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117-618: The USC Wrigley Institute has specialized programs in environmental microbiology, geobiology , ocean biogeochemistry, living marine resources (including fisheries and aquaculture), climate change, coastal environmental quality and the urban ocean. The Institute is also home to the USC Sea Grant Program, part of the National Sea Grant Program through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . USC established

234-447: A crucial experiment . If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. The experimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains

351-508: A phylogeny of life on Earth, including a new domain - the Archaea . And in the 1990s, genetics and genomics studies became possible, broadening the scope of investigation of the interaction of life and planet. Today, geobiology has its own journals, such as Geobiology , established in 2003, and Biogeosciences , established in 2004, as well as recognition at major scientific conferences. It got its own Gordon Research Conference in 2011,

468-410: A 1919 solar eclipse supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian gravitation . [REDACTED] Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from King's College London – Rosalind Franklin , Maurice Wilkins , and Raymond Gosling . Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's photo 51 ,

585-518: A controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers , spectroscopes , particle accelerators , or voltmeters , and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement. I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations. The scientific definition of

702-455: A cooling planet. Microbiology is a broad scientific discipline pertaining to the study of that life which is best viewed under a microscope. It encompasses several fields that are of direct relevance to geobiology, and the tools of microbiology all pertain to geobiology. Environmental microbiology is especially entangled in geobiology since it seeks an understanding of the actual organisms and processes that are relevant in nature, as opposed to

819-411: A detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical. Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to

936-433: A drug to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect

1053-399: A given ecosystem, providing insight into the biogeochemical cycles in that environment. For example, an intriguing problem in geobiology is the role of organisms in the global cycling of methane . Genetics has revealed that the methane monooxygenase gene ( pmo ) is used for oxidizing methane and is present in all aerobic methane-oxidizers, or methanotrophs . The presence of DNA sequences of

1170-431: A guideline for proceeding: The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step method goes from point 3 to 6 and back to 3 again. While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method, many philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including Paul Feyerabend , claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced. The basic elements of

1287-514: A historical and functional standpoint, the metabolic diversity of all life, the sedimentological preservation of past life, and the origin of life. A core concept in geobiology is that life changes over time through evolution . The theory of evolution postulates that unique populations of organisms or species arose from genetic modifications in the ancestral population which were passed down by drift and natural selection . Along with standard biological evolution, life and planet co-evolve. Since

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1404-447: A little bit more information. Each difference in the DNA indicates divergence between one species and another. This divergence, whether via drift or natural selection, is representative of some lapse of time. Comparing DNA sequences alone gives a record of the history of evolution with an arbitrary measure of phylogenetic distance “dating” that last common ancestor. However, if information about

1521-406: A number of geobiology textbooks have been published, and many universities around the world offer degree programs in geobiology (see External links). Perhaps the most profound geobiological event is the introduction of oxygen into the atmosphere by photosynthetic bacteria . This oxygenation of Earth 's primordial atmosphere (the so-called oxygen catastrophe or Great Oxygenation Event ) and

1638-403: A phenomenon under study. Albert Einstein once observed that "there is no logical bridge between phenomena and their theoretical principles." Charles Sanders Peirce , borrowing a page from Aristotle ( Prior Analytics , 2.25 ) described the incipient stages of inquiry , instigated by the "irritation of doubt" to venture a plausible guess, as abductive reasoning . The history of science

1755-434: A plane from New York to Paris is an experiment that tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane. These institutions thereby reduce the research function to a cost/benefit, which is expressed as money, and the time and attention of the researchers to be expended, in exchange for a report to their constituents. Current large instruments, such as CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC), or LIGO , or

1872-410: A predecessor idea, but perhaps more in its ability to stimulate the research that will illuminate ... bald suppositions and areas of vagueness. In general, scientists tend to look for theories that are " elegant " or " beautiful ". Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle. Occam's Razor serves as

1989-519: A rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses. To minimize the confirmation bias that results from entertaining a single hypothesis, strong inference emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses, and avoiding artifacts. [REDACTED] James D. Watson , Francis Crick , and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'. This prediction followed from

2106-619: A set of phenomena. Normally, hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model . Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as existential statements , stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements , stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning , Bayesian inference , and so on – to imagine possible explanations for

