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64-616: The United Kingdom weather records show the most extreme weather ever recorded in the United Kingdom , such as temperature, wind speed, and rainfall records. Reliable temperature records for the whole of the United Kingdom go back to about 1880. Daily records unless otherwise specified are from 0900-2100 UTC. As of 20 December 2022, the records, as recorded by the Met Office , are: Earlier records for England/UK since 1911 are shown with

128-553: A 1970 cyclone killed 300,000, the similarly-sized Cyclone Ampham , which struck India and Bangladesh in 2020, killed just 120 people in total. On July 23, 2020, Munich Re announced that the 2,900 total global deaths from natural disasters for the first half of 2020 were a record-low, and "much lower than the average figures for both the last 30 years and the last 10 years." A 2021 study found that 9.4% of global deaths between 2000 and 2019 – ~5 million annually – can be attributed to extreme temperature with cold-related ones making up

192-429: A 'climate-related event' refers to floods, storms, droughts, landslides, extreme temperatures (like heat waves or freezes), and wildfires; it excludes geophysical events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, or mass movements. While there is evidence that a changing global climate, such as an increase in temperature, has impacted the frequency of extreme weather events, the most significant effects are likely to arise in

256-417: A * in the "Top 10 hottest days" table below. Starred entries signify the then-highest temperature recorded up to that date, until surpassed by the next starred date above. Shetland holds the unofficial British record for wind speed. A gust of 197 mph (317 km/h) was reported on 1 January 1992. An earlier gust in 1962 was recorded at 177 mph (285 km/h), both at RAF Saxa Vord . However, it

320-451: A 2023 study, "weak extreme cold events (ECEs) significantly decrease in frequency, projection area and total area over the north hemisphere with global warming. However, the frequency, projection area and total area of strong ECEs show no significant trend, whereas they are increasing in Siberia and Canada." A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system with a low-pressure center,

384-481: A 3-4% decrease in total body water without difficulty or adverse health effects. A 5-8% decrease can cause fatigue and dizziness . Loss of over 10% of total body water can cause physical and mental deterioration, accompanied by severe thirst . Death occurs with a 15 and 25% loss of body water. Mild dehydration usually resolves with oral rehydration , but severe cases may need intravenous fluids. Dehydration can cause hypernatremia (high levels of sodium ions in

448-452: A Summer of 1816, one of several years during the 1810s in which numerous crops failed during freakish summer cold snaps after volcanic eruptions reduced incoming sunlight. In some cases more frequent extremely cold winter weather – i.e. across parts of Asia and North America including the February 2021 North American cold wave – can be a result of climate change such as due to changes in

512-439: A closed low-level atmospheric circulation , strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls . Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called a hurricane ( / ˈ h ʌr ɪ k ən , - k eɪ n / ), typhoon ( / t aɪ ˈ f uː n / ), tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply cyclone. A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in

576-860: A cold wave is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach necessary food and water, and die of hypothermia or starvation. Cold waves often necessitate the purchase of fodder for livestock at a considerable cost to farmers. Human populations can be inflicted with frostbite when exposed for extended periods of time to cold and may result in the loss of limbs or damage to internal organs. Extreme winter cold often causes poorly insulated water pipes to freeze. Even some poorly protected indoor plumbing may rupture as frozen water expands within them, causing property damage. Fires, paradoxically, become more hazardous during extreme cold. Water mains may break and water supplies may become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult. Cold waves that bring unexpected freezes and frosts during

640-421: A dehydrated state is accomplished by the replenishment of necessary water and electrolytes (through oral rehydration therapy , or fluid replacement by intravenous therapy ). As oral rehydration is less painful, non-invasive, inexpensive, and easier to provide, it is the treatment of choice for mild dehydration. Solutions used for intravenous rehydration may be isotonic , hypertonic , or hypotonic depending on

704-421: A floodplain puts residents at increased risk of destruction or injury in an extreme precipitation event. More urban areas can also contribute to the rise of extreme or unusual weather events. Tall structures can alter the way that wind moves throughout an urban area, pushing warmer air upwards and inducing convection, creating thunderstorms. With these thunderstorms comes increased precipitation, which, because of

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768-818: A heatwave vary because of the variation of temperatures in different geographic locations. Excessive heat is often accompanied by high levels of humidity , but can also be catastrophically dry. Because heat waves are not visible as other forms of severe weather, like hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms, they are one of the less known forms of extreme weather. Severely hot weather can damage populations and crops due to potential dehydration or hyperthermia , heat cramps , heat expansion , and heat stroke . Dried soils are more susceptible to erosion, decreasing lands available for agriculture . Outbreaks of wildfires can increase in frequency as dry vegetation has an increased likelihood of igniting. The evaporation of bodies of water can be devastating to marine populations, decreasing

