years old, was in command of the Neptune , and was the last to leave that vessel after ramming the Harriet Lane portside. The Neptune

7215-405: The capture of the prize which had not yet drawn to a close. As a result, the ship was taken farther upriver and stripped of weapons to lighten her load. Lieutenant Joseph Nicholson Barney of the Confederate States Navy was dispatched to command her and additional vessels in Galveston, however the ship was already under command of Leon Smith, an army volunteer and steamboat captain, who had played

7326-450: The city of Chesapeake. In 1970, Chesapeake was added to the MSA, while Virginia Beach became a primary city. In 1973, Currituck County, North Carolina was added to the MSA. In 1983, the "Newport News–Hampton Metropolitan Statistical Area", comprising the cities of Newport News, Hampton, Poquoson and Williamsburg, and the counties of Gloucester, James City and York, was combined with the Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Portsmouth MSA and renamed

7437-457: The colonists died, before a new Governor, Lord De La Warr (Delaware) arrived with John Rolfe , who would establish the Virginia tobacco industry. The harbor and rivers of Hampton Roads were immediately recognized as prime locations for commerce, shipbuilding and military installations, with the fortifications at Old Point Comfort established as early as 1610, and Gosport Navy Yard (later Norfolk Naval Shipyard) in 1767. The decisive battle of

7548-479: The company, especially when sourced from fossil fuels, and from engines required for copper extraction and refinement. Companies that mine land often mismanage waste, rendering the area sterile for life. Additionally, nearby rivers and forests are also negatively impacted. The Philippines is an example of a region where land is overexploited by mining companies. Copper mining waste in Valea Şesei, Romania, has significantly altered nearby water properties. The water in

7659-664: The county within which they are located, are not part of the federally defined metropolitan area). Other unincorporated towns and communities in the metropolitan area that are not within its cities include Gloucester Courthouse and Gloucester Point in Gloucester County, Isle of Wight Courthouse , Rushmere , Rescue , Carrollton , Benns Church , and Walters in Isle of Wight County, Yorktown , Grafton , Seaford , and Tabb in York County, Jamestown , Ford's Colony , Grove , Lightfoot , Toano , and Norge in James City County, Moyock , Knotts Island , and Currituck in Currituck County, North Carolina. The Hampton Roads MSA, with

7770-470: The definition of the MSA, Hampton Roads is most often the name used for the metropolitan area. "Virginia Beach–Chesapeake–Norfolk, VA–NC, MSA" is a U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). In 2023, the population was estimated to be 1,787,169. Since a state constitutional change in 1871, all cities in Virginia are independent cities and they are not legally located in a county. The OMB considers these independent cities to be county-equivalents for

7881-462: The deprotonated amide ligands. Complexes of copper(III) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds, for example in the Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction . A timeline of copper illustrates how this metal has advanced human civilization for the past 11,000 years. Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record. The history of copper use dates to 9000 BC in

7992-454: The depths of the Pacific Ocean approximately 3000–6500 meters below sea level. These nodules contain other valuable metals such as cobalt and nickel . Copper has been in use for at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast, with around 10 tons in

8103-550: The discovery of iron smelting . Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6500 and 3000 BC. A copper spearpoint found in Wisconsin has been dated to 6500 BC. Copper usage by the indigenous peoples of the Old Copper Complex from the Great Lakes region of North America has been radiometrically dated to as far back as 7500 BC. Indigenous peoples of North America around

8214-409: The discussions of U.S. Special Commissioner James B. Bowlin with Dictator Carlos Antonio López concerning reparations for damages incurred during an attack on Water Witch by a Paraguayan fort, February 1, 1855. This display of sea power quickly won the United States a prompt and respectful hearing which four years of diplomacy had failed to obtain. Paraguay paid a modest indemnity to compensate

8325-533: The family of an American seaman killed during the fight. In his report, Flag Officer William B. Shubrick singled out Harriet Lane for special commendation on the invaluable service she rendered in extricating his other ships that repeatedly ran aground in the treacherous waters of the Paraná River . Returning to the United States, Harriet Lane resumed her former duties as a revenue cutter. Captain John A. Faunce, USRCS