2223-466: A simulated “ primordial soup ”. Another theory is that life originated in a system much like the hydrothermal vents at mid-oceanic spreading centers . In the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis , a variety of hydrocarbons form under vent-like conditions. Other ideas include the “RNA World” hypothesis , which postulates that the first biologic molecule was RNA , and the idea that life originated elsewhere in

2340-458: A sub-discipline of geobiology, e.g. paleontology. Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary field that uses a combination of geobiological and planetary science data to establish a context for the search for life on other planets . The origin of life from non-living chemistry and geology, or abiogenesis , is a major topic in astrobiology. Even though it is fundamentally an earth-bound concern, and therefore of great geobiological interest, getting at

2457-488: A subset of both geobiology and geochemistry, GMG seeks to understand elemental biogeochemical cycles and the evolution of life on Earth. Specifically, it asks questions about where microbes live, their local and global abundance, their structural and functional biochemistry, how they have evolved, biomineralization, and their preservation potential and presence in the rock record. In many ways, GMG appears to be equivalent to geobiology, but differs in scope: geobiology focuses on

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2574-584: A term sometimes differs substantially from its natural language usage. For example, mass and weight overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in mechanics . Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work. New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein 's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and

2691-647: A testbed for sustainable solutions. Signature programs include the San Pedro Ocean Time-Series monitoring program in the waters off the coast of Los Angeles, kelp biodiesel research, sustainable aquaculture, graduate fellowships and a premier scientific diving program . Since the founding of the Wrigley Institute in 1995, past leadership has included: The Wrigley Institute manages the USC Wrigley Marine Science Center, located on

2808-476: A very broad view of its boundaries, encompassing many older, more established fields such as biogeochemistry, paleontology, and microbial ecology. Others take a more narrow view, assigning it to emerging research that falls between these existing fields, such as with geomicrobiology. The following list includes both those that are clearly a part of geobiology, e.g. geomicrobiology, as well as those that share scientific interests but have not historically been considered

2925-433: Is a field of scientific research that explores the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere . It is a relatively young field, and its borders are fluid. There is considerable overlap with the fields of ecology , evolutionary biology , microbiology , paleontology , and particularly soil science and biogeochemistry . Geobiology applies the principles and methods of biology, geology, and soil science to

3042-455: Is an important concept in the field because it represents the epitome of the interconnectedness, if not sameness, of life and Earth. While often delegated to the field of astrobiology , attempts to understand how and when life arose are relevant to geobiology as well. The first major strides towards understanding the “how” came with the Miller-Urey experiment , when amino acids formed out of

3159-403: Is an interdisciplinary field studying the interactions between water and ecosystems. Stable isotopes of water are sometimes used as tracers of water sources and flow paths between the physical environment and the biosphere. Scientific research The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has been referred to while doing science since at least

3276-399: Is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while formulating the hypothesis . If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis

3393-424: Is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. Michael Polanyi made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology. William Glen observes that the success of a hypothesis, or its service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to displace, subsume or reduce

3510-424: Is founded upon a few core concepts that unite the study of Earth and life. While there are many aspects of studying past and present interactions between life and Earth that are unclear, several important ideas and concepts provide a basis of knowledge in geobiology that serve as a platform for posing researchable questions, including the evolution of life and planet and the co-evolution of the two, genetics - from both

3627-501: Is interwoven with that of the Earth." Baas Becking's definition of geobiology was born of a desire to unify environmental biology with laboratory biology. The way he practiced it aligns closely with modern environmental microbial ecology , though his definition remains applicable to all of geobiology. In his book, Geobiology, Bass Becking stated that he had no intention of inventing a new field of study. Baas Becking's understanding of geobiology

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3744-417: Is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. For example, while a hypothesis on the existence of other intelligent species may be convincing with scientifically based speculation, no known experiment can test this hypothesis. Therefore, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In

3861-432: Is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it actually represents a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in

3978-637: Is studying how recently created lava fields are colonized by microbes. The University of Helsinki is currently conducting research to determine what specific microbial traits are necessary for successful initial colonization, and how waves of microbial succession can transform the volcanic rock into fertile soil. Organic geochemistry is the study of organic molecules that appear in the fossil record in sedimentary rocks. Research in this field concerns molecular fossils that are often lipid biomarkers. Molecules like sterols and hopanoids, membrane lipids found in eukaryotes and bacteria, respectively, can be preserved in