832-592: A poleward extension of where the cyclones reach maximum intensity are among the consequences of human-induced climate change. Tropical cyclones use warm, moist air as their source of energy or fuel . As climate change is warming ocean temperatures , there is potentially more of this fuel available. There are plenty of anthropogenic activities that can exacerbate the effects of extreme weather events. Urban planning often amplifies urban flooding impacts, especially in areas that are at increased risk of storms due to their location and climate variability. First, increasing

896-720: A rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection for agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year. Cold waves generally are capable of occurring at any geological location and are formed by large cool air masses that accumulate over certain regions, caused by movements of air streams. A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to cold mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if

960-486: A side effect from many different types of drugs and medications. In the elderly, blunted response to thirst or inadequate ability to access free water in the face of excess free water losses (especially hyperglycemia related) seem to be the main causes of dehydration. Excess free water or hypotonic water can leave the body in two ways – sensible loss such as osmotic diuresis , sweating , vomiting and diarrhea , and insensible water loss, occurring mainly through

1024-401: A singular cause—there are often many atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, or moisture to note on top of any influences from climate change or natural variability. Aspects of our climate system have a certain level of natural variability, and extreme weather events can occur for several reasons beyond human impact, including changes in pressure or the movement of air. Areas along

1088-497: Is contained within the cells. This consists of approximately 40% of the total body water. Fluid inside the cells has high concentrations of potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and proteins. Extracellular fluid consists of all fluid outside of the cells, and it includes blood and interstitial fluid. This makes up approximately 60% of the total body water. The most common ions in extracellular fluid include sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate. The concentration of dissolved molecules and ions in

1152-585: Is done in this area, scientists have begun to investigate the connection between climate change and extreme weather events and what future impacts may arise. Much of this work is done through climate modeling. Climate models provide important predictions about the future characteristics of the atmosphere, oceans, and Earth using data collected in the modern day. However, while climate models are vital for studying more complex processes such as climate change or ocean acidification, they are still only approximations. Moreover, weather events are complex and cannot be tied to

1216-456: Is expected that higher gusts than those reported would have been achieved as during both storms the measuring equipment was destroyed by the extreme weather. A wind gust of 194 mph (312 km/h) was recorded at Cairn Gorm on 19 December 2008 but was discovered too late to be verified by the Met Office . Extreme weather Weather patterns can experience some variation, and so extreme weather can be attributed, at least in part, to

1280-432: Is loss of human lives, damage to infrastructure and ecosystem destruction. For example, a global insurer Munich Re estimates that natural disasters cause more than 90 billion dollars in global direct losses in 2015. Some human activities can exacerbate the effects, for example poor urban planning , wetland destruction, and building homes along floodplains . Extreme weather describes unusual weather events that are at

1344-517: Is making some extreme weather events more frequent and more intense. This applies in particular to heat waves and cold waves. The science of extreme event attribution looks at the reasons behind extreme events. Scientists are fairly sure that climate change makes heavy rainfall events as well as drought periods more severe. Climate models indicate that rising temperatures will make extreme weather events worse worldwide. Extreme weather has serious impacts on human society and on ecosystems . There

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1408-676: Is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with continuing assessment of electrolyte status; complete resolution is normal in all but the most extreme cases. The prognosis for dehydration depends on the cause and extent of dehydration. Mild dehydration normally resolves with oral hydration. Chronic dehydration, such as from physically demanding jobs or decreased thirst, can lead to chronic kidney disease . Elderly people with dehydration are at higher risk of confusion, urinary tract infections , falls, and even delayed wound healing. In children with mild to moderate dehydration, oral hydration

1472-422: Is typically seen in dehydration due to free water loss. A urinalysis, which is a test that performs chemical and microscopic analysis of urine, may find darker color or foul odor with severe dehydration. Urinary sodium also provides information about the type of dehydration. For hyponatremic dehydration, such as from vomiting or diarrhea, urinary sodium will be less than 10mmol/L due to increased sodium retention by

1536-880: The Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean . A typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65  kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Generally speaking, one event in extreme weather cannot be attributed to any one cause. However, certain system wide changes to global weather systems can lead to increased frequency or intensity of extreme weather events. Early research in extreme weather focused on statements about predicting certain events. Contemporary research focuses more on

1600-497: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S. government predicted that, over the 21st Century, the frequency of tropical storms and Atlantic hurricanes would decline by 25 percent while their maximum intensity would rise by 5 percent. Climate change affects tropical cyclones in a variety of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, an increase in the frequency of very intense storms and