8436-545: The fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex . Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide . A simplified equation is: Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II) : Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate , copper(II) nitrate , and copper(II) carbonate . Copper(II) sulfate forms

8547-555: The first naval shot of the Civil War with the thirty-two pounder he commanded on the deck of the Harriet Lane at the mail steamer Nashville when she failed to show her colors. On 5 June 1861 Harriet Lane , commanded by Captain John Faunce , USRCS; engaged Confederate forces in the Battle of Pig Point Virginia. Her next important service came the following summer when a task force was sent against Fort Clark and Fort Hatteras on

8658-572: The harbor and its tributaries were (and still are) important transportation conduits, at the same time they presented obstacles to land-based commerce and travel. Creating and maintaining adequate infrastructure has long been a major challenge. The Hampton Roads Bridge–Tunnel (HRBT) and the Monitor–Merrimac Memorial Bridge–Tunnel (MMMBT) are major harbor crossings of the Hampton Roads Beltway interstate, which links

8769-501: The harbor. When speaking of communities of Hampton Roads, virtually all sources include the seven major cities, two smaller ones, and three counties within those two subregions. In addition, the Middle Peninsula counties of Gloucester and Mathews, while not part of the geographical Hampton Roads area, are included in the metropolitan region's population, as is a small portion of northeastern North Carolina ( Currituck County ). Due to

8880-439: The independent cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth and South Norfolk and the counties of Norfolk and Princess Anne . In 1952, Virginia Beach separated from Princess Anne County. In 1963, Virginia Beach and Princess Anne County merged, retaining the name Virginia Beach. The city was added to the MSA that year, while South Norfolk lost its metropolitan status. Also in 1963, Norfolk County and the City of South Norfolk merged to create

8991-730: The large population centers of Hampton Roads. In 2009, the Hampton Roads Transportation Authority (HRTA) was abolished by the Virginia General Assembly less than two years after its creation. In 2014, the Hampton Roads Transportation Accountability Commission was established to oversee the Hampton Roads Transportation Fund. The term "Hampton Roads" is a centuries-old designation that originated when

9102-511: The later spelling first used around 1530. Copper, silver , and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d- electron shell and are characterized by high ductility , and electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds . Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking

9213-419: The level of <1% Cu. Concentration of the ore is required, which begins with comminution followed by froth flotation . The remaining concentrate is the smelted, which can be described with two simplified equations: Cuprous oxide reacts with cuprous sulfide to convert to blister copper upon heating This roasting gives matte copper, roughly 50% Cu by weight, which is purified by electrolysis. Depending on

9324-555: The midships was the engine machinery and coal supply, and beyond this the quarters and galley for the non-commissioned ranks which sat above a third magazine. Her initial armaments were described as "light guns", however after joining the West Gulf Squadron her firepower was upgraded somewhat: one four-inch rifled Parrott gun to the forecastle , one nine-inch Dahlgren gun before the first mast, two eight-inch Dahlgren Columbiads and two twenty-four-pound brass howitzers. Her crew of 95 were also issued small arms. Harriet Lane , built for

9435-472: The modern world. The price of copper is volatile . After a peak in 2022 the price unexpectedly fell. The global market for copper is one of the most commodified and financialized of the commodity markets , and has been so for decades. The great majority of copper ores are sulfides. Common ores are the sulfides chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2 ), bornite (Cu 5 FeS 4 ) and, to a lesser extent, covellite (CuS) and chalcocite (Cu 2 S). These ores occur at

9546-516: The numerous copper sulfides , important examples include copper(I) sulfide ( Cu 2 S ) and copper monosulfide ( CuS ). Cuprous halides with fluorine , chlorine , bromine , and iodine are known, as are cupric halides with fluorine , chlorine , and bromine . Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide yield only copper(I) iodide and iodine. Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands . In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H 2 O) 6 ] . This complex exhibits

9657-428: The ore, sometimes other metals are obtained during the electrolysis including platinum and gold. Aside from sulfides, another family of ores are oxides. Approximately 15% of the world's copper supply derives from these oxides. The beneficiation process for oxides involves extraction with sulfuric acid solutions followed by electrolysis. In parallel with the above method for "concentrated" sulfide and oxide ores, copper