4095-461: Is the process by which science is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and unify understanding of its studied topics over time. This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution . The overall process involves making conjectures ( hypotheses ), predicting their logical consequences, then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether

4212-625: Is the study of fossils. It involves the discovery, excavation, dating, and paleoecological understanding of any type of fossil, microbial or dinosaur, trace or body fossil. Micropaleontology is particularly relevant to geobiology. Putative bacterial microfossils and ancient stromatolites are used as evidence for the rise of metabolisms such as oxygenic photosynthesis. The search for molecular fossils, such as lipid biomarkers like steranes and hopanes, has also played an important role in geobiology and organic geochemistry. Relevant sub-disciples include paleoecology and paleobiogeoraphy . Biogeography

4329-579: Is the study of the geographic distribution of life through time. It can look at the present distribution of organisms across continents or between microniches, or the distribution of organisms through time, or in the past, which is called paleobiogeography. Evolutionary biology is the study of the evolutionary processes that have shaped the diversity of life on Earth. It incorporates genetics , ecology, biogeography, and paleontology to analyze topics including natural selection , variance, adaptation , divergence, genetic drift , and speciation . Ecohydrology

4446-647: Is there?' and 'what are they doing?' This approach is called metagenomics . Life harnesses chemical reactions to generate energy, perform biosynthesis , and eliminate waste. Different organisms use very different metabolic approaches to meet these basic needs. While animals such as ourselves are limited to aerobic respiration , other organisms can "breathe" sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-), ferric iron (Fe(III)), and uranium (U(VI)), or live off energy from fermentation . Some organisms, like plants, are autotrophs , meaning that they can fix carbon dioxide for biosynthesis. Plants are photoautotrophs , in that they use

4563-405: Is to link biological changes, encompassing evolutionary modifications of genes and changes in the expression of genes and proteins, to changes in the temperature, pressure, and composition of geochemical processes to understand when and how metabolism evolved. Geobiochemistry is founded on the notion that life is a planetary response because metabolic catalysis enables the release of energy trapped by

4680-684: The National Ignition Facility (NIF), or the International Space Station (ISS), or the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), entail expected costs of billions of dollars, and timeframes extending over decades. These kinds of institutions affect public policy, on a national or even international basis, and the researchers would require shared access to such machines and their adjunct infrastructure . Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on

4797-467: The Philip K. Wrigley Marine Science Center on the island at Big Fisherman's Cove following a grant of more than 14 acres of land from the families of Philip Wrigley and Paxson Offield. In 1995, William and Julie Wrigley continued their family legacy by providing USC with the capital to initiate the Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies. Their gift provided for an endowed directorship, an endowed chair and

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4914-463: The pmo gene in the environment can be used as a proxy for methanotrophy. A more generalizable tool is the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, which is found in bacteria and archaea. This gene evolves very slowly over time and is not usually horizontally transferred , and so it is often used to distinguish different taxonomic units of organisms in the environment. In this way, genes are clues to organismal metabolism and identity. Genetics enables us to ask 'who

5031-474: The scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries some of the most important developments were the furthering of empiricism by Francis Bacon and Robert Hooke , the rationalist approach described by René Descartes and inductivism , brought to particular prominence by Isaac Newton and those who followed him. Experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon , and performed by Giambattista della Porta , Johannes Kepler , and Galileo Galilei . There

5148-527: The solar system and was brought to Earth, perhaps via a meteorite . While geobiology is a diverse and varied field, encompassing ideas and techniques from a wide range of disciplines, there are a number of important methods that are key to the study of the interaction of life and Earth that are highlighted here. As its name suggests, geobiology is closely related to many other fields of study, and does not have clearly defined boundaries or perfect agreement on what exactly they comprise. Some practitioners take

5265-415: The visual system , rather than to study free will , for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them. [REDACTED] Linus Pauling proposed that DNA might be a triple helix . This hypothesis