1664-429: The skin and respiratory tract . In humans, dehydration can be caused by a wide range of diseases and states that impair water homeostasis in the body. These occur primarily through either impaired thirst/water access or sodium excess. Water makes up approximately 60% of the human body by mass. Within the body, water is classified as intracellular fluid or extracellular fluid. Intracellular fluid refers to water that

1728-563: The 1920s, according to the International Disaster Database, even as the total human population on Earth quadrupled, and temperatures rose 1.3 °C. In the 1920s, 5.4 million people died from natural disasters while in the 2010s, just 400,000 did. The most dramatic and rapid declines in deaths from extreme weather events have taken place in south Asia. Where a tropical cyclone in 1991 in Bangladesh killed 135,000 people, and

1792-547: The Arctic . However, conclusions that link climate change to cold waves are considered to still be controversial. The JRC PESETA IV project concluded in 2020 that overall climate change will result in a decline in the intensity and frequency of extreme cold spells, with milder winters reducing fatalities from extreme cold, even if individual cold extreme weather may sometimes be caused by changes due to climate change and possibly even become more frequent in some regions. According to

1856-572: The amount of impervious surfaces, such as sidewalks, roads, and roofs, means that less of the water from incoming storms is absorbed by the land. The destruction of wetlands, which act as a natural reservoir by absorbing water, can intensify the impact of floods and extreme precipitation. This can happen both inland and at the coast. However, wetland destruction along the coast can mean decreasing an area's natural 'cushion,' thus allowing storm surges and flood waters to reach farther inland during hurricanes or cyclones. Building homes below sea level or along

1920-496: The attribution of causes to trends in events. In particular the field is focusing on climate change alongside other causal factors for these events. A 2016 report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine , recommended investing in improved shared practices across the field working on attribution research, improving the connection between research outcomes and weather forecasting. As more research

1984-401: The blood). This is distinct from hypovolemia (loss of blood volume , particularly blood plasma ). Chronic dehydration can cause kidney stones as well as the development of chronic kidney disease . The hallmarks of dehydration include thirst and neurological changes such as headaches , general discomfort , loss of appetite , nausea , decreased urine volume (unless polyuria is

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2048-411: The cause of dehydration as well as the sodium concentration in the blood. Pure water injected into the veins will cause the breakdown ( lysis ) of red blood cells ( erythrocytes ). When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater or drinks with significant alcohol concentration will worsen dehydration. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater; this requires

2112-512: The cause of dehydration), confusion , unexplained tiredness , purple fingernails, and seizures . The symptoms of dehydration become increasingly severe with greater total body water loss. A body water loss of 1-2%, considered mild dehydration, is shown to impair cognitive performance. While in people over age 50, the body's thirst sensation diminishes with age, a study found that there was no difference in fluid intake between young and old people. Many older people have symptoms of dehydration, with

2176-560: The coast or located in tropical regions are more likely to experience storms with heavy precipitation than temperate regions, although such events can occur. The atmosphere is a complex and dynamic system, influenced by several factors such as the natural tilt and orbit of the Earth, the absorption or reflection of solar radiation, the movement of air masses, and the water cycle . Due to this, weather patterns can experience some variation, and so extreme weather can be attributed, at least in part, to

2240-418: The extremes of the historical distribution for a given area. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines an extreme weather event as follows: "An event that is rare at a particular place and time of year. Definitions of 'rare' vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile of a probability density function estimated from observations." In comparison,

2304-831: The face of record breaking extreme weather events, climate change adaptation efforts fall short while economists are confronted with inflation, the cost-of-living crisis , and economic uncertainty . In 2011 the IPCC estimated, that annual losses have ranged since 1980 from a few billion to above US$ 200 billion, with the highest economic losses occurring in 2005, the year of Hurricane Katrina . The global weather-related disaster losses, such as loss of human lives, cultural heritage, and ecosystem services , are difficult to value and monetize, and thus they are poorly reflected in estimates of losses. The World Economic Forum Global Risks Perception Survey 2023-2024 (GRPS) found that 66 percent of respondents selected extreme weather as top risk. The survey

2368-435: The fluid is described as Osmolarity and is measured in osmoles per liter (Osm/L). When the body experiences a free water deficit, the concentration of solutes is increased. This leads to a higher serum osmolarity. When serum osmolarity is elevated, this is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. These receptors trigger the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH resists dehydration by increasing water absorption in