9768-433: The outer banks of North Carolina to check blockade running in the area. The ships sailed from Hampton Roads on August 26, 1861, for the Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries , the war's first important combined amphibious operation. The next morning, Harriet Lane , Monticello , and Pawnee slipped close inshore to directly support the landings, while heavier ships pounded the forts from deeper water. The last resistance

9879-460: The presence of two separate marine forces with independent commanders would lead to discord and confusion. In the 30th of April 1864 She was dispatched past the Union blockade to Cuba , loaded with a cargo of cotton . At Havana she was entered into the British naval registry and named Lavinia . At the end of the war she was interned at Havana and was recovered by the U.S. government. Harriet Lane

9990-562: The purpose of defining MSAs in Virginia. Each MSA is listed by its counties, then cities, in alphabetical order and not by size. The MSA consists of these locations in Virginia: Counties Cities The MSA also includes the following locations in North Carolina: The Hampton Roads metropolitan area was first defined in 1950 as the "Norfolk–Portsmouth Metropolitan Statistical Area". It comprised

10101-491: The region was a struggling English outpost nearly four hundred years ago. The word "Hampton" honors one of the founders of the Virginia Company of London and a great supporter of the colonization of Virginia, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton . The early administrative center of the new colony was known as Elizabeth Cittie , named for Princess Elizabeth , the daughter of King James I, and formally designated by

10212-510: The remaining Union ships to negotiate a surrender. During the negotiations, Harriet Lane was further damaged by fire from the Union Owasco under a flag of truce in an attempt to explode her magazine. The flagship Westfield was later exploded, and the remaining Union ships fled to New Orleans, leaving Harriet Lane , along with a copy of the United States signal service code book in her cabin, in Confederate hands. The capture of Harriet Lane

10323-537: The river and was subsequently relieved of command on October 1. On October 4, Harriet Lane advanced into Galveston Harbor and participated in a small exchange with the rebel Fort Point and shore batteries, known as the First Battle of Galveston Harbor . On October 9 Union marines landed to raise the United States flag, and the key to the city was given to the captain of Harriet Lane , Captain Wainright. Union forces from

10434-600: The safety of a port; as applied to a body of water, it is "a partly sheltered area of water near a shore in which vessels may ride at anchor". Examples of other roadsteads are Castle Roads , in another of the Virginia Company's settlements, Bermuda , and Lahaina Roads , in Hawaii. In 1755, the Virginia General Assembly recorded the name "Hampton Roads" as the channel linking the James, Elizabeth, and Nansemond rivers with

10545-715: The secret to its manufacturing process became lost. The Romans said the blue pigment was made from copper, silica, lime and natron and was known to them as caeruleum . The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000 BC in the Near East, and 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between

10656-491: The ships occupied the town, but fell back to the docks every night as Confederate cavalry entered the town every evening. The ships bombarded the town at regular intervals. In the early morning of January 1, 1863, with almost all ships, including Harriet Lane , anchored in the channel, an alarm was raised reporting Confederate forces approaching. With only the Westfield ready to maneuver, she sailed upriver in an attempt to engage

10767-525: The shoal. She was refloated at the cost of her armament, rigging, stores, provisions, and everything else on board that could be heaved over the side to lighten ship. Temporary repairs completed on September 3, she proceeded to Hampton Roads, arriving September 8, 1861. Harriet Lane sailed February 10, 1862, to join Commander David Dixon Porter 's Mortar Flotilla at Key West , where units were assembling for an attack on Confederate forts in

10878-523: The sinking of Hampton Roads at a rate between 15 and 23 centimeters (5.9 and 9.1 inches) per century. The region has extensive natural areas, including 26 miles (42 km) of Atlantic Ocean and Chesapeake Bay beaches, the Great Dismal Swamp , picturesque rivers, state parks, wildlife refuges, and botanical gardens. Inland from the bay, the region includes Lake Drummond , one of only two natural lakes in Virginia, and miles of waterfront property along

10989-457: The south) into the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Norfolk and Hampton Roads are among the worst-hit parts of the United States by the effects of global warming . As of 2016, the region is a few decades ahead in feeling the effects of sea-level rise compared to many American coastal areas. The geology and topography of the Hampton Roads region is influenced by the Chesapeake Bay impact crater , one of three factors contributing to