5382-589: The "scientific method" and in doing so largely replaced the notion of science as a homogeneous and universal method with that of it being a heterogeneous and local practice. In particular, Paul Feyerabend, in the 1975 first edition of his book Against Method , argued against there being any universal rules of science ; Karl Popper , and Gauch 2003, disagree with Feyerabend's claim. Later stances include physicist Lee Smolin 's 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method", in which he espouses two ethical principles , and historian of science Daniel Thurs' chapter in

5499-437: The "urban ocean." The Wrigley Institute of Environmental Studies is currently led by Interim Director Dr. John Heidelberg. Early in his career, Dr. Heidelberg led the collaboration to sequence the genome of Vibrio cholerae , the bacterium that causes cholera, one of humanity's most ancient and deadly scourges. He was later a fundamental team member in the development of shotgun metagenomics sequencing technologies used throughout

5616-453: The 17th century. The scientific method involves careful observation coupled with rigorous scepticism , because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of the observation . Scientific inquiry includes creating a testable hypothesis through inductive reasoning , testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results. Although procedures vary between fields ,

5733-449: The 1830s and 1850s, when Baconianism was popular, naturalists like William Whewell, John Herschel and John Stuart Mill engaged in debates over "induction" and "facts" and were focused on how to generate knowledge. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable. The term "scientific method" came into popular use in

5850-425: The 2015 book Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science , which concluded that the scientific method is a myth or, at best, an idealization. As myths are beliefs, they are subject to the narrative fallacy as Taleb points out. Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method , said that debates over the scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite

5967-465: The Earth is not the only one that changed - the luminosity of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth's beginnings, there must have been more greenhouse gasses to keep the temperatures up in the Archean when the sun was younger and fainter. All these major differences in the environment of the Earth placed very different constraints on

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6084-494: The Earth, while controlled experiments can be seen in the works of al-Battani (853–929 CE) and Alhazen (965–1039 CE). [REDACTED] Watson and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing. After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and numerous false starts, Watson and Crick were able to infer

6201-889: The Los Angeles County Medical Alert Center (MAC) and operates as an extension of the Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center Department of Emergency Medicine. The chamber is managed by a fulltime member of the USC Wrigley Marine Science Center, and it is staffed all day, every day, by a rotating team of trained volunteers. Financial support comes from Los Angeles County; from donations by individual contributors, dive clubs and dive boat operators, and from special fund raising events. The advisory board has 19 members, including Wrigley family members. 33°26′41″N 118°28′57″W  /  33.444686°N 118.482383°W  / 33.444686; -118.482383 Geobiology Geobiology

6318-763: The USC Wrigley Marine Science Center, the USC Catalina Hyperbaric Chamber is an emergency medical facility on Catalina Island for the treatment of scuba diving accidents. The chamber facilities are on the waterfront of the Wrigley Marine Science Center and adjacent to a helipad that is licensed for day or night helicopter landings. The chamber itself is large enough to treat several patients at once and provides enough room for staff and volunteers to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and advanced life support for patients who arrive in cardiac arrest. The Catalina Chamber Crew works closely with

6435-1041: The West End of Catalina Island and bordering the Blue Cavern State Marine Conservation Area. USC provides daily weekday boat transportation for the USC community to the Catalina facility from the Southern California Marine Institute on Terminal Island . The institute launched a pitch competition in 2017 for sustainable businesses called the USC Wrigley Sustainability Prize. The event highlights innovative start-up ideas from all disciplines and rewards concepts that could result in meaningful environmental change. Winning teams receive prize money to help translate their ideas into action. Past student businesses have included: Based at

6552-446: The basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences . Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble

6669-436: The basic unit of evolution and the means behind metabolism . Phylogeny takes genetic sequences from living organisms and compares them to each other to reveal evolutionary relationships, much like a family tree reveals how individuals are connected to their distant cousins. It allows us to decipher modern relationships and infer how evolution happened in the past. Phylogeny can give some sense of history when combined with

6786-531: The best adaptations are those that suit the ecological niche that the organism lives in, the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment drive the evolution of life by natural selection, but the opposite can also be true: with every advent of evolution, the environment changes. A classic example of co-evolution is the evolution of oxygen -producing photosynthetic cyanobacteria which oxygenated Earth's Archean atmosphere. The ancestors of cyanobacteria began using water as an electron source to harness