2432-631: The future. This is where climate models are useful, for they can provide simulations of how the atmosphere may behave over time and what steps need to be taken in the present day to mitigate any negative changes. The increasing probability of record week-long heat extremes occurrence depends on warming rate, rather than global warming level. Some researchers attribute increases in extreme weather occurrences to more reliable reporting systems. A difference in what qualifies as 'extreme weather' in varying climate systems could also be argued. Over or under reporting of casualties or losses can lead to inaccuracy in

2496-423: The growing season in mid-latitude zones can kill plants during the early and most vulnerable stages of growth. This results in crop failure as plants are killed before they can be harvested economically. Such cold waves have caused famines . Cold waves can also cause soil particles to harden and freeze, making it harder for plants and vegetation to grow within these areas. One extreme was the so-called Year Without

2560-610: The heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes , especially sodium, are also being lost. In most athletes exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people. The inclusion of sodium in fluid replacement drinks has some theoretical benefits and poses little or no risk, so long as these fluids are hypotonic (since

2624-474: The impact of extreme weather. However, the UN reports show that, although some countries have experienced greater effects, there have been increases in extreme weather events on all continents. Current evidence and climate models show that an increasing global temperature will intensify extreme weather events around the globe, thereby amplifying human loss, damages and economic costs, and ecosystem destruction. In 2020,

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2688-813: The kidneys and constricting blood vessels. It acts on the V2 receptors in the cells of the collecting tubule of the nephron to increase expression of aquaporin. In more extreme cases of low blood pressure, the hypothalamus releases higher amounts of ADH which also acts on V1 receptors. These receptors cause contractions in the peripheral vascular smooth muscle. This increases systemic vascular resistance and raises blood pressure. Dehydration occurs when water intake does not replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing , urination , perspiration , or other causes, including diarrhea , and vomiting . Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also carries

2752-490: The kidneys in an effort to conserve water. In dehydrated patients with sodium loss due to diuretics or renal dysfunction, urinary sodium may be elevated above 20 mmol/L. Patients may also have elevated serum levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine . Both of these molecules are normally excreted by the kidney, but when the circulating blood volume is low, the kidney can become injured. This causes decreased kidney function and results in elevated BUN and creatinine in

2816-416: The kidneys to create more urine to remove the excess salt, causing more water to be lost than was consumed from seawater. If a person is dehydrated and taken to a medical facility, IVs can also be used. For severe cases of dehydration where fainting , unconsciousness , or other severely inhibiting symptoms are present (the patient is incapable of standing upright or thinking clearly), emergency attention

2880-415: The large amounts of impervious surfaces in cities, can have devastating impacts. Impervious surfaces also absorb energy from the sun and warm the atmosphere, causing drastic increases in temperatures in urban areas. This, along with pollution and heat released from cars and other anthropogenic sources, contributes to urban heat islands. The effects of extreme weather includes, but are not limited to: In

2944-418: The larger share and decreasing and heat-related ones making up ~0.91 % and increasing. Climate change has led to an increase in the frequency and/or intensity of certain types of extreme weather. Storms such as hurricanes or tropical cyclones may experience greater rainfall, causing major flooding events or landslides by saturating soil. This is because warmer air is able to 'hold' more moisture due to

3008-583: The mainstay of dehydration prevention is the replacement of free water losses). The most effective treatment for minor dehydration is widely considered to be drinking water and reducing fluid loss. Plain water restores only the volume of the blood plasma, inhibiting the thirst mechanism before solute levels can be replenished. Consumption of solid foods can also contribute to hydration. It is estimated approximately 22% of American water intake comes from food. Urine concentration and frequency will return to normal as dehydration resolves. In some cases, correction of

3072-460: The most common being fatigue. Dehydration contributes to morbidity in the elderly population, especially during conditions that promote insensible free water losses, such as hot weather. Risk factors for dehydration include but are not limited to: exerting oneself in hot and humid weather, habitation at high altitudes, endurance athletics, elderly adults, infants, children and people living with chronic illnesses. Dehydration can also come as

3136-582: The natural climate variability that exists on Earth. Climatic phenomena such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) impact weather patterns in specific regions of the world, influencing temperature and precipitation. The record-breaking extreme weather events that have been catalogued throughout the past two hundred years most likely arise when climate patterns like ENSO or NAO work "in

3200-466: The natural climate variability that exists on Earth. For example, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) are climate phenomena that impact weather patterns worldwide. Generally speaking, one event in extreme weather cannot be attributed to any one single cause. However, certain system wide changes to global weather systems can lead to increased frequency or intensity of extreme weather events. Climate change