11100-438: The sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide. Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose . Amino acids such as cystine form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II) including in the form of metal-organic biohybrids (MOBs). Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium ferricyanide , which gives

11211-567: The surrounding metropolitan region located in the southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina portions of the Tidewater Region . Comprising the Virginia Beach–Chesapeake–Norfolk, VA–NC, metropolitan area and an extended combined statistical area that includes the Elizabeth City, North Carolina, micropolitan statistical area and Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, micropolitan statistical area , Hampton Roads

11322-399: The top kilometer of Earth's crust, which is about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction. However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present-day prices and technologies. Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate. Recycling is a major source of copper in

11433-596: The various rivers and waterways. The region's native flora is consistent with that of the Southeast Coastal Plain and the lower Southeast Maritime Forest. The land area that constitutes Hampton Roads varies depending upon perspective and purpose. Most of Hampton Roads' land is geographically divided into 2 smaller regions: the eastern portion of the Virginia Peninsula (the Peninsula) and South Hampton Roads (locally known as "the Southside"), which are separated by

11544-460: The whole coastal region of the state. The U.S. Postal Service changed the area's postmark from "Tidewater Virginia" to "Hampton Roads, Virginia" beginning in 1983. The U.S. Census Bureau defines the "Virginia Beach–Chesapeake–Norfolk, VA–NC, MSA" as 18 county-level jurisdictions—six counties and nine independent cities in Virginia, and three counties in North Carolina. While the borders of what locals call "Hampton Roads" may not perfectly align with

11655-455: Was an interesting episode of the Civil War, as it possibly involved the youngest combatant of the American Civil War. According to an account by a captured member of the Confederate boarding party: Amongst the first men struck down were the gallant Captain Wainwright and Lieutenant Lee, who both fought with desperation and valor. One young son of Captain Wainwright, just ten years old, stood at

11766-484: Was commanding officer. In September 1860 she embarked Edward Albert, Prince of Wales , the first member of the British Royal Family to visit the United States, for passage to Mount Vernon , where he planted a tree and placed a wreath on the tomb of George Washington . USRC Harriet Lane again transferred to the Navy on March 30, 1861, for service in the expedition sent to Charleston, South Carolina , to supply

11877-583: Was declared unfit for naval service. She was refitted to an unarmed three-masted fore-and-aft schooner and renamed Elliot Ritchie , and operated out of Philadelphia , transporting coal and merchandise. In 1881 a fire broke out in one of her cargo holds and she was abandoned at sea. [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships . The entries can be found Union service here and Confederate service here . Copper Copper

11988-515: Was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US. Native copper is a polycrystal , with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4.4 × 3.2 × 3.2 cm . Copper is the 26th most abundant element in Earth's crust , representing 50 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc , and 14 ppm for lead . Typical background concentrations of copper do not exceed 1 ng/m in

12099-557: Was hit by Federal gunners and sank, but the water was shallow enough that Harby and his men could continue firing their guns from her deck. This distraction enabled the Bayou City to carry out the successful starboard attack that captured the Harriet Lane . After a week of repairs, Harriet Lane was placed under the command of Captain Thomas C. Saunders and dispatched to fight the Union vessels at sea, despite lengthy legal discussions regarding

12210-694: Was snuffed out the following afternoon, giving a badly needed boost to morale in the North, which had been disheartened a month before by defeat in the First Battle of Bull Run . Of greater importance was the fact that this combined operation opened the inland waterways to Union ships and gave the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron a base deep in Southern waters. Harriet Lane ran aground while attempting to enter Pamlico Sound through Hatteras Inlet on August 29 and suffered severe damage while fast on

12321-684: Was the launching place for Union General George McClellan 's massive advance up the Virginia Peninsula, which almost reached the Confederate capital Richmond , before the Seven Days Battles forced him back. In 1865, as the Confederacy was near collapse, President Abraham Lincoln met with three senior Confederates at Hampton Roads in an unsuccessful bid for a negotiated peace. Some former slaves had been camped near Fort Monroe, where they were declared to be Contraband of war , instead of being returned to their former owners. Booker T. Washington

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