6903-460: The boundaries of this time frame - to understanding the origin of life and to the role that humans have played and will continue to play in shaping the Earth in the Anthropocene . The term geobiology was coined by Lourens Baas Becking in 1934. In his words, geobiology "is an attempt to describe the relationship between organisms and the Earth," for "the organism is part of the Earth and its lot

7020-405: The case of microbes that clean up oil spills . Geobiology employs molecular biology , environmental microbiology , organic geochemistry , and the geologic record to investigate the evolutionary interconnectedness of life and Earth. It attempts to understand how the Earth has changed since the origin of life and what it might have been like along the way. Some definitions of geobiology even push

7137-463: The contrary, if the astronomically massive, the feather-light, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein's theories – all phenomena Newton could not have observed – Newton's equations are what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase confidence in Newton's work. An iterative, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as

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7254-553: The cycle described below. The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is continually revised. It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions: Each element of the scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology). The elements above are often taught in

7371-422: The discovery of which in petroleum by Alfred E. Treibs actually led to the invention of the field. Other aspects of geochemistry that are also pertinent to geobiology include isotope geochemistry, in which scientists search for isotope fractionation in the rock record, and the chemical analysis of biominerals , such as magnetite or microbially-precipitated gold. Perhaps the oldest of the bunch, paleontology

7488-552: The educational system as "the scientific method". The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow but is rather an ongoing cycle , constantly developing more useful, accurate, and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia . On

7605-533: The energy of light to fix carbon. Microorganisms employ oxygenic and anoxygenic photoautotrophy, as well as chemoautotrophy . Microbial communities can coordinate in syntrophic metabolisms to shift reaction kinetics in their favor. Many organisms can perform multiple metabolisms to achieve the same end goal; these are called mixotrophs . Biotic metabolism is directly tied to the global cycling of elements and compounds on Earth. The geochemical environment fuels life, which then produces different molecules that go into

7722-547: The energy of the sun and expelling oxygen before or during the early Paleoproterozoic . During this time, around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago, geologic data suggests that atmospheric oxygen began to rise in what is termed the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) . It is unclear for how long cyanobacteria had been doing oxygenic photosynthesis before the GOE. Some evidence suggests there were geochemical "buffers" or sinks suppressing

7839-402: The essential structure of DNA by concrete modeling of the physical shapes of the nucleotides which comprise it. They were guided by the bond lengths which had been deduced by Linus Pauling and by Rosalind Franklin 's X-ray diffraction images. The scientific method is iterative. At any stage, it is possible to refine its accuracy and precision , so that some consideration will lead

7956-405: The evolution of life throughout our planet's history. Moreover, more subtle changes in the habitat of life are always occurring, shaping the organisms and traces that we observe today and in the rock record. The genetic code is key to observing the history of evolution and understanding the capabilities of organisms. Genes are the basic unit of inheritance and function and, as such, they are

8073-436: The evolution of new metabolisms to use those chemicals. Earth acquired a magnetic field about 3.4 Ga that has undergone a series of geomagnetic reversals on the order of millions of years. The surface temperature is in constant fluctuation, falling in glaciations and Snowball Earth events due to ice–albedo feedback , rising and melting due to volcanic outgassing, and stabilizing due to silicate weathering feedback . And

8190-448: The experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject. This manner of iteration can span decades and sometimes centuries. Published papers can be built upon. For example: By 1027, Alhazen , based on his measurements of the refraction of light, was able to deduce that outer space was less dense than air , that is: "the body of the heavens is rarer than the body of air". In 1079 Ibn Mu'adh 's Treatise On Twilight

8307-425: The external environment. (This is directly relevant to biogeochemistry .) In addition, biochemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes which sometimes prefer one isotope over others. For example, oxygenic photosynthesis is catalyzed by RuBisCO , which prefers carbon-12 over carbon-13, resulting in carbon isotope fractionation in the rock record. Sedimentary rocks preserve remnants of the history of life on Earth in

8424-439: The focus is on processes and organisms over space and time rather than on global chemical cycles. Geobiological research synthesizes the geologic record with modern biologic studies. It deals with process - how organisms affect the Earth and vice versa - as well as history - how the Earth and life have changed together. Much research is grounded in the search for fundamental understanding, but geobiology can also be applied, as in