3264-436: The patient's body, in a location such as the forearm or the back of the hand, and watching to see how quickly it returns to its normal position. The skin turgor test can be unreliable in patients who have reduced skin elasticity, such as the elderly. While there is no single gold standard test to diagnose dehydration, evidence can be seen in multiple laboratory tests involving blood and urine. Serum osmolarity above 295 mOsm/kg

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3328-638: The population. It has been estimated that extra pollution during the hot summer of 2006 in the UK, cost 460 lives. The European heat waves from summer 2003 are estimated to have caused 30,000 excess deaths, due to heat stress and air pollution . Over 200 U.S cities have registered new record high temperatures. The worst heat wave in the US occurred in 1936 and killed more than 5000 people directly. The worst heat wave in Australia occurred in 1938–39 and killed 438. The second worst

3392-668: The risk of osmotic cerebral edema if rehydration is overly rapid. The term "dehydration" has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition of hypovolemia , which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma . The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment. Common exam findings of dehydration include dry mucous membranes, dry axillae, increased capillary refill time, sunken eyes, and poor skin turgor. More extreme cases of dehydration can lead to orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, weakness, and altered mental status. Depending on

3456-559: The same direction as human‐induced warming." Some studies assert a connection between rapidly warming arctic temperatures and thus a vanishing cryosphere to extreme weather in mid-latitudes. In a study published in Nature in 2019, scientists used several simulations to determine that the melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica could affect overall sea level and sea temperature. Other models have shown that modern temperature rise and

3520-498: The serum. For routine activities, thirst is normally an adequate guide to maintain proper hydration. Minimum water intake will vary individually depending on weight, energy expenditure, age, sex, physical activity, environment, diet, and genetics. With exercise, exposure to hot environments, or a decreased thirst response , additional water may be required. In athletes in competition, drinking to thirst optimizes performance and safety, despite weight loss, and as of 2010, there

3584-399: The size of the habitats available as well as the amount of nutrition present within the waters. Livestock and other animal populations may decline as well. During excessive heat, plants shut their leaf pores ( stomata ), a protective mechanism to conserve water but also curtails plants' absorption capabilities. This leaves more pollution and ozone in the air, which leads to higher mortality in

3648-758: The subsequent addition of meltwater to the ocean could lead to a disruption of the thermohaline circulation, which is responsible for the movement of seawater and distribution of heat around the globe. A collapse of this circulation in the northern hemisphere could lead to an increase in extreme temperatures in Europe, as well as more frequent storms by throwing off natural climate variability and conditions. Thus, as increasing temperatures cause glaciers to melt, mid-latitudes could experience shifts in weather patterns or temperatures. There were around 6,681 climate-related events reported during 2000-2019, compared to 3,656 climate-related events reported during 1980–1999. In this report,

3712-563: The surface of the earth, so more precipitation does not necessarily mean universally wetter conditions or a worldwide increase in drinking water. Dehydration In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water that disrupts metabolic processes . It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake. This is usually due to excessive sweating, disease, or a lack of access to water. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis , which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers . Most people can tolerate

3776-418: The term severe weather is any aspect of the weather that poses risks to life, property or requires the intervention of authorities. Severe weather is thus a particular type of extreme weather. Definitions of extreme weather vary in different parts of the community, changing the outcomes of research from those fields. Heat waves are periods of abnormally high temperatures and heat index . Definitions of

3840-405: The underlying cause of dehydration, other symptoms may be present as well. Excessive sweating from exercise may be associated with muscle cramps. Patients with gastrointestinal water loss from vomiting or diarrhea may also have fever or other systemic signs of infection. The skin turgor test can be used to support the diagnosis of dehydration. The skin turgor test is conducted by pinching skin on

3904-431: The water molecules having increased kinetic energy, and precipitation occurs at a greater rate because more molecules have the critical speed needed to fall as rain drops. A shift in rainfall patterns can lead to greater amounts of precipitation in one area while another experiences much hotter, drier conditions, which can lead to drought. This is because an increase in temperatures also lead to an increase in evaporation at

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3968-459: Was conducted after the 2023 heat waves . According to the GRPS results, the perception of necessary short and long-term risk management varies. Younger respondents prioritize environmental risks, including extreme weather, in the short-term. Respondents working in the private sector prioritize environmental risks as long-term. The death toll from natural disasters has declined over 90 percent since

4032-399: Was in 1896. Power outages can also occur within areas experiencing heat waves due to the increased demand for electricity (i.e. air conditioning use). The urban heat island effect can increase temperatures, particularly overnight. A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air. Specifically, as used by the U.S. National Weather Service , a cold wave is

4096-431: Was no scientific study showing that it is beneficial to stay ahead of thirst and maintain weight during exercise. In warm or humid weather, or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for sweating. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport , with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in

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