8541-580: The form of fossils , biomarkers , isotopes , and other traces. The rock record is far from perfect, and the preservation of biosignatures is a rare occurrence. Understanding what factors determine the extent of preservation and the meaning behind what is preserved are important components to detangling the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth. The sedimentary record allows scientists to observe changes in life and Earth in composition over time and sometimes even date major transitions, like extinction events. Some classic examples of geobiology in

8658-512: The formation of oxidized minerals and the disappearance of oxidizable minerals like pyrite from ancient stream beds. The presence of banded-iron formations (BIFs) have been interpreted as a clue for the rise of oxygen since small amounts of oxygen could have reacted with reduced ferrous iron (Fe(II)) in the oceans, resulting in the deposition of sediments containing Fe(III) oxide in places like Western Australia. However, any oxidizing environment, including that provided by microbes such as

8775-468: The future, a new technique may allow for an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science. For example, Einstein's theory of general relativity makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of spacetime , such as that light bends in a gravitational field , and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. Arthur Eddington 's observations made during

8892-405: The history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of various approaches to establishing scientific knowledge. Different early expressions of empiricism and the scientific method can be found throughout history, for instance with the ancient Stoics , Epicurus , Alhazen , Avicenna , Al-Biruni , Roger Bacon , and William of Ockham . In

9009-432: The interactions between microbes and minerals . While it is generally reliant on the tools of microbiology, microbial geochemistry uses geological and chemical methods to approach the same topic from the perspective of the rocks. Geomicrobiology and microbial geochemistry (GMG) is a relatively new interdisciplinary field that more broadly takes on the relationship between microbes, Earth, and environmental systems. Billed as

9126-526: The iron-oxidizing photoautotroph Rhodopseudomonas palustris , can trigger iron oxide formation and thus BIF deposition. Other mechanisms include oxidation by UV light . Indeed, BIFs occur across large swaths of Earth's history and may not correlate with only one event. Other changes correlated with the rise of oxygen include the appearance of rust-red ancient paleosols , different isotope fractionation of elements such as sulfur , and global glaciations and Snowball Earth events, perhaps caused by

9243-526: The means for determining length . These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "I do not define time , space, place and motion , as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of consciousness , he actually found it easier to study awareness in

9360-482: The mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was unclear. Researchers in Bragg's laboratory at Cambridge University made X-ray diffraction pictures of various molecules , starting with crystals of salt , and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it should be possible to characterize

9477-430: The notion of biomarkers , a critical aspect of geobiology. But several decades passed before the tools were available to begin to search in earnest for chemical marks of life in the rocks. In the 1970s and '80s, scientists like Geoffrey Eglington and Roger Summons began to find lipid biomarkers in the rock record using equipment like GCMS . On the biology side of things, in 1977, Carl Woese and George Fox published

9594-420: The origin of life necessitates considering what life requires, what, if anything, is special about Earth, what might have changed to allow life to blossom, what constitutes evidence for life, and even what constitutes life itself. These are the same questions that scientists might ask when searching for alien life. In addition, astrobiologists research the possibility of life based on other metabolisms and elements,

9711-405: The original conjecture was correct. However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, these actions are more accurately general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always done in the same order. There are different ways of outlining

9828-431: The outcome of the investigation. The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences , such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression , performed on them. The measurements might be made in

9945-406: The oxidation of methane by oxygen, not to mention an overhaul of the types of organisms and metabolisms on Earth. Whereas organisms prior to the rise of oxygen were likely poisoned by oxygen gas as many anaerobes are today, those that evolved ways to harness the electron-accepting and energy-giving power of oxygen were poised to thrive and colonize the aerobic environment. Earth has not remained

10062-489: The oxygenation of the oceans altered surface biogeochemical cycles and the types of organisms that have been evolutionarily selected for. A subsequent major change was the advent of multicellularity . The presence of oxygen allowed eukaryotes and, later, multicellular life to evolve. More anthropocentric geobiologic events include the origin of animals and the establishment of terrestrial plant life, which affected continental erosion and nutrient cycling , and likely changed

10179-403: The part of those experimenting. Detailed record-keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results, likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of

10296-403: The pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also entail some definitions and observations ; these observations often demand careful measurements and/or counting can take the form of expansive empirical research . A scientific question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation , as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I design

10413-579: The physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the vehicle. The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The subjects can also be called unsolved problems or the unknowns .) For example, Benjamin Franklin conjectured, correctly, that St. Elmo's fire was electrical in nature , but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking

10530-424: The process at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else. Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility. Science

10647-627: The rate of genetic mutation is available or geologic markers are present to calibrate evolutionary divergence (i.e. fossils ), we have a timeline of evolution. From there, with an idea about other contemporaneous changes in life and environment, we can begin to speculate why certain evolutionary paths might have been selected for. Molecular biology allows scientists to understand a gene's function using microbial culturing and mutagenesis . Searching for similar genes in other organisms and in metagenomic and metatranscriptomic data allows us to understand what processes could be relevant and important in

10764-623: The renovation of the Wrigley Marine Science Center. Today, the USC research complex on Catalina Island is the centerpiece of the Wrigley Institute, with additional staff and offices on the University of Southern California's University Park Campus in downtown Los Angeles. In addition, USC administers the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement . USC also manages the USC Sea Grant Program, a federally funded program of research, education and outreach. The Sea Grant program at USC places special emphasis on

10881-405: The rise of oxygen such as volcanism though cyanobacteria may have been around producing it before the GOE. Other evidence indicates that the rise of oxygenic photosynthesis was coincident with the GOE. The presence of oxygen on Earth from its first production by cyanobacteria to the GOE and through today has drastically impacted the course of evolution of life and planet. It may have triggered

10998-414: The rock record on billion-year timescales. Following the death of the organism they came from and sedimentation, they undergo a process called diagenesis whereby many of the specific functional groups from the lipids are lost, but the hydrocarbon skeleton remains intact. These fossilized lipids are called steranes and hopanes, respectively. There are also other types of molecular fossils, like porphyrins ,

11115-450: The role of all life, while GMG is strictly microbial. Regardless, it is these tiniest creatures that dominated to history of life integrated over time and seem to have had the most far-reaching effects. Molecular geomicrobiology takes a mechanistic approach to understanding biological processes that are geologically relevant. It can be at the level of DNA, protein, lipids, or any metabolite . One example of Molecular geomicrobiology research

11232-443: The same order. Numerous discoveries have not followed the textbook model of the scientific method and chance has played a role, for instance. The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, not the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout

11349-485: The same since its planetary formation 4.5 billion years ago. Continents have formed, broken up, and collided, offering new opportunities for and barriers to the dispersal of life. The redox state of the atmosphere and the oceans has changed, as indicated by isotope data. Fluctuating quantities of inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide , nitrogen , methane , and oxygen have been driven by life evolving new biological metabolisms to make these chemicals and have driven

11466-461: The same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill's canons can then help us figure out what the important factor is. Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect. Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a double-blind study or an archaeological excavation . Even taking

11583-422: The scientific method are illustrated by the following example (which occurred from 1944 to 1953) from the discovery of the structure of DNA (marked with [REDACTED] and indented). [REDACTED] In 1950, it was known that genetic inheritance had a mathematical description, starting with the studies of Gregor Mendel , and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery's transforming principle ). But

11700-413: The scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider

11817-446: The sedimentary record include stromatolites and banded-iron formations. The role of life in the origin of both of these is a heavily debated topic. The first life arose from abiotic chemical reactions . When this happened, how it happened, and even what planet it happened on are uncertain. However, life follows the rules of and arose from lifeless chemistry and physics . It is constrained by principles such as thermodynamics . This

11934-411: The specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material". Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions , by reasoning including deductive reasoning . It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities. It

12051-429: The study of the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth as well as the role of life in the modern world. Geobiologic studies tend to be focused on microorganisms , and on the role that life plays in altering the chemical and physical environment of the pedosphere , which exists at the intersection of the lithosphere , atmosphere , hydrosphere and/or cryosphere . It differs from biogeochemistry in that

12168-446: The survivability of Earth's organisms on other planets or spacecraft, planetary and solar system evolution, and space geochemistry. Biogeochemistry is a systems science that synthesizes the study of biological, geological, and chemical processes to understand the reactions and composition of the natural environment. It is concerned primarily with global elemental cycles, such as that of nitrogen and carbon. The father of biogeochemistry

12285-582: The title of Against Method , accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology. Staddon (2017) argues it is a mistake to try following rules in the absence of an algorithmic scientific method; in that case, "science is best understood through examples". But algorithmic methods, such as disproof of existing theory by experiment have been used since Alhacen (1027) and his Book of Optics , and Galileo (1638) and his Two New Sciences , and The Assayer , which still stand as scientific method. The scientific method

12402-439: The traditional lab-based approach to microbiology. Microbial ecology is similar, but tend to focus more on lab studies and the relationships between organisms within a community, as well as within the ecosystem of their chemical and geological physical environment. Both rely on techniques such as sample collection from diverse environments, metagenomics , DNA sequencing , and statistics . Geomicrobiology traditionally studies

12519-416: The twentieth century; Dewey's 1910 book , How We Think , inspired popular guidelines , appearing in dictionaries and science textbooks, although there was little consensus over its meaning. Although there was growth through the middle of the twentieth century, by the 1960s and 1970s numerous influential philosophers of science such as Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend had questioned the universality of

12636-455: The types of rivers observed, allowing channelization of what were previously predominantly braided rivers. More subtle geobiological events include the role of termites in overturning sediments, coral reefs in depositing calcium carbonate and breaking waves, sponges in absorbing dissolved marine silica, the role of dinosaurs in breaching river levees and promoting flooding, and the role of large mammal dung in distributing nutrients. Geobiology

12753-456: The underlying process is often similar. In more detail: the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), predicting the logical consequences of hypothesis, then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. Hypotheses can be very specific or broad but must be falsifiable , implying that it

12870-434: The work of Cochran, Crick and Vand (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical structures produces x-shaped patterns. In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the double helix structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for DNA replication , writing, "It has not escaped our notice that

12987-403: The world’s oceans. He continues to develop and employ novel sequencing methodologies, contributing to fundamental discoveries about the nature and properties of microbial life in the sea. Currently, Heidelberg and his staff are focusing research on healthy oceans, coastal megacities, and sustainable solutions. A primary goal is to use the Wrigley Marine Science Center on Catalina Island to become

13104-409: Was James Lovelock , whose “ Gaia hypothesis ” proposed that Earth's biological, chemical, and geologic systems interact to stabilize the conditions on Earth that support life. Geobiochemistry is similar to biogeochemistry , but differs by placing emphasis on the effects of geology on the development of life's biochemical processes, as distinct from the role of life on Earth's cycles. Its primary goal

13221-405: Was able to infer that Earth's atmosphere was 50 miles thick, based on atmospheric refraction of the sun's rays. This is why the scientific method is often represented as circular – new information leads to new characterisations, and the cycle of science continues. Measurements collected can be archived , passed onwards and used by others. Other scientists may start their own research and enter

13338-409: Was also considered by Francis Crick and James D. Watson but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling's hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong. and that Pauling would soon admit his difficulties with that structure. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among

13455-513: Was heavily influenced by his predecessors, including Martinus Beyerinck , his teacher from the Dutch School of Microbiology. Others included Vladimir Vernadsky , who argued that life changes the surface environment of Earth in The Biosphere, his 1926 book, and Sergei Vinogradsky, famous for discovering lithotrophic bacteria. The first laboratory officially dedicated to the study of geobiology

13572-587: Was particular development aided by theoretical works by a skeptic Francisco Sanches , by idealists as well as empiricists John Locke , George Berkeley , and David Hume . C. S. Peirce formulated the hypothetico-deductive model in the 20th century, and the model has undergone significant revision since. The term "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, as a result of significant institutional development of science, and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as "scientist" and "pseudoscience", appearing. Throughout

13689-646: Was the Baas Becking Geobiological Laboratory in Australia, which opened its doors in 1965. However, it took another 40 or so years for geobiology to become a firmly rooted scientific discipline, thanks in part to advances in geochemistry and genetics that enabled scientists to begin to synthesize the study of life and planet. In the 1930s, Alfred Treibs discovered chlorophyll -like porphyrins in petroleum , confirming its biological origin, thereby founding organic geochemistry and establishing

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